Chapter 4 Buddhism

What does nirvana resemble in Hinduism?

Nirvana is thought of as existence beyond limitation.

What is the Great Going Forth?

The Great Going Forth refers to the event in which Siddhartha decided to escape. Legend tells how he took a last look at his sleeping family and attendants and rode to the edge of the palace grounds, where he gave his horse to his servant, removed his jewels, and cut off his long black hair. Putting on simple clothing, he went out into the world with nothing but questions.

What is the heart of Theravada Buddhism?

The heart of Theravada Buddhism is its community of monks. As a school, it has always stressed the ideal of reaching nirvana through detachment and desirelessness, achieved by way of meditation. Although Theravada does accept that laypeople can attain nirvana, the life of the monk offers a surer path.

In China, what are the "Three Doctrines"?

Ultimately, Buddhism was linked with Daoism and Confucianism as one of the officially sanctioned "Three Doctrines," and it became an essential part of Chinese culture.

What is Maitreya pictured as the "laughing Buddha"?

In several Mahayana cultures, the belief in Maitreya has taken on great importance. In China and Vietnam, the Buddha who will come is called Mi-lo-fo and is often showed as an overweight, joyful, "laughing Buddha."

A reform movement of Tibetan Buddhism is the "Party of Virtue." What is the title of its leader?

Over time, the practice of celibacy declined, and the heads of Tibetan monasteries frequently passed on their control to their sons. The consumption of meat and alcohol became common as well. A reform movement, however, emerged under the monk Tsong Kha-pa, demanding that monks be unmarried and that strict monastic practice be restituted. His sect, as a result, came to be known as Gelug-pa, meaning "party of virtue." It is also commonly called the Yellow Hat sect because of the tall, crested yellow hats that the monks were during religious services. This sect grew powerful. It helped create many of the greatest monasteries, full of art and complete sets of Buddhist scriptures, and it provided Tibet with its political leadership for several centuries. The executive head of the Gelug-pa is called the Dalai Lama ("ocean superior one").

What are the central festivals of Buddhism?

The most important Buddhist festivals focus on the birth of the Buddha, his enlightenment, his death, the celebration of the New Year, and sometimes the commemoration of the dead. The exact dates for these celebrations and memorials differ from culture to culture.

What is the most prominent expression of Vajrayana Buddhism?

The name Vajrayana means the "vehicle of the diamond" or "vehicle of the lightening bolt." The name suggests strength, clarity, wisdom, and flashes of light, all of which are associated with the enlightened awareness that this vehicle seeks to transmit.

What is a mantra? What is a mandala?

The name of this school is Shingon and means "true word" or "word of truth". The title refers to the use of scared chants, called mantras. Shingon uses two mandalas, which are geometrical designs, usually painted on cloth, that present reality in a symbolic form. One mandala, the Kongo-kai ("diamond world") mandala, shows the universe from the point of view of the wise person, who sees the universe as whole and perfect. It represents the universe seen as nirvana. The other mandala, the Tai-zo ("womb") mandala, shows the universe from the point of view of the compassionate person. It sees the universe as samsara, a place of suffering and growth, which needs our help.

What two things do Mahayana Buddhism stress about nirvana?

The second great branch of Buddhism is called Mahayana, a word that is usually translated as "big vehicle." It suggests a large ferryboat in which all types of people can be carried across a river, and it hints at the broad scope of the Mahayana vision, which can accommodate a wide variety of people seeking enlightenment. Mahayana emphasizes that everyone, not only monks, can attain nirvana. Mahayana also stresses that enlightenment is a call to compassion, for "the Mahayana tradition maintains that a person must save himself by saving others."

What English phrase typifies Tathata?

The wonder that can be seen in everyday life is what the term tathata suggests. We know we are experiencing "thatness" of reality when we experience something and say to ourselves, Yes, that's it; that is the way things are. In the moment, we recognize not only that reality is wondrously beautiful but also that its patterns are fragile and passing.

What does the Pure Land Sutra teach?

