Chapter 3

Preliminary assessment

A ______________ of the client's personal and career problems obtained through background information and observation in the trait and factor and PEF model.

Circumscription and compromise: a developmental theory of occupational aspirations

A key factor in career decision is self concept, determined by one's social class,s level of intelligence, and experiences with sex typing. Individuals progress through four stages and learn to compromise based on generalizations of cognitive maps of occupations. Individuals are less willing to compromise job level and sex type.

Contextualism

A method of describing events or actions in an individual's life and a way in which counselors understand influences in career development from an individual's environmental interactions.

Personality structure

A stable characteristic made up of abilities and values.

Stage 3; Assessment

Ability patterns; Values; Reinforcer requirements; Interests; Information processing skills

Stage 4; Identify and solve problems

Affective status; Self knowledge needs; Level of information processing skills

Values

Are considered as work needs.

Environmental conditions

Are contextual interactions that influence individual choices.

Genetic endowments

Are inherited qualities that may set limits on career choice.

Trait oriented approaches

Are often characterized as objective data, rather than as subjective information clients reveal about themselves and perceptions of their environment, usually in an interview.

Decided

Are those who have made a career decision. These clients might profit from counseling that is designed to formulate other steps in decision making and to determine if their choice was inappropriately made.

Task approach skills

Are work habits, mental sets, emotional responses, and cognitive responses.

Step 3 (MCCMEW)

Assess impact of cultural variables

Goal setting

Best accomplished by concrete, realistic steps in an organized sequential process. For example, recognizing procedural requirements to reach goals.

John Holland: A Typology Approach

Career choice is an expression of, or an extension of personality into the world of work. Individuals search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. There are six kinds of occupational environments and six matching personal orientations.

Life span, life space approach

Career development is a lifelong process occurring in stages. Self concept is shaped through life experiences. Clients are involved in several life roles of child, student, leisure, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, and pensioner. All life roles affect one another. In development, societal factors interact with biological psychological factors.

Life span, life space approach

Career development is multidimensional. There are developmental tasks throughout the life span. Vocational maturity is acquired through successfully accomplishing developmental tasks within a continuous series of life stages. Individuals implement their self concepts into careers that will provide the most efficient means of self expressions. Success in one life role facilitates success in another.

Career development from a cognitive information processing perspective

Career problem solving is primarily a cognitive process. Information processing can be improved through learning. Effective information processing skills can empower individuals to determine their own destiny. Making career choices is a problem solving activity.

Person environment correspondence counseling

Client abilities and values are criteria used for selecting work environments. Work requirements determine reinforcers available by occupations. Knowledge of clients are more achievement or self fulfilled oriented enhances career choice.

MCCMEW

Client-counselor relationships are considered to be most important in all career counseling models, but especially in this model. Trust and collaboration are key components in counseling relationships, particularly when client and counselor are from different ethnic backgrounds. One should welcome a discussion of different world views by acknowledging racial differences between counselor and client and invite the client to discuss his or her feelings about racial differences.

Stage 5; Generate PEF Analysis

Cognitive schema; Criteria on which to base choice; Optimal prediction system

CASVE

Communication Analysis Synthesis Valuing Execution

Stage 6; Confirm, explore, and decide

Counselor and client confirm PEF analysis; Client explores potential work environments; Client makes a decision

Learning theory model

Counselors assist clients in identifying career beliefs that could interfere with progress in decision making.

MCCMEW

Counselors must be aware of various specific cultural cues such as the client's nonverbal actions and reactions. Some clients, for example, may not consider it appropriate to maintain eye contact during counseling; the counselor's reciprocal behavior will enhance the relationship. Counselors should use as much time as necessary to establish a collaborative relationship, especially with clients who have been socialized in a cultural context that is different from that of the counselor. Respect and appreciation of differences on the part of the counselor and client are most desirable in establishing rapport.

Developmental tasks

Crystallization, specification, implementation, stabilization, and consolidation.

Step 3(CIP)

Define problem and analyze causes. In this step, the counselor and the client agree on a preliminary understanding of the the client's problems. For example, the problem may be defined as a gap between the state of the client's indecision and the ideal state of career decidedness. A word of caution: the client's problem should be explained and stated in neutral, rather than in judgmental terms.

Step 5 (CIP)

Develop an individual learning plan. Again, the counselor and the client collaborate when developing the ILP, which provides a sequences of resources and activities that will assist the client in meeting goals established earlier. These goals and resources are very evident in the example of an ILP. The ILP also serves as a contract between client and counselor.

Trait and factor approach

During the early development of career counseling models, the _______________ received the most attention and has survived as a viable part of current trait oriented models. In fact, ________________ continue to be a most popular part of contemporary models.

