Chapter 3 - Ethics

Risks in behavioral research

-physical harm -stress and distress -confidentiality and privacy

Word-for-word plagiarism

-A writer commits word-for-word plagiarism when he or she copies a section of another person's work word for word without placing those words within quotation marks to indicate the segment was written by someone else -Also note that adding a few words, or changing a few words, does not change the fact that much of the text is taken from another source without attribution

Coercion = another threat to autonomy

-Any procedure that limits an individual's freedom to consent is potentially coercive --Ex: supervisor who asks employees to fill out a survey during a staff meeting or a professor who requires students to participate in a specific study in order to pass the course -Sometimes the promise of benefits can also be coercive --Researchers often offer an incentive with the request to participate --Monetary incentives (actual money or gift cards) are usually small and must not be so great to induce people to discount any risks

Expedited reivew

-Applies to research that is minimal risk research but does not match the exempt categories -Much of expedited review research is biological / medical (ex: blood samples, collection of hair samples, or saliva) -Also includes research procedures frequently used by behavioral researchers like: --Blood samples with limits of the amount taken, frequency, and characteristics of participants --Taking "biological specimens" like hair, saliva, sweat, and skin cells --Common physical measures made using healthy adults, such as heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure --Data from voice, video, digital, or image recordings --Research on individual or group characteristics or behavior (including but not limited to research on perception, cognition, motivation, identity, language, communication, cultural beliefs etc OR research employing survey, interview, oral history, focus groups, program evals, human factors

Exempt reivew

-Exempt from more rigorous review requirements of federal regulations Examples: --Research that only involves cog tests, surveys, interview, or observations of public behavior so identity of subjects is not ascertained (included for kids) --Research using benign behavior interventions with adult participants who are able to provide their consent to participate -> ex: include performing cog or behavioral task and manipulation of physical or social environment. Must be brief in duration, harmless, and very unlikely to cause discomfort or embarrassment ---Limited to self-report by subjects and can't be wearing physical measurement devices --Use of secondary data that already exists and was collected for either non research purposes or as apart of research in which informed consent was obtained

is fraud a major problem in psych research?

-Fraud is not a major problem in science in part bc researchers know that others will read their reports and conduct further studies, including replications --Know that their reputations and careers will be seriously damaged if other scientists conclude that the results are fraudulent --Likelihood of detection of fraud has increased in recent years as data accessibility has become more open

When fraud is often detected

-Fraud is often detected when other scientists cannot replicate the results of a study

Paraphrasing plagiarism

-Instead of words being directly copied without attribution, the ideas are copied without attribution -Note that there is not a number or percentage of words that moves writing from paraphrasing to plagiarism, but rather it is the underlying idea

Why then do researchers commit fraud?

-Jobs with extreme pressure to produce impressive results -Have an exaggerated fear of failure and great need for success and admiration that comes with it

Is deception a major ethical problem in psychological research?

-Many believe that the problem has been exaggerated -In decades since Milgram, some researchers have attempted to assess the use of deception to see if elaborate deception has indeed become less common -Bc most of the concern over this type of deception arises in social psychological research, attempts to address this issue have focused on social psychology -Number of studies using deception has gone down -Still use false cover stories though

Deconditioning of fear

-Mary Cover James -showed you can decondition fear out of a child --big part of cognitive behavioral therapy -this study also wasn't conducted all that well --better methods to establish the same concepts --are we receiving good, useful scientific evidence? ---if answer is no, then whatever risk we took wasn't worth it

Generalizable knowledge

-Means that for a project to be considered research, a person must have intent to create a new knowledge with the results -Ex: project wherein students watch parking behavior in a parking lot in order to learn how to measure parking behavior is not research bc point of data collection is not the creation of new knowledge

Have ethical guidelines been successful?

-Milgram and others in 60s and prior were able to do studies that are not allowed now -The facebook study stirred up a lot of trouble, but was it really that bad? --Far less bad than what used to happen -Con: IRBs stall lots of potentially useful and interesting research -Pro: IRB also helps prevent potential atrocities --Benefits outweigh the costs

Stress and distress

-More common than physical stress is psychological stress -Ex: participants in Milgram study were exposed to high level of stress; believed that they were delivering fatal doses of electricity to another person -Another example: participants might be told that they will receive some extremely intense electric shocks --Never actually receive the shocks; it is the fear or anxiety during the waiting period that is the variable of interest -Another procedure that produces psychological stress, participants are given unfavorable feedback about their personalities or abilities --Researchers may administer a test that is described as a measure of social intelligence and then told that they scored very high or low --Impact of this feedback can then be studied -Asking about traumatic or unpleasant events in lives might cause stress --Research on deaths of parent, spouse, or friend could trigger stressful reaction -When using procedures that may create psych distress, must ask whether all safeguards have been taken to help participants deal with the stress

how a consent form should be written

-Must be written so participants understand the info in the form --In past was so technical or loaded with legal terms that it was very unlikely that the participants fully realized what they were signing --Should be written in simple language that avoids jargon (6th-8th grade reading level) -Can't give consent if the consent form is not in a language the participant can read -> should be in primary language