Two works that would have great influence on East Asian Buddhism were the Pure Land Sutras (two versions of the Sukhavati Vyuha Sutra, "sutra of the vision of the happy land"). The sutras speak of a heavenly realm, the Pure Land, established by the merciful Amitabha Buddha, where human beings can be reborn. All that is necessary for rebirth in the Pure Land is devotion to this Buddha, as shown by repetition of his name as a sign of total trust in him. These sutras would eventually give birth to a wildly successful movement., the Pure Land movement, which is still popular today.

What did the Shingon school believe?

We might recall that the spread of Mahayana Buddhism in China was due in part to the magical effects that were thought to come from Buddhist ritual. People believed that Buddhist ritual, if carefully performed, would provide security for rulers, children for married couples, and more favorable agricultural conditions for farmers.

Why is desire bad?

When he analyzed suffering, the Buddha saw that it comes from wanting what we cannot have and from never being satisfied with what we do have. We all have desires, and because life around us is always changing, no matter how much we acquire we cannot be permanently satisfied. Desire is insatiable, and the result is discontent, dissatisfaction, and sometimes misery.

Does Buddhism separate "wants" from "needs"?

Yes- Some of our desires are obvious: food, sleep, clothing, housing, health. Some desires are more subtle: privacy, respect, friendship, quiet, stresslessness, security, variety, beauty. And some desires are simply "wants" that are cultivated by our society: alcohol, designer clothes, tobacco, entertainment, expensive food.

What is a lama?

A Tibetan spiritual teacher; A Tibetan translation of the word guru; This title is thus frequently used as a title of honor for all monks

What are the three bodies?

A. Dharmakaya: The historical Buddha who lived in India came to be considered the manifestation of a divine reality, "the cosmic Buddha nature"; "law body"; "form body"; "body of reality"; According to Mahayana Buddhism, the cosmic Buddha nature, although invisible, permeates all things; In people, the cosmic Buddha nature frequently presents itself as potential; In fact, it is our true nature that we need to recognize and realize; Dharmakaya also exists in the natural world, for all things are a sacred manifestation of the cosmic Buddha nature; When we experience the mystery of the natural world, we experience the Dharmakaya; B. Nirmanakaya: Siddhartha Gautama's physical body, because it is considered an incarnation of this divine reality, is called Nirmanakaya; "transformation body"; In keeping with the notion of many incarnations, many Mahayana schools believe in more than one transformation body of the Buddha; C. Maitreya: A Buddha (or bodhisattva) expected to appear on earth in the future; We might recall that both Theravada and Mahayana schools describe the Buddha's knowledge of his past lives. Both branches of Buddhism also believe that another historical Buddha, Maitreya, will appear on earth in the future to inaugurate a golden age.

In a simplified way, Buddhism can be understood to have three "branches." What are they?

A. Theravada B. Mahayana C. Vajrayana It was once assumed that the three branches emerged in sequence, like three waves of thought that came from India in succeeding centuries. But scholars now recognize that essential elements of all three branches frequently existed side by side, possibly even in the earliest days of Buddhism. Often, too, the boundaries between the branches have been blurred or are even nonexistent. The branches are more like families that have many shared elements.

What are the three goals of the Noble Eightfold Path?

A. To face life objectively B. To live kindly C. To cultivate inner peace

What are the following religious rituals/objects? Thangka

Any painting on cloth is called a thangka. In addition to the mandala designs, a wide variety of subjects can appear on thangkas. Common images of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and guardian deities, painted in both benevolent and terrifying forms (the terrifying forms both frighten away demons and chasten the believer). The female deity Tara, who represents mercy, appears in two major forms (white and green) and in several minor forms. We also find frequent representations of the monk Padmasambhava and other noted teachers. The existence of so many celestial beings and saints- with their attendants and symbol objects- provides artists with a multitude of subjects to paint and script.

What is the wise persons response to change?

As the Buddha taught, the wise person expects change, accepts it, and even savors it. The wise person might also reflect that just as pleasures do not last forever, neither do sorrows.

Who became the Buddha's first disciples?

At last the Buddha traveled west. He explained his awakening to his five former companions at a deer park at Sarnath, near Benares. Although they had parted with him earlier for abandoning his ascetic habits, they reconciled with him and became his first disciples.

What are the Three Jewels that form the core of Buddhism?

