Chapter 3: Thinking About Theory and Research

*code*

*______* - converting raw data to a category system

*data*

*______* - the raw materials collected by the researcher to answer the questions posed in the research or to test a hypothesis

*Scope*

*________* - a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the breadth of communication behaviors covered in the theory

*actions*

*__________* - activities based on intentional choice responses

*cause*

*__________* - an antecedent condition that determines an effect

*control*

*__________* - direction over the important concepts in a theory

*effect*

*____________* - a condition that inevitably follows a causative condition

*utility*

*____________* - a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the theory's usefulness or practical value

movements

*____________* - activities based on stimulus response

*heurism*

*_____________* - a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the amount of research and new thinking stimulated by the theory

*hierarchy*

*_____________* - a property of systems theory stating that systems consist of multiple levels

*validity*

*_____________* - the truth value of an observation

*ontology*

*_______________* - a branch of knowledge focused on the nature of reality

*axiology*

*_______________* - a branch of knowledge focused on what is worth knowing

*Parsimony*

*_______________* - a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the simplicity of the explanation provided by the theory

*feedback*

*_______________* - a subprocess of calibration; information allowing for change in the system

*homeostatic*

*_______________* - a term fro a stable system that isn't changing

*reliability*

*_______________* - the stability and predictability of an observation

*positivistic/empirical approach*

*_______________/__________________* - an approach assuming the existence of objective reality and value-neutral research

*inductive logic*

*________________* - moving from the specific (the observations) to the general *the theory)

*openness*

*________________* - the acknowledgment that within all human systems the boundaries are permeable

*tactical rules*

*________________* - unstated rules used to achieve a personal or interpersonal goal

*epistemology*

*_________________* - a branch of knowledge focused on how we know things

*test of time*

*_________________* - a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the theory's durability over time

*wholeness*

*_________________* - a fundamental property of systems theory stating that systems are more than the sum of their individual parts

*covering law approach*

*_________________* - a guideline for creating theory suggesting that theories conform to a general law that is universal and invariant.

*rules approach*

*_________________* - a guideline for creating theory that builds human choice into explanations

*suprasystems*

*_________________* - larger systems that hold smaller ones within them

*deductive logic*

*_________________* - moving from the general (the theory) to the specific (the observations)

*subsytems*

*_________________* - smaller systems the are embedded in larger ones

*hypotheses*

*_________________* - testable predictions of relationships between concepts that follow the general predictions made by a theory

*scientific method*

*_________________* -the traditional method for doing research involving controlled observations and analysis to test the principles of a theory

*testability*

*__________________* - a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to our ability to test the accuracy of a theory's claims

*systems approach*

*__________________* - a guideline for creating theory that acknowledges human choice and the constraints of the systems involved

*equifinality*

*__________________* - a property of systems theory stating that systems can achieve the same goals through different means

*boundaries*

*__________________* - a property of systems theory stating that systems construct structures specifying their outer limits

*calibration*

*__________________* - a property of systems theory stating that systems periodically check the scale of allowable behaviors and reset the system

*pure research*

*__________________* - research to generate knowledge

*grounded theory*

*__________________* - theory induced from data and analysis

*morphogenic*

*___________________* - a process that occurs when a system recalibrates (or changes)

*observations*

*___________________* - focused examination within a context of interest; may be guided by hypotheses or research questions

*habitual rules*

*___________________* - nonnegotiable rules that are usually created by an authority figure

*applied research*

*___________________* - research to solve a problem or create a policy

*parametric rules*

*___________________* - rules that are set by an authority figure but are subject to some negotiation

*Logical consistency*

*____________________* - a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the internal logic in the theoretic statements

*Critical approach*

*_____________________* - an approach stressing the researcher's responsibility to change the inequities in the status quo

*interdependence*

*______________________* - a property of systems theory stating that the elements of a system affect one another

*operationalize*

*______________________* - making an abstract idea measurable and observable

*interpretive approach*

*_______________________* - an approach viewing truth as subjective and stressing the participation of the researcher in the research process

*operationalize*

After hypothesizing, one must *___________________* all the concepts. This means one needs to specify how one will measure the concepts that are important to that study. Nominal concepts that are more complex and abstract, such as love and intimacy, are sometimes more difficult to operationalize.