Nuremberg

-Nuremberg Trials held to hear evidence against Nazi doctors adn scientists who had committed atrocities while forcing concentration camp inmates to be research subjects -Legal document came to be known as Nuremberg Code: a set of 10 rules of research that would help prevent future research atrocities -Set of principles without any enforcement structure or endorsement by professional organizations -Also rooted in context of Nazi experience and not as applicable to general research

Physical Harm

-Procedures that could conceivably cause physical harm to participants are rare but possible -Medical stuff like administering a drug like alcohol or caffeine -Other studies might exposure subjects to physical stressors like loud noise, extreme hot or cold temperatures, or deprivation of sleep for an extended period -Great care should be taken and must show that benefits outweigh potential risks

Withholding info and deception

-Providing too much info could potentially invalidate results of study -Generally acceptable to withhold information when the research is designated as minimal risk, the info would not affect the decision to participate, and when the info will later be provided, usually in a debriefing session when the study is completed -Also some research procedures in which informed consent is not necessary or even possible --If you choose to observe the number of same-sex and mixed-sex study gorups in your library, you probably don't need to announce your presence or obtain anyone's permission

Research with nonhuman animal subjects

-Psychologists sometimes use animals especially if need to carefully control the environmental conditions of the animals, study the same animal over long period of time, and monitor their behavior 24 hours a day -Scientists argue that animal research benefits humans and point to many discoveries that wouldn't have been possible without animal research -Important to recognize strict laws and ethical guidelines that govern research with animals --Deal with need for proper housing, feeding, cleanliness, and health care --Try to avoid any cruelty in the form of unnecessary pain to the animal --Also institutions in which animal research is carried out must have an Institutional Animal care and use committee

Is this research in violation of ethics? Is it immoral?

-Reactions by scientists --Yes this experiment is scandalous and violates principles --no informed consent ---Participants were not at all informed that they were in an experiment --No debriefing --Tiny, tiny effect size, but for what? ---Violates principle of beneficence and nonmaleficence

Application to IRBs

-Requires a description of risks and benefits, procedures for minimizing risk, exact wording of the informed consent form, how participants will be debriefed, and procedures for maintaining confidentiality -If long term project will need to be reviewed every year

2012 Emotional manipulation study - Facebook

-Research question: can one person's emotional state be transferred to another person via social interactions? -Paper: Does the emotional content in a person's Facebook News Feed have the potential to alter that person's emotional state? --Manipulated the amount of emotional content in users' News Feed --They didn't add anything, but took what would normally happen and either decreased amount of positive or negative posts during a one-week period --Compared to control conditions in which an equal amount of randomly chosen information was decreased --DV: Measured emotional content of users' posts

Results of study

-Seeing fewer positive posts: --Decreased positive words in a user's own posts --Increased negative words in a user's own posts -Seeing fewer negative posts: --Decreased neg words in a user's own post --Increased positive words in a user's own posts -Seeing less positive stuff makes people less positive and seeing more negative. Seeing less negative stuff makes people less negative and more positive

Limited Reivew

-Studies that can be subject to limited review are those that include benign behavioral interventions for which sensitive data are collected from adult participants under the circumstances where participants would need to be identified -Usually carried out by one member of IRB --Person may approve research as exempt or recommend further review

Some studies that were unethical AND immoral

-Tuskegee syphilis study

Systematic investigation

-an activity designed to test a hypothesis and permit conclusions to be drawn -> usually described in a formal protocol that sets an objective and sequence of procedures --For project to be considered research, must be purposefully and intentionally designed

What happens when the participants lack the ability to make a free and informed decision to voluntarily participate?

