Chapter 28 IDS/SIGS

Civil Code (646)

Civil law code promulgated by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804. 1. Civil Code, a revised body of civil law, which also helped stabilize French society. The Civil Code affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult men and established a merit-based society in which individuals qualified for education and employment because of talent rather than birth or social standing.

Continental Congress (640)

Continental Congress (1774), which coordinated the colonies' resistance to British policies. By 1775 tensions were so high that British troops and a colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington, near Boston. 1. The war of American independence had begun.

criollos (649)

Creoles, people born in the Americas of Spanish or Portuguese ancestry 1. criollos, or creoles. In 1800 the peninsulares numbered about 30,000, and the creole population was 3.5 million. The Iberian colonies also had a large population—about 10 million in all—of less privileged classes. Black slaves formed a majority in Brazil, but elsewhere indigenous peoples and individuals of mixed ancestry such as mestizos and mulattoes were most numerous.

Toussaint Louverture (649)

Toussaint LouvertureBoukman died while fighting shortly after launching the revolt, but slave forces eventually overcame white settlers, gens de couleur, and foreign armies. 1.Their successes were due largely to the leadership of François-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803), who after 1791 called himself Louverture—from the French l'ouverture, meaning "the opening," or the one who created an opening in enemy ranks. The son of slaves, Toussaint learned to read and write from a Roman Catholic priest.

Waterloo (647)

Waterloo in Belgium. Unwilling to take further chances with the wily general, European powers banished Napoleon to the remote and isolated 1.island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, where he died of natural causes in 1821.

William Wilberforce (654)

William Wilberforce (1759-1833), a prominent English philanthropist elected in 1780 to a seat in Parliament. There he tirelessly attacked slavery on moral and religious grounds. 1.After the Haitian revolution he attracted supporters who feared that continued reliance on slave labor would result in more and larger slave revolts, and in 1807 Parliament passed Wilberforce's bill to end the slave trade. Under British pressure, other states also banned commerce in slaves: the United States in 1808, France in 1814, the Netherlands in 1817, and Spain in 1845.

Young Italy (657)

Young Italy that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and the establishment of an Italian national state. Mazzini likened the nation to a family and the nation's territory to the family home. 1.Austrian and Spanish authorities forced Mazzini to lead much of his life in exile, but he used the opportunity to encourage the organization of nationalist movements in new lands.

Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (656)

Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen. She directly challenged the inferiority presumed of women by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, which limited citizenship to males. 1. By publicly asserting the equality of women, Gouges breached barriers that most revolutionary leaders wanted to perpetuate.

John Locke (637)

John Locke (1632-1704) worked to discover natural laws of politics. He attacked divine-right theories that served as a foundation for absolute monarchy and advocated constitutional government on the grounds that sovereignty resides in the people rather than the state or its rulers. 1. Indeed, he provided much of the theoretical justification for the Glorious Revolution and the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England.

Otto von Bismarck (662)

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), as his prime minister. Bismarck was a master of Realpolitik ("the politics of reality"). 1.He succinctly expressed his realistic approach in his first speech as prime minister:

Realpolitik (662)

The Prussian Otto von Bismarck's "politics of reality," the belief that only the willingness to use force would actually bring about change. 1. Realpolitik ("the politics of reality"). He succinctly expressed his realistic approach in his first speech as prime minister:

The Social Contract (638)

The Social Contract (1762), Rousseau argued that members of a society were collectively the sovereign. 1.In an ideal society all individuals would participate directly in the formulation of policy and the creation of laws. In the absence of royalty, aristocrats, or other privileged elites, the general will of the people would carry the day.

Theodor Herzl (658)

Theodor Herzl (1860-1904). As Herzl witnessed mobs shouting "Death to the Jews" in the land of enlightenment and liberty 1. he concluded that anti-Semitism was a persistent feature of human society that assimilation could not solve.

Volksgeist (657)

"People's spirit," a term that was coined by the German philosopher Herder; a nation's volksgeist would not come to maturity unless people studied their own unique culture and traditions. 1.Volksgeist, the popular soul or spirit or essence of their community. For that reason the German brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm collected popular poetry, stories, songs, and tales as expressions of the German Volk.