pure; applied

Although some researchers approach their work strictly as hypothesis testers and some approach it more as theory generators, in practice most weave back and forth between the two. Walter Wallace (1971) suggests that the research process is circular, moving continuously between induction and deduction. Researchers refer to this as the wheel of science. Additionally, as Wallace (1983) notes elsewhere, this process is endless: "Each step presupposes that all the others have been taken before it..." Furthermore, Wallace (1983) has expanded this wheel of science to include two types of research: ______ and ______________.

inductive

An intuitive scientist follows many of the same processes and reasoning patterns that trained scientists do, just not in as explicit or rigorous a fashion. Usually, intuitive scientists follow ________________ logic: They experience something and then generalize from that. This is similar to the process a researcher might follow; however, a social scientist would not make hasty generalizations, or move to theory, on the basis of one observation. Intuitive science proceeds on the basis of deductive logic as well. How many instances do you need to observe before you can come to a conclusion? There are no absolute answers to this question, although there are some standards that are often accepted by practicing researchers.

*boundaries* *openness*

Boundaries: implicit in the preceding discussion about hierarchy and complexity is the notion that systems develop *_______________* around themselves and the subsystems they contain. Because human systems are open systems (it is not possible to completely control everything that comes into or goes out from them), these boundaries are relatively permeable: They have *________________*. Thus, although the managers of a General Motors plant in Ohio may wish that their employees did not know about the strike at a General Motors plant in Michigan, they will be unable to prevent informations and communication from passing through the boundary around their organizational system.

*Calibration*; *feedback* *morphogenic*; *homeostatic*

Calibration/Feedback: All systems need stability and constancy within a defined range. *_________________*, or checking the scale, and subsequent *________________* to change or stabilize the system, allow for control of the range. The thermostat provides a common example illustrating this process. Home heating is usually set at a certain temperature, say 65 degrees. The thermostat will allow a temperature range around 65 before changing anything. Therefore, if the thermostat is set fro 65 and the temperature drops below 62 degrees, the heat goes on; if it rises above 68 degrees, the furnace shuts off. In this way, the heating system remains stable. However, if conditions change in the house (e.g., the family insulates the attic), the thermostat may need to be recalibrated or set at a slightly lower temperature to accommodate the change. After insulating, the house may feel comfortable if the temperature is set at 63 degrees. Changing the standard (moving the temperature from 65 to 63 degrees) is accomplished through feedback. Feedback, in systems thinking, is positive when it produces change (the thermostat is set differently) and negative when it maintains the status quo (the thermostat remains at 65). When systems change they are called *____________________*, and when they state the same they are called *_____________________*.

concepts; relationships *Concepts* cohesiveness (Groupthink); dissonance (Cognitive Dissonance Theory); self (Symbolic Interaction Theory); scene (Dramatism) nominal; real *Nominal concepts* *Real concepts* *Relationships*

Components: Theories are composed of several key parts, the 2 most important of which are called ______________ and ______________________. *________________* are words or terms that label the most important elements in a theory. Concepts in some of the theories include __________________ (_______________), ______________ (_________________________), ____ (__________________________), and ______ (__________________). A concept often has a specific definition that is unique to its use in a theory, which differs from how we would define the word in everyday conversation. Concepts may be _____________ or ______. *_______________________* are those that are not observable, such as democracy or love. *__________________* are observable, such as text messages or spatial distance. When researchers use theory in their studies, they must turn all the concepts into something concrete so that they can be observed. It is much easier to do this for real concepts than for nominal ones. *____________________* specify the ways in which the concepts in the theory are combined (or relate to one another). ex: the concepts of the 3 models of the process of communication are similar; the difference is the relationship specified among them (in the first model the relationship is linear one where once concept relates to the second, which then relates to the nest, and so forth. In the second model, the posited relationship is interactive, or two-way. The third model illustrates mutual influence (transaction), where all the concepts are seen as affecting one another simultaneously).

coexistence *hypotheses* "probabilistic laws"