-autonomy issue -special populations like minors, patients in psych hospitals, or adults with cognitive impairments require special precautions ---Ex: when minors are asked to participate, a written consent form signed by a parent or guardian is generally required in addition to agreement by the minor ; this agreement by a minor is formally called assent

Privacy

-becomes an issue when, without subject's permission, the researcher collects info under circumstances that the subject ordinarily believes are private - free from unwanted observation by others --observing people as they are walking in public space, stopped at traffic light or drinking doesn't present any major ethical problems --but if a researcher wishes to observe a behavior in a more private setting or ways that violate individual's privacy like rummage through trash or watch them in public restrooms = problem -internet also poses issues of privacy

Little Albert Study

-behaviorism was very big at this time (1919) -John Watson study -> wanted to show that psychologists could control / condition emotions -conditioned emotional reaction --Little Albert --put a number of stimuli in the room including a little white rat ---wasn't afraid before conditioning --with rat present, Watson makes a loud noise behind Albert, which scared Albert ---with enough pairings of the neutral stimulus and the feared stimuli he became afraid of the rat -eventually Albert becomes scared of the rat and other similar stimuli --including santa and bunnies

Deception

-defined as active misrepresentation of information about the nature of a study --ex: milgram experiment illustrates two types of deception: --1 - deceived about purpose of study ---informed consent was needed --2 - participants become part of series of events staged for the purposes of the study ---confederate of experimenter played part of another participant -> Milgram created a reality for participants in which obedience to authority could be observed

Declaration of Helsinki

-developed by World Medical Association -broader application of Nuremberg code that was produced by medical community and included a requirement that journal editors ensure that published research conform to the principles -but didn't explicitly address behavioral research and seen applicable to medicine -by early 1970s, news about numerous ethically questionable studies forced scientific community to search for better approach of protection of human research subjects --Tuskegee Syphilis study where 399 African American men in Alabama were not treated for syphilis in order to track the longer term effects of the disease

Principle C: Integrity

-don't lie, cheat, steal, commit fraud -seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in science and practice of psychology

Determining type of IRB review

-either minimal risk or greater than minimal risk

Justice

-ensure that equity is not violated when selecting participants -must be fairness in receiving the benefits of research as well as bearing the burdens of risk -decisions to include or exclude must be made on scientific groups -ex: lots of studies that get posted with a qualification that says English must be your first language --are studies that this is based on scientific gorups --but if people put that for any other reason, like worried that participants won't understand if English isn't native language, this isn't just

APA Code of Ethics

-ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct -applies to psychologists in their many roles -Five principles: --Principle A: Beneficence and nonmaleficence --Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility --Principle C: Integrity --Principle D: Justice --Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity --three are same as Belmont

Unethical vs immoral

-ethics = rules and guidelines given by professional organizations --these studies didn't have those same guidelines -Immoral = different --belief systems about what we think is right or wrong -Many studies in the past were unethical by today's standards: --Watson's fear conditioning of baby Albert --Milgram's work on obedience --Zimbardo's stanford prison experiment

Principle D: Justice

-fairness and equity -recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the process, procedures, and services being conducted by psychologists -ex: tuskegee syphilis study -> cure for syphilis was withheld from patients

Informed consent form

-form is often presented for participants to read and agree to -critical info that allows the potential participant to make an informed decision of whether or not to participate -ex: you might get board = risk -ex: we will show you pictures of a traumatic event so people can know if they don't want to) -what benefits -allowed to drop out at any point --if payment is involved, need to be clear how this would work

Greater than minimal risk

-if project is judged to be greater than minimal risk, then a full board review is required -any research procedure that places participants at greater than minimal risk = subject to thorough full review by IRB -such review is more extensive and time consuming than exempt and expedited

Why an important ethical study?

-important example for discussing the problem of ethics in behavioral research --Played important role in development of ethical standards that guide ethical decision making today -interesting results but were also data concerns

Confidentiality

-is an issue when the researcher has assured subjects that the collected data are accessible only to people with permission, generally only the researcher --becomes particularly important when studying sensitive topics --ex: asking participants about sexual behavior or personal questions about family history --in most cases, researchers will attempt to avoid confidentiality problems by making sure that the responses are completely anonymous -> no way to connect any person's identity with data ---questionnaires in groups -but in personal interview in which identity of person is known, the researcher must carefully plan ways of coding data to ensure confidentiality

IRBs

-local review agencies composed of at least five individuals; at least one member must be from outside of the institution -In addition to IRB, most psych departments have their own research review committee -All research conducted by faculty, students, and staff associated with the institution is reviewed in some way by the IRB --Includes research that may be conducted at another location such as a school, community agency, or hospital or via internet -Fed regulations for IRBs continue to evolve -HHS regulations also categorized research according to the amount of risk involved in the research

Fraud

-making up data-fabrication -Must be able to believe the reported results of research; otherwise, the entire foundation of the scientific method as a means of knowledge is threatened -Although fraud may occur in many fields, it probably is most serious in two areas: --Science and journalism ---There are no independent accounting agencies to check on the activities of scientists and journalists

Principle of Beneficence

-maximize benefits and minimize risks --risk = risks to participants in the study (ex: not allowed to say lets sacrifice the few) --benefits = to the participants of the study, benefits to society at large, benefits of gaining scientific knowledge for gaining scientific knowledge -bad balance of risk and benefits ex: --I know that test anxiety exists, so i want to study if you put people into an extreme state of anxiety will that show this (you could do more mild manipulation) -associated application is the necessity to conduct a risk-benefit analysis

Minimal risk

-means that risks of harm to participants are no greater than risk encountered in daily life or in routine physical or psychological tests -3 levels: 1 - exempt review 2 - expedited review 3 - limited review

Is problem of deception limited to lab?