Baron de Montesquieu (637)

1689-1755 C.E. French political philosopher who advocated the separation of legislative, executive, and judicial government powers. 1. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755), sought to establish a science of politics and discover principles that would foster political liberty in a prosperous and stable state.

Voltaire (637)

1712-1778 C.E. French Enlightenment writer and philosopher famous for his wit and criticism of the Catholic church. His real name was Francois-Marie Arouet. 1. Voltaire, he published his first book at age seventeen. By the time of his death at age eighty-four, his published writings included some ten thousand letters and filled seventy volumes. With stinging wit and sometimes bitter irony, Voltaire championed individual freedom and attacked any institution sponsoring intolerant or oppressive policies.

Adam Smith (637)

1723-1790. Scottish philosopher and founder of modern political economy, and a key figure in the Scottish Enlightenment. Best known for An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. 1.Adam Smith turned his attention to economic affairs and held that laws of supply and demand determine what happens in the

Olympe de Gouges (635)

1748-1793 C.E. French feminist who authored the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen at the start of the French Revolution in 1789, which advocated for equal rights for women. De Gouges was later executed by the Jacobins during the Terror. 1.Olympe de Gouges, she won some fame as a journalist, actress, and playwright. Gouges was as flamboyant as she was talented, and news of her well-publicized love affairs scandalized Parisian society.

Camillo di Cavour (660)

1810-1861 C.E. Prime Minister to King Vittorio Emmanuel II of Piedmont and Sardinia, and key figure in bringing about the unification of Italy. 1. Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861), prime minister to King Vittorio Emanuele II of Piedmont and Sardinia, combined forces with nationalist advocates of independence.

levée en masse (644)

A term signifying universal conscription during the radical phase of the French revolution. 1. levée en masse ("mass levy"), or universal conscription that drafted people and resources for use in the war against invading forces. The Convention also rooted out enemies at home. It made frequent use of the guillotine, a recently invented machine that brought about supposedly humane executions by quickly severing a victim's head.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (643)

Document from the French Revolution (1789) that was influenced by the American Declaration of Independence and in turn influenced other revolutionary movements. 1. Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, which the National Assembly promulgated in August 1789, articulated the guiding principles of the program. Reflecting the influence of American revolutionary ideas, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen proclaimed the equality of all men, declared that sovereignty resided in the people, and asserted individual rights to liberty, property, and security.

Declaration of Independence (640)

Drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776; the document expressed the ideas of John Locke and the Enlightenment, represented the idealism of the American rebels, and influenced other revolutions. 1. Declaration of Independence drew deep inspiration from Enlightenment political thought in justifying the colonies' quest for independence. The document asserted "that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness." It echoed John Locke's contractual theory of government in arguing that individuals established governments to secure those rights and in holding that governments derive their power and authority from "the consent of the governed." When any government infringes upon individuals' rights, the document continued, "it is the Right of the People to alter or abolish it, and to institute new Government.

Enlightenment (637)

Eighteenth-century philosophical movement that began in France; its emphasis was on the preeminence of reason rather than faith or tradition; it spread concepts from the Scientific Revolution. 1.Enlightenment thinkers sought to discover natural laws that governed human society in the same way that Newton's laws of universal gravitation and motion regulated the universe.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton (655)

Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902) was an especially prominent figure in this movement. In 1840 Stanton went to London to attend an antislavery conference but found that the organizers barred women from participation. Infuriated, Stanton returned to the United States and began to build a movement for women's rights. 1.She organized a conference of feminists who met at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. The conference passed twelve resolutions demanding that lawmakers grant women rights equivalent to those enjoyed by men. The resolutions called specifically for women's rights to vote, attend public schools, enter professional occupations, and participate in public affairs.

Estates General (642)

Estates General, an assembly that represented the entire French population through groups known as estates. In the ancien régime there were three estates, or political classes. The first estate consisted of about one hundred thousand Roman Catholic clergy, and the second included some four hundred thousand nobles. 1.The third estate embraced the rest of the population—about twenty-four million serfs, free peasants, and urban residents ranging from laborers, artisans, and shopkeepers to physicians, bankers, and attorneys. Though founded in 1303, the Estates General had not met since 1614.