At the core of what is generally regarded as basic Buddhism are the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: Triratna; Pali: Tiratana)- that is, the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. A. The Buddha is thought of as an ideal human being whom other human beings should imitate; the image of him, seated in meditation, is a constant model of self-control and mindfulness. He is not usually thought of as being dead but instead as existing in a timeless dimension beyond the world. B. The Dharma (Sanskrit), or Dhamma (Pali), means the sum total of Buddhist teachings about how to view the world and how to live properly. C. The Sangha is the community of monks and nuns.

What occurred under the bodhi tree which resembles an event in the life of Jesus Christ?

Being a practical person, Siddhartha decided to adopt a path of moderation- a middle way between self-indulgence and asceticism. He went to another tree, now called the Bodhi Tree, and sat facing the east, resolving to remain there in meditation until he had the understanding he needed. Various traditions give different details, but every version talks of his struggle with hunger, thirst, doubt, and weakness. Some stories describe the work of an evil spirit, Mara, and his daughters who tempted Siddhartha with sensuality and fear. But Siddhartha resisted all temptation. During one entire night, as he sat meditating under a full moon, Siddhartha encountered increasingly profound states of awareness. Legend says he saw past lives, fathomed the laws of karma that govern everyone, and finally achieved insight into release from suffering and rebirth. At last, at dawn, he reached a state of profound understanding, called his Awakening, or Enlightenment (bodhi). He saw suffering, aging, and death in a new way, recognizing them as an inevitable part of life, but also seeing the possibility of release.

Where did Buddhism begin?

Buddhism is one of the world's oldest and most significant religions. It has spread through most of Asia, influencing many cultures there, and is now gaining followers in the West. But it had its beginning in India and arose from the experience of one person.

What analogy is used to make this point about the soul clear?

Buddhism offers the examples of a flame passing from one candle to another and the pattern caused by a breeze that passes over many blades of grass. The candles are separate, but only one flame passes between each candle; the blades of grass are rooted in separate places, but the pattern of the breeze travels across them and "unites" them in movement.

How does karma work in Buddhism?

Closely related to the notion of rebirth is karma. As we discussed in Chapter 3, karma determines how one will be reborn. Because the Buddha rejected the existence of a soul, explaining how karma works is more difficult in Buddhism. It is thought to accompany and affect the elements of personality that reappear in later lifetimes. Regardless of their specific manner of functioning, karma and rebirth were already such powerful ideas in the India of the Buddha's time that they continued in early Buddhism and from there have spread well beyond India. They remain high influential concepts in Buddhist countries today.

Why did Siddhartha's disciples desert him?

Eventually, Siddhartha collapsed from weakness. He was found resting under a sacred tree by a kind woman, who had come from the nearby town of Gaya to worship the spirit of the great tree. She offered him food, which he ACCEPTED gratefully and ate under the shade of the tree, out of the sun. Once revived, Siddhartha realized that his austerities had not strengthened him or brought him any closer to the answers he sought. His five companions, having discovered Siddhartha's rejection of asceticism, abandoned him.

What is stupa?

Refers to a shrine, usually in the shape of a dome, used to mark Buddhist relics or sacred sites; Many types of stupas, which began as large mounds, arose over the remains of Buddhist monks and at important Buddhist sites.

What sort of meditation is most significant in Mahayana?

Seated meditation, particularly cultivated by Chan and Zen, is the most significant form of Mahayana meditation. Like Vipassana, it begins with a focus on breathing. It may then include reflections on a question given by a master or on the meaning of a line of poetry. It may also involve the silent repetition of a single meaningful word or phrase.

How was Buddha's birth miraculous?

Siddhartha was born the son of a prince of the Shakya tribe in what is today Nepal, in the lower Himalaya Mountains. Legend says that his mother, Maya, dreamt that a white elephant entered her side- this was the moment of conception of the future Buddha- and that Siddhartha was born miraculously from her side. Siddhartha's mother died a week after childbirth, and the boy was raised by his aunt.

How have Theravada and Mahayana differed in their treatment of women?