CIP model

Dysfunctional thinking and cognitive processing problems are a major concern in the opening stages of counseling. Counselors clarify problems and goals and match them with intervention strategies that are developed by consensus between client and counselor.

Krumboltz's learning theory approach

Each individual's unique learning experiences over the life span develop primary influences that lead to career choice. Development involves genetic endowments and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences and task approach skills.

Ann Roe: A Needs Approach

Early childhood experiences and parental style affect the needs hierarchy and the relationships of those needs to adult lifestyle. Those who choose nonperson-type jobs are meeting lower level needs for safety and security. Those who choose to work with other people have strong needs.

Multicultural career counseling model for ethnic women

Emphasizes contextual factors that limit career choice and stereotypes that hinder career development and introduces counselors to racial identity as a significant variable in client-counselor relationships.

PEF

Emphasizes optimal fit of clients with an occupation.

Trait and factor

Emphasizes optimal fit of clients with an occupation.

Stage 1; Intake interview

Establish client-counselor collaboration relationship. Gather background information. Assess emotional status and cognitive clarity. Observe personality style.

Step 1 (MCCMEW)

Establish rapport and culturally appropriate relationships.

Stage 7; Follow up

Evaluate progress; Recycle is necessary

Step 6 (CIP)

Execute individual learning plan. This step requires that the client take the initiative in proceeding with the agreed on plan. The counselor encourages and directs the progress and may provide more information, clarification, or reinforcement of the client's progress and also offer planning for future experiences.

Multicultural model for ethnic women

Explores avenues of removing salient cultural variables that inhibit and restrict career choice.

Step 4 (CIP)

Formulate Goals. Formulating goals is a collaborative effort between counselor and client. Goals are put in writing in an individual learning plan (ILP).

Stages of vocational development

Growth, exploratory, establishment, maintenance, and decline.

Undecided

Have not made a career decision but might not view their current status as a problem; they prefer to delay making a commitment. The prevalent developmental view of this client is of an uninformed, immature person who generally lacks self knowledge, information about occupations, or both.

Step 2 (MCCMEW)

Identify career issues

Step 7 (MCCMEW)

Implement and follow up.

Action

In the ___________ step, the client selects an appropriate behavior to solve problems exposed in previous steps.

Ability dimensions

Indicate levels of work skills.

John Holland: A Typology Approach

Individuals are products of their environment. Stability of career choice depends on dominance of personal orientation. Individuals who fit a pure personality type will express little resemblance to other types. Clients who have many occupational goals have low identity. Congruence occurs when client's personality type matches the corresponding work environment.

Person environment correspondence counseling

Individuals bring requirements to a work environment, and the work environment makes its requirements of individuals. To survive, individuals and work environments must achieve some degree of congruence.

Trait and factor

Individuals have unique patterns of ability or traits that can be objectively measured and correlated with requirements of occupations.

Step 1 (CIP)

Initial interview. The major purpose of the interview is twofold. The counselor seeks information bout the client's career problems and establishes a trusting relationship. More specifically, the counselor attends to both the emotional and cognitive components of the client's problems. The counselor recognizes that an effective relationship enhances client self efficacy and fosters learning.

Effective plan development and pattern matching

Involves establishing alternative solutions, several means of reaching goals, and considering the consequences of actions taken.

Encoding

Involves the client's perception and interpretation of information. For example, client can recognize relevant advantages and limitations of an occupation.

CASVE

Involves the following generic processing skills: Communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing, and execution.

Congruence

Is a good match between individual and work environment.

Indecisive

Is characterized as one who has a high level of anxiety accompanied by dysfunctional thinking. This client type is often labeled as not having cognitive clarity or as having irrational beliefs. For instance, the ____________ client could have problems embedded in a personality disorder that might be accompanied by depression.

Trait and factor theory

Is viewed by some as promoting a very simplistic counseling process that is characterized by Crites as three interviews and a cloud of dust. Others, however, have argued successfully that the applied concepts of the theory represent a misinterpretation of what was intended by early counseling programs of the 1930s.

PEF

Job satisfaction is considered a significant variable in determining job involvement and career tenure. In sum, the ________ analysis stresses the use of occupational information to assist clients in matching needs and abilities with patterns and levels of different reinforcers in the work environment.

Krumboltz's learning theory approach

Learning experiences should increase the range of occupations in career counseling. Assessment is to be used to create new learning experiences. Clients need to prepare for changing work tasks. Career decision making is a learned skill. Clients need to be empowered as active participants in career search.

Step 5 (MCCMEW)

Make culturally appropriate counseling interventions

Step 6 (MCCMEW)

Make decision

Associative learning experiences

Negative and positive reactions to neutral experiences.