French revolution (642)

French revolution was a more radical affair than its American counterpart. 1. American revolutionary leaders sought independence from British imperial rule, but they were content to retain British law and much of their British social and cultural heritage.

Congress of Vienna (659)

Gathering of European diplomats in Vienna, Austria, from October 1814 to June 1815. The representatives of the "great powers" that defeated Napoleon—Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—dominated the proceedings, which aimed to restore the prerevolutionary political and social order. 1.Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), representatives of the "great powers" that defeated Napoleon—Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—attempted to restore the prerevolutionary order.

George Washington (641)

George Washington (1732-1799) provided strong and imaginative military leadership for the colonial army while local militias employed guerrilla tactics effectively against British forces. 1.By 1780 all combatants were weary of the conflict. In the final military confrontation of the war, American and French forces under the command of George Washington surrounded the British forces of Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. After a twenty-day siege, the British forces surrendered in October 1781, and major military hostilities ceased from that point forward.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (661)

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), a dashing soldier of fortune and a passionate nationalist, led the unification movement. With an army of about one thousand men outfitted in distinctive red shirts, Garibaldi swept through Sicily and southern Italy, outmaneuvering government forces and attracting enthusiastic recruits. 1.In 1860 Garibaldi met King Vittorio Emanuele near Naples. Not ambitious to rule, Garibaldi delivered southern Italy into Vittorio Emanuele's hands, and the kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia became the kingdom of Italy.

Giuseppe Mazzini (657)

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) formed a group called Young Italy that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and the establishment of an Italian national state. Mazzini likened the nation to a family and the nation's territory to the family home. 1.Austrian and Spanish authorities forced Mazzini to lead much of his life in exile, but he used the opportunity to encourage the organization of nationalist movements in new lands. By the mid-nineteenth century, Young Italy had inspired the development of nationalist movements in Ireland, Switzerland, and Hungary.

Gran Colombia (652)

Gran Colombia, and Bolívar attempted to bring Peru and Bolivia (named for Bolívar himself) into the confederation. By 1830, however, strong political and regional differences had undermined Gran Colombia. 1.As the confederation disintegrated, a bitterly disappointed Bolívar pronounced South America "ungovernable" and lamented that "those who have served the revolution have plowed the sea." Shortly after the breakup of Gran Colombia, Bolívar died of tuberculosis while en route to self-imposed exile in Europe.

Haitian revoltion (647)

Haitian revolution, the population of Saint-Domingue comprised three major groups. 1.There were about forty thousand white colonials, subdivided into several classes: European-born Frenchmen who monopolized colonial administrative posts; a class of plantation owners, chiefly minor aristocrats who hoped to return to France as soon as possible; and lower-class whites, which included artisans, shopkeepers, slave dealers, and day laborers.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (638)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), who identified with simple working people and deeply resented the privileges enjoyed by elite classes. 1.In his influential book

Johann Gottfried von Herder (657)

Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) sang the praises of the German Volk ("people") and their powerful and expressive language. In reaction to Enlightenment thinkers and their quest for a scientific, universally valid understanding of the world, early cultural nationalists such as Herder focused their attention on individual communities and relished their uniqueness. 1.They emphasized historical scholarship, which they believed would illuminate the distinctive characteristics of their societies.

Judenstaat (658)

Judenstaat, which argued that the only defense against anti-Semitism lay in the mass migration of Jews from all over the world to a land that they could call their own. In the following year, Herzl organized the first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, which founded the World Zionist Organization. 1.The delegates at Basel formulated the basic platform of the Zionist movement, declaring that "Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine," the location of the ancient Kingdom of Israel. During the next half century, Jewish migrants trickled into Palestine, and in 1948 they won recognition for the Jewish state of Israel.