Some Buddhist traditions, particularly the Mahayana traditions, in Taiwan, Korea, and Vietnam, have always ordained women. In contrast, Theravada traditions of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, although they once ordained women, allowed that practice to die out, and traditional Tibetan Buddhism did not ordain women. Attitudes, though, are changing. Women are now ordained in Sri Lanka, and Thai Buddhists are being pressured to make a similar change. Tibetan Buddhism is also contemplating female ordination.

What is the "noble silence."

Surrounded in the India of his day by every kind of speculation about the afterlife, the nature of the divine, and other difficult questions, the Buddha concentrated on what was useful. He refused to talk about anything else- a benign neglect that has been called his noble silence. He said that a person who speculated about unanswerable questions was like a man who had been wounded by an arrow but refused to pull it out until he knew everything about the arrow and the person who shot it. The wounded man would die before he could get all the information he wanted.

What are the following religious rituals/objects? Mudras

Symbolic hand gestures (mudras) on statues of the Buddha are common throughout all forms of Buddhism. For example, the right hand extended with the palm outward and the fingers pointing up is a mudra of blessing; if the palm is open but the hand is turned downward, the mudra symbolizes generosity. In Vajrayana, a large number of mudras have evolved to convey more esoteric meanings, such as the unity of opposites.

What are reasons given for such a practice?

Temporary ordination is considered an effective way to "make merit" for oneself and one's family. It is thought to positively influence the formation of young men's characters, and it is sometimes undertaken by whole groups, such as policemen, for whom it is viewed as a sign of sincerity and goodwill.

What is the great Buddhist prayer of compassion?

The great prayer of Buddhist compassion is this: May all creatures be well and happy. It is a common Mahayana practice to mentally project this wish to the world every day.

What are the following religious rituals/objects? Mandala

The mandala that is used in some forms of Mahayana takes on great variety and complexity in Tibetan Buddhism. We might recall that a mandala is a sacred cosmic diagram, often used in meditation. It may represent in symbolic form the entire universe, the palace of a deity, or even the self. A common design is a circle within or enclosing a square, or a series of circles and squares that grow smaller and smaller as they come closer to the center of the design; another form looks like a checkerboard of many squares. A mandala usually appears as a painting on cloth, but it may take many forms. For some ceremonies, monks create a mandala in sand and then destroy it at the end of the ritual, expressing vividly the Buddhist teaching that everything must change.

The first noble truth sounds dark, but we are not to be melancholy but...

realistic

What is the Bodhisattva vow?

A person may even take the "bodhisattva vow" to be constantly reborn until all are enlightened.

What is ended with nirvana, and why is this a blessing?

Although reaching nirvana occurs rarely, it is theoretically possible to attain during one's lifetime; the Buddha is said to have "entered nirvana" at the time of his enlightenment. Once a person has reached nirvana, rebirth is finished, and in a culture that believes that individuals have already been born many times before this current life, an end to rebirth can be a welcome thought.

What were the Four Passing Sights?

He came across: A. An old man , crooked and toothless B. A sick man, wasted by disease C. A corpse being taken for cremation D. A sannyasin (a wandering holy man, a renunciate), who had no possessions but seemed to be at peace

When does this ordination take place and how long does it last?

In addition to the ordination performed for men who are planning to become monks for life, Theravada Buddhism commonly performs "temporary ordination." Frequently, temporary ordination lasts for an entire rainy season, but it may also be done for shorter periods.

Who is the Amitabha Buddha?

The Buddha of the Western Paradise, a bliss-body Buddha in Mahayana; Particularly important is the bliss-body Buddha who created a Buddha Land in the western direction of the setting sun; There he receives the dying who wish enlightenment after death; His name in India was Amitabha Buddha; Many devout Buddhists hope to be reborn in his paradise. After attaining enlightenment there, they can return to the world to save other beings;. Their devotion to Amitabha Buddha has inspired a great body of fine painting and sculpture that depicts a large Buddha seated on a lotus flower, surrounded by peaceful disciples in pavilions set in gardens full of flowers;

What is Shunyata?