Covering Law Approach: This term was first introduced by William Dray (1957), a historian who defined "covering law" as that "explanation is achieved, and only achieved, by "subsuming what is to be explained under a general law." Some covering law explanations refer to universal laws that state all x is y. These laws are not restricted by time or space. However, as new information comes to light, even laws have to be modified. Covering law explanations do not always have to be cause and effect. They may also specify relationships of __________________. We have a causal relationship when we say that self-disclosures by one person cause self-disclosure from a relational partner. A claim of coexistence merely asserts that 2 things go together--that is, when one person self-discloses, the other does, too--but it does not claim that the first self-disclosure causes the second. It's possible that social norms of reciprocity cause the second self-disclosure or that both disclosures are caused by the environment (an intimate, dimly lit bar or consuming more alcohol than usual). Critical attributes of covering law explanations are that they provide an explicit statement of a boundary condition and that they allow *__________________*, testable predictions of relationships, of varying levels of specificity, to be generated within this boundary condition. Furthermore, because the system is deductive, complete confirmation of theories is never possible. There will always be unexamined instances of the hypothesis. The type of covering law we just went over is considered outdated by most social scientists. Most researchers today recognize that this type of universal law is unrealistic. Instead, researchers might strive for "_____________________," or statements we can predict with a certain degree of probability. ex: eye color of children-we can predict a certain proportions will have a certain eye color, but we cannot predict what the eye color of a particular child will be. Overall, a covering law approach instructs researchers to search for lawlike generalizations and regularities in human communication. These lawlike generalizations may be culturally bound or may have some other complex relationship with culture. Covering law offers a theory-generating option that aims for complete explanation of a phenomenon. The law, in effect, governs the relationships among phenomena.

if-then statements

Covering law: Covering law theorists hold that there are fixed relationship[s between 2 or more events or objects. Ex: Whenever Linda speaks, Bob interrupts her; this is a lowlife statement that expresses a relationship between Linda and Bob. These statements are commonly referred to as _____________________.

*ontology*; *epistemology*; *axiology*

Each of the 3 approaches to knowing provides different answers to questions about the nature of reality (researchers call this *__________________*), questions about how we know things (known as *____________________*), and questions about what is worth meowing (or what researchers call *____________*).

*equifinality*

Equifinality: Open systems are characterized by the ability to achieve the same goals through different means, or *_________________*. This principle applies to human groups in two ways. First, a single group can achieve a goal through many different routes. For ex: if a manager wants to increase productivity, he can raise wages, threaten the workers with firing, hire a consultant, or do some combination of these. There are several ways the manager can reach the goal. Additionally, equifinality implies that different groups can achieve the same goal through multiple pathways. For instance: PK Computer Systems may achieve profitability by adopting a casual organizational culture, whereas Western Communication Systems may achieve profitability by demanding a more formal workplace. Overall, a systems approach instructs researchers to search for holistic explanations for communication behavior. Systems thinking offers a theory-generating option that aims to model the phenomenon as a whole, admitting the possibility for change from a variety of outside influences.

*theory*

Generally speaking, a *_____________* is an abstract system of concepts with indications of the relationships among these concepts that help us to understand a phenomenon. Stephen Littlejohn and Karren Foss (2011) suggest this abstract system is derived through systematic observation. Johnathon H. Turner (1986) defined "theory" as "a process of developing ideas that can allow us to explain how and why events occur". This definition focuses on the nature of rhetorical thinking without specifying exactly what the outcome of this thinking might be. William Doherty and his colleagues (1993) have elaborated on Turner's definition by stating that theories are both prices and product: "Theorizing is the process of systematically formulating and organizing ideas to understand a particular phenomenon. A theory is the set of interconnected ideas that emerge from this process." In this definition, the authors do not use Turner's word "explain" because the goals of theory can be more more numerous than simply explanation. The search for a universally accepted definition of theory is a difficult, if not impossible, task. In part, the difficulty in defining theory is due to the many ways in which a theory can be classified or categorized.

*Heurism*

Heurism: *_____________* refers to the amount of research and new thinking that is stimulated by the theory. Theories are judged to be good to the extent that they generate insights and new research. Although not all theories produce a great deal of research, an effective theory prompts some research activity.

*subsystems*; *suprasystems* *hierarchy*

Hierarchy: All systems have levels, or *_________________*, and all systems are embedded in other systems, or *_____________________*. Thus, systems are a *___________________*, a complex organization. Each of the subsystems can function independently of the whole system, but each is an integral part of the whole. Subsystems generally shift and change over time, but they may potentially come extremely close and turn into alliances or coalitions that exclude others. For ex: if one parent confides a great deal in a son whereas the other talks to one of their daughters, two coalitions may form in the family, making interactions more strained and troubled.