Klemens von Metternich (659)

Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859), the Congress dismantled Napoleon's empire, returned sovereignty to Europe's royal families, restored them to the thrones they had lost during the Napoleonic era, and created a diplomatic order based on a balance of power that prevented any one state from dominating the others. 1.A central goal of Metternich himself was to suppress national consciousness, which he viewed as a serious threat to the multicultural Austrian empire that included Germans, Italians, Magyars, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Serbs, and Croats among its subjects.

peninsulares (649)

Latin American officials from Spain or Portugal.

caudillos (652)

Latin American term for nineteenth-century local military leaders. 1. caudillos, allied with creole elites. The new states also permitted the continuation of slavery, confirmed the wealth and authority of the Roman Catholic church, and repressed the lower orders. The principal beneficiaries of independence in Latin America were the creole elites.

Louis XVI (642)

Louis XVI (reigned 1774-1793) was unable to raise more revenue from the overburdened peasantry, so he sought to increase taxes on the French nobility, which had long been exempt from many levies. 1. Louis XVI (reigned 1774-1793) was unable to raise more revenue from the overburdened peasantry, so he sought to increase taxes on the French nobility, which had long been exempt from many levies.

Mary Wollstonecraft (654)

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797). Although she had little schooling, Wollstonecraft avidly read books at home and gained an informal self-education. In 1792 she published an influential essay titled A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. 1. Like Astell, Wollstonecraft argued that women possessed all the rights that Locke had granted to men. She insisted on the right of women to education: it would make them better mothers and wives, she said, and would enable them to contribute to society by preparing them for professional occupations and participation in political life.

ancien régime (642)

Meaning "old order," and refers to the period prior to the French Revolution in 1789. 1. ancien régime ("old order"), and sought to replace it with new political, social, and cultural structures. But, unlike their American counterparts, French revolutionaries lacked experience with self-government.

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (650)

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811), who rallied indigenous peoples and mestizos against colonial rule. 1.Many contemporaries viewed Hidalgo's movement for independence from Spanish rule as social and economic warfare by the masses against the elites of Mexican society, particularly since he rallied people to his cause by invoking the name of the popular and venerated Virgin of Guadalupe and by calling for the death of Spaniards.

Napoleon Bonaparte (646)

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) studied at French military schools and became an officer in the army of King Louis XVI. A brilliant military leader, he became a general at age twenty-four. 1.He was a fervent supporter of the revolution and defended the Directory against a popular uprising in 1795. In a campaign of 1796-1797, he drove the Austrian army from northern Italy and established French rule there. In 1798 he mounted an invasion of Egypt to gain access to the Red Sea and threaten British control of the sea route to India, but the campaign ended in a complete British victory. Politically ambitious, Napoleon returned to France in 1799, overthrew the Directory, and set up a new government, the Consulate.

National Assembly (643)

National Assembly. Three days later, meeting in an indoor tennis court, members of the new Assembly swore not to disband until they had provided France with a new constitution. On 14 July 1789 a Parisian crowd, fearing that the king sought to undo events of the previous weeks, stormed the Bastille, a royal jail and arsenal, in search of weapons. 1.The military garrison protecting the Bastille surrendered to the crowd but only after killing many of the attackers. To vent their rage, members of the crowd hacked the defenders to death. One assailant used his pocketknife to sever the garrison commander's head, which the victorious crowd mounted on a pike and paraded around the streets of Paris. News of the event soon spread, sparking insurrections in cities throughout France.

Simón Bolívar (652)

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) led the movement for independence. Born in Caracas (in modern Venezuela), Bolívar was a fervent republican steeped in Enlightenment ideas about popular sovereignty. 1. Inspired by the example of George Washington, he took up arms against Spanish rule in 1811. In the early days of his struggle, Bolívar experienced many reversals and twice went into exile. In 1819, however, he assembled an army that surprised and crushed the Spanish army in Colombia.

anti-Semitism (657)

Term coined in the late nineteenth century that was associated with a prejudice against Jews and the political, social, and economic actions taken against them. 1. anti-Semitism in many parts of Europe. Whereas anti-Semitism was barely visible in countries such as Italy and the Netherlands, it operated openly in those such as Austria-Hungary and Germany.

American revolution (•••)

The American Revolution In the mid-eighteenth century there was no sign that North America might become a center of revolution. 1.Residents of the thirteen British colonies there regarded themselves as British subjects: they recognized British law, read English-language books, and often braved the stormy waters of the North Atlantic Ocean to visit friends and family in England. Trade brought prosperity to the colonies, and British military forces protected colonists' interests. From 1754 to 1763, for example, British forces waged an extremely expensive conflict in North America known as the French and Indian War.