The Mahayana notion of emptiness, meaning that the universe is empty of permanent reality; "emptiness"; "zero-ness"; The notion is an outgrowth of the basic Buddhist view of reality that everything is constantly shifting, changing, taking new form. To better understand this concept, think of clouds, which look large and substantial but are forever appearing and disappearing, moving past each other and changing shape and size; Because everything is in constant change, each apparently individual person and thing is actually "empty" of any permanent individual identity; The notion of shunyata also suggests the experience that everything is part of everything else, that all people and things exist together;

What is the goal of Buddhism?

The ultimate goal of Buddhism is nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali: nibbana). The term nirvana suggests many things: end of suffering, inner peace, and liberation from the limitations of the world.

If life is suffering, why isn't Buddhism a pessimistic faith?

Those who say that Buddhism pessimistically focuses on suffering do not see the hopeful purpose behind that focus. Indeed, no one can escape suffering, but each person can decide how to respond to it, as indicated in the Four Noble Truths.

What was Buddha's final insight?

When he was 80, legend says, the Buddha ate food offered by a well-meaning blacksmith named Chunda, but the food was spoiled and the Buddha became terribly sick. Sensing that he was dying, he called his disciples. To those who were crying over his impending death, he reminded them that everything must die- even the Buddha himself. The Buddha's final instruction was this: Trust your own insights, and use self-control to reach perfection and inner peace.

In what three ways do nearly all people realize the reality of change.

1. One of the things the Buddha recommended is that we look at life as it really is. When we do, he said, the first thing we notice is life's constant change, or impermanence (Pali: anichcha; Sanskrit: anitya). We are often surprised by change- and pained by it- because we do not expect it, but the fact is that nothing we experience in life ever remains the same. We get used to things (our own face, family, friends, house, car, neighborhood), and they seem to remain basically the same every time we look at them. But that is an illusion, for they are changing daily, gradually. We usually only notice change over time. 2. Everyone knows the shock of change, such as seeing an old friend after being apart for many years, or looking at childhood photos. Even old movies on television and old songs on the radio- the performers now aged or even long gone- clearly convey the Buddhist sense of the inevitability of change. 3. People's viewpoints also change. Think of what the word love means to a five-year old, a teenager, a new parent, or a person who has lost a spouse. Or imagine hearing the news of a divorce between two people you thought were well suited and happily married.

What were the "waves" of contact that Buddhism had with the West?

A. Buddhism's first contact with the West occurred in the late eighteenth century, when English colonials carried translations of primarily Theravada material from Sri Lanka and Myanmar to Europe. Because so many of these colonials were missionaries, they were especially impressed by Buddhist moral teachings. Thus, the view of Buddhism that they spread emphasized the religion's admirable ethical system. B. The opening of Japan to foreigners in the second half of the nineteenth century created a second wave of interest in Buddhism. French, English, and American people began to read about Japanese culture and to see photographs of early Buddhist temples and examples of Buddhist-inspired art. Foreign interest dovetailed with anti-Buddhist government actions in Japan after 1868, which forced many Buddhist temples to sell some of their art. Japanese art was then collected widely in Europe and America, both by private collectors and museums. C. A third wave of Buddhist influence came in the decades just after World War ll, when the U.S. soldiers returned from there American occupation of Japan. The great interest of the time was Zen (perhaps loosely understood), which influenced the poetry of the Beat movement and the lifestyle of the counterculture. The novels of Jack Kerouac show a Zenlike love of the spontaneous. His book On the Road, about a cross-country trip with friends, inspired readers to make similar explorations. Zen love of the moment is also evident in the jazzlike poetry of Allen Ginsberg and the ironic poetry of Lawrence Ferlinghetti. San Francisco, where many of the Beat writers were based, became an early headquarters of Zen thought and practice in America, as it still is today. D. A fourth wave of Buddhist influence is more recent and involves several types of Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism has established communities of immigrant Tibetans and converts in many places in the United States and in Europe, and Tibetan Buddhist art is now regularly acquired and exhibited by museums. Forms of Pure Land and Nichiren Buddhism have made many converts, particularly in large cities of North America. And Asian immigrants from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia have all begun their own temples and celebrations where they have settled.

What are the paths within the Noble Eightfold Path?