-no -Procedures in which observers conceal their purposes, presence, or identity are also deceptive -Ex: Humphreys studying the sexual behavior of men who frequented public restrooms

Autonomy (principle of respect for persons)

-participants are treated as autonomous; they are capable of making deliberate decisions about whether to participate in research -informed consent - potential participants in a research project should be provided with all information that might influence their decisions on whether to participate --need to have enough info about what the study is and what they will do -respect for persons

Informed consent

-potential participants in a research project should be provided with all info that might influence their active decision of whether or not to participate in a study --should be informed about the purposes of the study, risks and benefits and their right to refuse or terminate participation in study

Principle B: Fidelity and responsibility

-psychologists establish relationships of trust with those whom they work and are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific communities in which they work -trust is primarily applicable to relationships with research participants --if participants agree to be present for a study at a specific time, researcher should also be there -be responsible and professional in interactions with people -treat participants with respect / professional --this is in research and for clinical psychologists and educators in psychology

Plagiarism

-refers to misrepresenting another's work as your own -Need to give proper citation of sources -Can be a paragraph or just a sentence that is copied without using quotation marks and a reference to the source quotation

Beneficence and nonmaleficence

-refers to need for research to maximize benefits and minimize any possible harmful effects of participation --benefit them and do no harm -lead to risk-benefit analysis -potential risk include factors like psychological or physical harm and loss of confidentiality -benefits of a study include direct benefits to the participants like educational benefit, acquisition of new skill, or treatment for a psychological or medical problem --also material benefits like monetary payment --less tangible = satisfaction gained through being part of scientific investigation

Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

-respect for persons (informed consent) -respect the dignity and worth of all people and rights of individual to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination -aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making -aware of and respect culture differences including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, etc

Milgram obedience experiment

-study on obedience to authority -recruited normal people -Experimenter in white lab coat who was authoritative 2 others showed up to the lab (both were participants but really one was actually a confederate) -Teacher = the real participant -Student = the confederate -Every time the student gets an answer wrong, the teacher delivers a shock with increasing intensity --Has levers with labeled voltage that say "slight shock" moderate shock" and danger: severe shock -Question = will people keep going / shocking if they are told to by the experimenter? -Results: approximately 65% of the participants continued to deliver shocks all the way to 450 volts

The Belmont Report

-third critical document in development of ethical standards in behavioral science -current ethical guidelines for both behavioral and medical researchers have origins in Belmont Report -defined the principles and applications that have guided more detailed regulations developed by APA

What researchers predicted with Milgram

-thought participants wouldn't keep going -this is a big reason why they approved Milgram's study bc they didn't think it would work -what happened is that most people went through to the end and kept shocking the other person

What the participants thought

-thought they were participating in scientific study on memory and learning at Yale

How this study is ethically sketchy

-why didn't they choose to condition a positive emotion? --easier to induce fear / see fear than it is to love --to teach Albert to be afraid wasn't that complicated, but to get him to show love might be harder -And why didn't they decondition the fear afterwards? --bc he moved away but also nothing showing that he was planning on doing that

3 Ethical principles of Belmont report

1 - Beneficence 2 - Autonomy (Principle of Respect for Persons) 3 - Justice

Who decides if Research meets APA Guidelines?

1 - individual researchers are a starting point --if you decide on your own moral standing that you don't do research on animals, they you don't 2 - IRB --required at every institution that received federal funds --need to write up proposal / fill out forms 3 - US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) --office of human research protections --are a watchdog for the iRBs

3 primary reasons for a decrease in the type of elaborate deception like that seen in Milgram study

1 - researchers have become interested in cognitive variables rather than emotions and so use methods that are similar to those sued by researchers in memory and cognitive psych 2 - general level of awareness of ethical issues 3 - ethics committees at universities and colleges now review proposed research more carefully

What the federal agencies that regulate IRBs define as research

1 - systematic investigation 2 - Generalizable knowledge

What the form typically covers

1 - the purpose of the research 2 - procedures that will be used including time involved (don't have to tell them exactly what is being studied) 3 - risks and benefits 4 - any compensation 5 - confidentiality 6 - assurance of voluntary participation and permission to withdraw 7 - contact info for questions