Ginzaberg and associates

Occupational choice is a developmental process covering 6 to 10 years beginning at age 11 and ending shortly after age 17. As tentative occupational decisions are made, other choices are eliminated.

Self concept

One's view of self

Stage 2; Identify Developmental variables

Perception of self and environment; Environmental variables; Contextual interactions; Gender variables; Minority group status.

Step 2 (CIP)

Preliminary assessment. To determine the client's readiness for problem solving and decision making, the Career Thoughts Inventory is administered. This inventory is used both as a screening assessment and as a needs assessment; as such, it will identify clients who could experience difficulty in the career choice process as a result of dysfunctional thinking.

Traits

Primarily refer to abilities and interests. Parson's three step model includes studying the individual, surveying occupations, and matching the individual with an occupation.

Analysis

Problem is reduced to components

Synthesis

Problem is restructured by creating alternatives

Communication

Problem perceived as a gap

Execution

Problem solutions are accomplished by formulating strategies.

Valuing

Problem solutions are evaluated by valuing alternatives

Multicultural career counseling model for ethnic women

Provides a means of comparing techniques designed to identify specific needs of a special group of clients and the methods and materials used in the counseling process. This model focuses on contextual elements of influence and recognizes that salient factors were not a part of theoretical conceptualizations of most of the career development theories.

RIASEC

Realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional.

Actions

Refer to the whole context in which an action is taken, how events take shape as people engage in them.

Work adjustment

Refers to a worker's attempt to improve fit in a work environment.

Social space

Refers to a zone or view of where each person fits into society.

Satisfactoriness

Refers to clients who are more achievement oriented.

Satisfaction

Refers to more self fulfilled oriented clients.

Consistency

Refers to personality, i.e., those clients who relate strongly to one or more of the RIASEC categories.

Identity

Refers to the degree in which one identifies with a work environment.

Differentiation

Refers to those who have poorly defined personality styles.

Cognitive maps

Reflect dimensions of prestige level, masculinity/femininity, and field of work.

Personal agency

Reflects how a person exerts power to achieve a solution.

Career development from a social cognitive perspective

Self efficacy is strengthened as success is experiences in a performance domain and is weakened with repeated failures; outcome expectations are shaped by similar experiences. Personal goals and or personal agency act to sustain behavior. Career choice is influenced by environmental factors. Overcoming barriers to choice is a significant goal of this theory

Step 4 (MCCMEW)

Set counseling goals

Developmental model

Stresses strategies that delineate clients' individual traits to promote career development over the life span.

Learning theory model

Suggests interventions to enhance and expand the client's current status.

Compromise

Suggests that individuals will settle for a good choice but not best.

Step 7 (CIP)

Summative review and generalization. Progress in solving the gap that might have motivated the client to seek counseling is perceived in this last step. A determination is also made about how effective the progress has been in following through with the ILP. The focus through all steps is on the client's career decision making status. Finally, the lessons learned within the preceding six steps are generalized as skills learned to solve future career and personal problems.

Career development from a cognitive information processing perspective

Ten basic assumptions. Two overarching assumptions facilitating the growth of information processing skills and enhancing the client's ability to solve problems and make career decisions.

PEF

The basic assumption of _____________ is that individuals seek to achieve and maintain a positive relationship with their work environments. Thus, counselors assist clients in finding some degree of congruence between themselves and work environments in the career decision process.

PEF

The major goal of ___________ is the enhancement of self knowledge

Trait and factor

The primary goal of using assessment data was to predict job satisfaction and success. Contemporary practices stress the relationships between human factors and work environments. Test data are used to observe the similarity between client and current workers in a career field.

Circumscription

The process of narrowing one's territory of social space or alternative.

Model II development model

This developmental model has been built from the position that career development is a lifelong process and the career development needs of unique individuals must be met during all stages of life.

Career construction: a developmental theory of vocation behavior

This theory focuses attention on contextual interactions over the life span. One's career development is constructed as individuals influence and are influenced within environmental systems. Clients are viewed as products of their environment. Vocational behavior is a core element in career construction theory.

Career development from a social cognitive perspective

This theory is embedded in general social cognitive theory, which blends cognitive, self, regulatory, and motivational processes into a lifelong phenomenon. Personal and physical attributes, external environmental factors, and overt behavior all interact as causal influences on individual development.

Instrumental learning experiences

Those acquired through observation, consequences, and reaction of others.

Career counseling models

Trait and factor and person environment fit. Developmental. Learning theory. Cognitive information processing approach. Multicultural career counseling model for ethnic women.

Gap

Used to describe a career problem of dissonance between what actually exists and what the client feels should exist.

CIP model

Uses a variety of individual learning plans to improve cognitive processing.