A. Right Understanding: I recognize the impermanence of life, the mechanism of desire, and the cause of suffering. B. Right Intention: My thoughts and motives are pure, not tainted by my emotions and selfish desires. C. Right Speech: I speak honestly and kindly, in positive ways, avoiding lies, exaggeration, harsh words. D. Right Action: My actions do not hurt any other being that can feel hurt, including animals; I avoid stealing and sexual conduct that would bring hurt. E. Right Work: My job does no harm to myself or others. F. Right Effort: With moderation, I consistently strive to improve. G. Right Meditation (Right Mindfulness): I use the disciplines of meditation (dhyana) and focused awareness to contemplate the nature of reality more deeply. H. Right Contemplation: I cultivate states of blissful inner peace (samadhi)

There are three techniques for gaining satori.

A. Zazen: The most fundamental technique for reaching enlightenment is regular "sitting mediation," called zazen. In Zen monasteries, zazen is normally done for several hours in the morning and evening. It involves sitting in silence with one's back straight and centered, keeping the body still, and taking deep and regular breaths. These are just simple techniques for quieting the mind and focusing on the moment. The mind becomes more peaceful, and ideally, with long practice, a state of simple awareness takes over as one's "true nature" is revealed. B. Koan: The koan is another technique for attaining awareness. Its origin is uncertain, but the name derives from the Chinese gong-an (kong-an), translated as "public discussion." The koan is a question that cannot be easily answered using logic. It demands pondering. Consider, for example, the question, Why did the monk Bodhidharma come from the West? An approbate answer could be, "The bush in the garden"- or any response that mentions an ordinary object. The meaning of this apparently odd answer is that Bodhidharma's whole purpose was to make people wake up to the ponderous nature of even simple objects in everyday life. Sometimes a good answer to a koan need not be a verbal response but rather an appropriate action, such as lifting up a hand, taking off a shoe, holding a flower, or even raising an eyebrow. C. Sanzen: Consultation with the master

What lifestyle effects result from ahimsa?

Ahimsa is a high ideal and not always easy to achieve. Furthermore, we must recognize that there will always be a gap between the ideal and actual practice in different Buddhist cultures and among individuals. Nevertheless, however murky the definition of the "best action" may be, the ideal is fairly clear. A compassionate person does everything possible to avoid causing suffering: "ashamed of roughness, and full of mercy, he dwells compassionate and kind to all creatures that have life." This empathetic ideal has been interpreted as recommending, when possible, a vegetarian or semivegetarian diet, and it warns against involvement in any jobs or sports that would hurt others, such as being a butcher, hunter, fisherman, soldier, or weapon maker. The result is a way of life that is harmonious and free of remorse.

What form of meditation is common to all three types?

All three traditions also have some form of what can be called a meditation of compassion. The meditator reflects on the many different kinds of sentient beings- human, animal, and insect. The next step of the meditation is to recognize that all of these beings are struggling to survive, that all are trying to avoid pain, and that many are suffering. The meditation ends when the meditator projects outward the wish that all sentient beings be well and happy. This wish is sometimes accompanied by a mental image of light and warmth radiating outward.

What makes Buddhism attractive in the modern world?

Although Buddhism originated in India and then spread primarily through Asia, it has now become a worldwide religion. Buddhist temples and meditation centers can be found in many countries, particularly in the industrialized countries of Europe and the Americas. Buddhism is attractive in part because many of its essential teachings seem to agree with modern values. Some people appreciate what they see as its emphasis on awareness, self-reliance, and insight. Others think that Buddhism fits well in with the views of modern science. Still others are attracted to the Buddhist ideal of nonviolence as a standard for civilized behavior in a multicultural world.

Why did Tibetan Buddhism tend to form itself into monasteries?

Although the Indian ideals of the wandering holy man and cave-dwelling solitary did not die out in Tibetan Buddhism, they were not well suited for a climate as severe as that of the cold and barren Tibetan plateau. More compatible, it seemed, were the large monastic complexes that had grown in late Indian Buddhism. The Tibetan version of such a complex often looked like a fortified hilltop castle and was in effect a complete city for sometimes thousands of monks, containing libraries, prayer halls, kitchens, storage areas, and large courtyards used for public performances. A written form of the Tibetan language was created for the translation of Buddhist scriptures from India. It also made possible the writing of scriptural commentaries and other treatises.