*pure research*

In *____________________*, researchers are guided by knowledge-generating goals. They are interested in testing or generating theory for its own sake and for the sake of advancing our knowledge in an area.

*applied research*

In *____________________*, researchers wish to solve specific problems with the knowledge they or other researchers have generated.

reliability; validity

In conducting research, one key difference between professional researchers and implicit ones rests on the definition of 2 terms: _____________ and ____________.

*critical approach*

In the *___________________*, an understanding of knowledge relates to power. Critical researchers believe that those in power shape knowledge in ways that perpetuate the status quo. Thus, powerful people work at keeping themselves in power, while silencing minority voices questioning the distribution of power and the power holders' version of truth. Feminists and Marxists, among others, work from this intellectual tradition. For critical researchers, it's important to change the status quo to resolve power imbalances and give voice to those silenced by the power structure. Some critical theorists, notably Stuart Hill (1981), have commented that power imbalances may not always be the result of intentional strategies on the part of the powerful. Other, ideology, or "those images, concepts, and premises which provide the framework through which we represent, interpret, understand and 'make sense' of some aspect of social existence", is often "produced and reproduced" accidentally. For ex: this may come about when certain images of masculinity work to sell a product. When advertisers observe this success, they continue creating ads with these images. In this fashion, the images of masculinity become entrenched in society. Thus, although the powerful are interested and invested in staying power, they may not be fully aware of what they do to silence minority voices.

*interdependence*

Interdependence: Because the elements of a system are interrelated, they exhibit *_______________________*. This means that the behaviors of system members co-consrruct the system, and all members are affected by shifts and changes in the system. Virginia Satir (1988) compares the family to a mobile to illustrate how this principle applies to families. We might expect that when elderly patents decide to sell the family home and move to a small condo, their decisions will affect all of their children.

*Logical Consistency*

Legal Consistency: Simply put, theories should make sense and have an internal logical consistency so they are clear and not contradictory. The claims made by the theory should be consistent with the assumptions of the theory. *______________________* means that the theory "hangs together" and doesn't;t contradict itself, either by advancing two propositions that are in conflict with each other or by failing to operate within the parameters of its assumptions.

positivistic; empirical; interpretive; critical

Many scholars have discussed how researchers think and talk about the world. Most of these scholars have identified 3 general approaches: _________________ or ________________, _________________, and ____________.

*Parsimony*

Parsimony: *__________________* refers to the simplicity of the explanation provided by the theory. Theories should contain only the number of concepts necessary to explain the phenomenon under consideration. If a theory can explain a person's communication behavior satisfactorily by using one concept (such as expectancy violations), that is more useful than having to use many concepts. However, because theories of communication and social behavior are dealing with complex phenomena, they may have to be complex themselves. Parsimony requires simplicity without sacrificing completeness.

*Validity*

Reliability is important, but validity is even more critical to the research process. This is the case because observations can be reliable even if they are not valid, but the opposite is not true. *____________* refers to the fact that the observation method actually captures what it is supposed to. Professional researchers are concerned about the validity of their observations and work diligently to demonstrate validity. Implicit researchers don't think too much about validity unless they somehow discover that they have been basing their generalizations on a mistaken notion.

*reliability*

Researchers say that something has *_________________* when you can get the same results over time. You can imagine many reasons eligibility is difficult to obtain. Professional researchers conduct statistical tests to judge reliability, or they may return to ask participants if they still feel the same way they did when they were first questioned or observed. Implicit scientists usually operate as though their observations are reliable without ever testing for it.

*movements*; *actions* actions *habitual rules* *Parametric rules* *tactical rules*