Zionism (657)

Zionism, a political movement that holds that the Jewish people constitute a nation and have the right to their own national homeland. Unlike Mazzini's Italian compatriots, Jews did not inhabit a well-defined territory but, rather, lived in states throughout Europe and beyond. 1.As national communities tightened their bonds, nationalist leaders often became distrustful of minority populations.

conservatism (653)

conservatism arose as political and social theorists responded to the challenges of the American and especially the French revolutions. Conservatives viewed society as an organism that changed slowly over the generations. 1.The English political philosopher Edmund Burke (1729-1797) held, for example, that society was a compact between a people's ancestors, the present generation, and their descendants as yet unborn.

Deists (637)

deists who believed in the existence of a god but denied the supernatural teachings of Christianity, such as Jesus' virgin birth and his resurrection. To the deists the universe was an orderly realm. 1.Deists held that a powerful god set the universe in motion and established natural laws that govern it, but did not take a personal interest in its development or intervene in its affairs.

gens de couleur (647)

gens de couleur (French for "people of color"), most of whom were mulattoes and some of whom were black. 1.Many of them were artisans, domestic servants, or overseers, but a small and influential proportion owned small plots of land and slaves. The remainder of the population made up the third group, consisting of some five hundred thousand slaves, some of whom were mulattoes but most of whom were African-born.

liberalism (653)

liberalism that emerged from the Atlantic revolutions was concerned about civil rights, less so about political and social rights. Most liberals, for example, held the view that voting was more of a privilege than a right, and therefore was legitimately subject to certain qualifications. 1.Limitations on the franchise long characterized suffrage in post revolutionary societies, with citizens being disenfranchised on the basis of class, age, gender, and race, among other factors. But as the nineteenth century passed, liberalism changed its character. As the masses of people became more assertive, liberalism could not concern itself mainly with interests of the more privileged strata of society.

nationalism (656)

nationalism Revolutionary wars involved millions of French citizens in the defense of their country against foreign armies and the extension of French influence to neighboring states. Wartime experiences encouraged peoples throughout Europe to think of themselves as members of distinctive national communities. 1.Throughout the nineteenth century, European nationalist leaders worked to fashion states based on national identities and mobilized citizens to work in the interests of their own national communities, sometimes by fostering jealousy and suspicion of other national groups. By the late nineteenth century, national identities were so strong that peoples throughout Europe responded enthusiastically to ideologies of nationalism, which promised glory and prosperity to those who worked in the interests of their national communities.

philosophes (637)

philosophes ("philosophers") advanced the cause of reason. The philosophes were not philosophers in the traditional sense of the term so much as public intellectuals. 1. They addressed their works more to the educated public than to scholars: instead of formal philosophical treatises, they mostly composed histories, novels, dramas, satires, and pamphlets on religious, moral, and political issues.

reign of terror (646)

reign of terror were fellow radicals who fell out of favor with Robespierre and the Jacobins. The instability of revolutionary leadership eventually undermined confidence in the regime itself. In July 1794 the Convention arrested Robespierre and his allies, convicted them of tyranny, and sent them to the guillotine. 1.A group of conservative men of property then seized power and ruled France under a new institution known as the Directory (1795-1799). Though more pragmatic than previous revolutionary leaders, members of the Directory were unable to resolve the economic and military problems that plagued revolutionary France.

unification of Germany (662)

unification of Germany. As prime minister, Bismarck reformed and expanded the Prussian army. Between 1864 and 1870 he intentionally provoked three wars—with Denmark, Austria, and France—and whipped up German sentiment against the enemies. 1. In all three conflicts Prussian forces quickly shattered their opponents, swelling German pride.

unification of Italy (660)

unification of Italy came about when practical political leaders such as Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861), prime minister to King Vittorio Emanuele II of Piedmont and Sardinia, combined forces with nationalist advocates of independence. 1.Cavour was a cunning diplomat, and the kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia was the most powerful of the Italian states.