Rules approach: This approach assumes that people are typically engaged in intentional, goal-directed behavior and are capable of acting rather than simply being acted upon. We can be restricted by previous choices we have made, by the choices of others, and by cultural and social conditions, but we are conscious and active choice makers. Further, human behavior can be classified into 2 categories: activities that are stimulus-response behaviors (termed *___________________*), and activities that are intentional choice responses (termed *_____________*). Rules theorists contend that studying ____________ is most relevant to theorists. Rules theorists look inside communities or cultures to get a sense of how people regulate their interaction with others. Rules do not require people to act in a certain way; rather, rules refer to the standards or criteria that people use when acting in a particular setting. for ex: when two people meet, they normally do not being at an intimate level of exchange. Rather, there is an agreed-upon starting point, and they will delve further into intimacy if the 2 see the relationship as having future. The process of meeting another is guided by rules, although these rules are rarely verbally identified by either person. Rules, then, are important benchmarks for the direction of an interaction. Several researchers hav used a rules-based theoretical framework to study family television-viewing behaviors. James Lull (1982) identified 3 types of rules that govern family television watching. First are *________________*, which are nonnegotiable and are usually instituted by the authority figures in the family. ex: telling kids they have to do hw and one parent has to check it before kids can watch tv. *_________________* are also established by family authority figures, but they are more negotiable than habitual rules. ex: a family rule that members can engage in extended talk only during commercial breaks when they are watching tv; but if something exciting has happened to one member, they may negotiate to talk about it during the program itself. Finally, Lull identified *________________*, or rules that are understood as a means for achieving a personal or interpersonal goal, but are unstated. ex: if two people are watching tv together and one of them likes the other person, that person may tune into the other person's favorite show even though he would not have chosen that program. That follows the tactical rule of maintaining relational harmony with his partner. Overall, a rules approach instructs researchers to discover the rules that govern particular communication contexts and construct theoretical statements around these rules. The rules perspective offers a theory-generating option that aims for satisfying explanation of a specific communication situation. The theorist would normally begin with a typology of the rules that govern the situation and move from those to statements connecting the rules and specifying the conditions affecting the rules.

*Scope*

Scope: *___________* refers to the breadth of communication behaviors covered by a theory. It is somewhat similar to the level of generality notion. Boundaries are the limits of a theory's scope. Although theories should explain enough of communication to be meaningful, they should have clear boundaries specifying their limits. The scope of some theories may change over time. Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT), for ex, originally was bounded by initial encounters between strangers. In some ways this suggests a rather limited scope for the theory. However, although the duration of initial encounters is short, it is true that people spend a great deal of time throughout their lives meeting and conversing with new people. Thus, the scope of the theory may seem a bit broader upon reflection. In addition, since URT was first proposed in 1975, other researchers have expanded the theory to include developed relationships such as dating and friendship, marriage, and online romantic relationships. The more the theory has been utilized be researchers, the more its scope and boundaries have expanded.

wholeness; interdependence; hierarchy; boundaries; calibration/feedback; equifinality

Systems Approach: systems thinking in communication is derived from General Systems Theory (GST), which is both a theory of systems in general - "from thermostats to missile guidance computers, from amoebas to families" - and a program of theory construction. Systems thinking captured the attention of communication researchers because it changed the focus from the individual to an entire family, a small group, or an organization. This shift reconceptualized communication for scholars and helped them to think innovatively about experience and interaction in groups. Further, systems thinking replaced the stringent assumptions of covering law with more realistic ones. Systems theorists agreed with the rules assertion that "human communication is not characterized by universal patterns". Systems thinking requires systemic, con universal generalizations, does not depend on inductive reasoning, separates the logical from the empirical, allows alternative explanations for the same phenomenon, and permits partial explanations. Systems thinking rests on several properties, including _____________, ______________________, _________________, ________________, _____________________________, and ___________________.

*Test of Time*

Test of Time: The final criterion, the *______________*, can be used only after some time has passed since the theory's creation. Is the theory still generating research or has it been discarded as outmoded? Deciding whether a theory has withstood the test of time is often arbitrary. For instance, if a theory was conceptualized and tested in the 1970s, but has remained dormant in the literature for over a decade and is now being reintegrated into research, has this theory satisfied the test of time? Judging this criterion is often a subjective process. Furthermore, it is not a criterion that can be used to assess a new theory.

*Testability*

Testability: *___________________* refers to our ability to investigate a theory's accuracy. One of the biggest issues involved in testability concerns the specificity of the theory's central concepts. For ex, Social Exchange Theory is predicated on the concepts of costs and rewards. The theory predicts that people will engage in behaviors that they find rewarding and avoid behaviors there costly. However, the theory defines costs and rewards in a circular fashion: Behaviors that people engage in repeatedly are rewarding, and those that they avoid are costly. You can see how difficult it is to test the central prediction of Social Exchange Theory given this circular definition.

*positivistic*; *empirical*; *approach* *control*

The *__________________*, or *__________________-*, *________________* assumes that objective truths can be uncovered and that the process of inquiry that discovers these truths can be, at least in part, value-neutral. This tradition advocates the methods of the natural sciences, with the goal of constructing general laws governing human interactions. an empirical researcher strives to be objective and works for *________________*, or direction over the important concepts in the theory. In other words, when the researcher makes observations, he or she carefully structures the situation so that only one element varies. This enable the researcher to make relatively definitive statements about that element. The positivistic approach moves along the theory-then-research model to which Reynolds (2007) referred.

*rules approach* choice *cause*; *effect*

The *____________________*, at the other end of the ontological continuum, holds that communication behavior is rule governed, not lawlike. The rules approach differs from the covering law approach in that researchers holding the rules approach admit the possibility that people are free to change their minds, to behave irrationally, to have idiosyncratic meanings for behaviors, and to change the rules. Ultimately, their differences focus on the concept of ________. The covering law model explains human choices by seeking a prior condition (usually a *__________*) that determines the choice that is made (usually an *___________*). From the rules model, rule following results from a choice made by the follower, but does not necessarily involve antecedent conditions or any aspect of the cause-effect logic of the covering law approach.

*Interpretive approach*

The *_________________________* views truth as subjective and co-created by the participants, with the researcher clearly one of the participants. There is less emphasis on objectivity in this approach than in the empirical approach because complete objectivity is seen as impossible. However, this does not mean that research in this approach has to rely totally on what participants say with no outside judgment by the researcher. The interpretive researcher believes that values are relevant in the study of communication and that researchers need to be aware of their own values and to state them clearly for readers, because values will naturally permeate the research. These researchers are not concerned with control and the ability to generalize across many people as much as they are interested in rich descriptions about the people they study. This emphasis on rich description leads interpretive researchers to put a lot of focus on the voices of their participants and quote their comments extensively. For interpretive researchers, theory is best induced from the observations and experiences the researcher shares with and/or hears from the respondents.

*covering law approach*

The *_____________________________* seeks to explain an event in the real world by referring to a general law. Researchers applying a covering law approach believe that communication behavior is governed by forces that are predictable and generalizable.

*grounded theory*

The deductive approach allows for testing a specific prediction, or hypothesis, generated from a generalization, or theory. The inductive approach operates in the opposite direction and enables one first to gather many specific instances in the hopes of then being able to generalize, or create, theory. This approach os called *_________________*. In grounded theory, a researcher does not seek to test hypotheses to support theory; instead, theory is induced through the data collected from research participants.

scope; logical consistency; parsimony; utility; testability; heroism; test of time

The following criteria are generally accepted as useful measures for evaluating communication theory: __________, _________________________, _______________, _____________, _________________, ______________, and the _____________________.

*scientific method*; *deductive logic* *inductive logic*

The traditional process, known as the *___________________*, follows *____________________* in moving from the general (the theory) to specific instances. Using *___________________*, more data would be collected . You would refrain from hypothesizing, or guessing, about what one might find in advance of the data collection. Then one would try to find a pattern that best explained what was going on. Finally, one would have generalized based on the observations.

*utility*

Utility: This criterion refers to the theory's usefulness, or practical value. A good theory has *____________* when it tells us a great deal about communication and human behavior. It allows us to understand some element of communication that was previously unclear. It weaves together pieces of information in such a way that we are able to see a pattern that was previously unseen.

covering law; rules; systems

When researchers seek to create theory, they are guided by their general approach to knowing things (empirical, interpretive, or critical) and the answers to questions about truth or reality, gathering information, and values (ontology, epistemology, and axiology). In addition, they have some guidelines about to create theory. We wil review 3 traditional guidelines: ____________________, __________, and ______________.

*wholeness*

Wholeness: The most fundamental concept of the systems approach is *____________________*. It states that a system can't be fully comprehended by a study of its individual parts in isolation from one another. To understand the system, it must be seen as a whole. Wholeness suggests that we learn more about a couple, for example, by analyzing their interactions together than we do by analyzing one partner's motivations or statements alone.

*observations*; *data* *code*

the next step in the traditional scientific model is making *_______________* and collecting *___________*. Then one will have to *__________* the data, using operationalizations for terms such as "convergence" (making your speech patterns similar to your partner's) and "divergence" ( making your speech patterns dissimilar to your partner's ). Some types of data do not need extensive coding to analyze.