What is the purpose of prayer wheels and prayer flags?

Another important Tibetan Buddhist object is the prayer wheel, which comes in all sizes- from the very tiny to the ones as tall as a two-story building. A prayer wheel is a cylinder that revolves around a central pole. Inside the cylinder are pieces of paper inscribed with sacred phrases. It is believed that the turning of the written prayers creates as much good karma as if one were to recite them. The same principle applies to the wind blowing through prayer flags, which consist of square or triangular pieces of cloth containing inscriptions.

What are two essential religious objects in Vajrayana Buddhism?

Because correctly performed ceremony brings identification with a powerful deity, ceremonial objects play significant roles. We noted earlier that some devices, such as the mantra and mandala, are used in Mahayana practice. Vajrayana adopted these devices from Mahayana, but in Vajrayana these objects and techniques take on special importance. Among the significant ritual objects is the vajra, a metal object somewhat like a divining rod or scepter that represents a stylized bolt of lightening. The vajra is associated with diamond-hardness, power, and insight. It is held in the right hand suggests kind action. A bell is held in the left hand and symbolizes wisdom. When used together, one in each hand, these objects represent the union of wisdom and compassion. The vajra and bell are essential to Tibetan Vajrayana ritual in a way that other religious objects are not.

What was the chief questions for which Siddhartha sought answers?

Begging for food and sleeping outdoors, Siddhartha spent about six years seeking answers to his questions- particularly about the troubling facts of suffering and death. His own mother died young, a death that was apparently without meaning. Why, he often asked, is there suffering? Why do people have to grow old and die? Is there a God or unchanging divine reality behind the surface of things? Is there a soul? Is there an afterlife? Are we reborn? Can we avoid suffering? How should we live?

Who was Ashoka and how did he influence Buddhism and its spread?

Buddhism might have remained an entirely Indian religion, much as Jainism has, if it were not for an energetic king named Ashoka, who flourished about 250 BCE. Ashoka's plan to expand his rule over a large part of India naturally entailed much fighting. After a particularly bloody battle in eastern India, as Ashoka was inspecting the battlefield, he saw the scene very differently than he had before. The whole experience was so horrifying that Ashoka converted to the ideal of nonviolence. Although it is uncertain whether Ashoka became a Buddhist, he did make political use of Buddhist moral values. To bring a large number of the population around to his new nonviolent way of thinking and acting, Ashoka decided to spread the principles of nonviolence throughout India and possibly even beyond. To do this, he erected many stone columns inscribed with his principles, placing some at sites important in the Buddha's life.

How can ordinary people accomplish this third noble truth?

Buddhists themselves recognize, though, that not everyone can be a monk. Consequently, this third noble truth is moderated for laypeople. It is commonly interpreted as a recommendation that everyone accept peacefully whatever occurs, aiming less for happiness and more for inner peace. The individual should concentrate on the present moment, not on the past or the future or one's desires for them. Because times of happiness are always paid for by times of unhappiness (the pendulum swings in both directions), a certain emotional neutrality is the best path.

How did Tendai deal with the variety of Buddhist teachings?

By the eighth century CE, there were many varied Buddhist texts, some written up to a thousand years after the time of the Buddha. When they had been translated into Chinese, the result was great confusion. How could the Buddha have uttered so many sermons, some with apparently contradictory ideas? The solution was to organize the teachings according to levels of complexity. It was taught that the Buddha had revealed his most difficult thoughts only to those disciples who could understand them. The Tendai sect attempted to categorize all the teachings and present them in a meaningful way, as a kind of ladder of steps leading to full enlightenment. Naturally, its own special teachings were at the top.

What is the criticism of this attraction?

Critics point out that the modern world has adopted what it likes from Buddhism and ignored the rest. The modern world, for example, has not been quick to embrace the celibacy of the Buddha or of Buddhist monks and nuns- who traditionally represent the core of the religion. The modern world believes in recycling but not in reincarnation. And the modern world turns a blind eye to the actual practice of many Buddhist believers, whose real-life Buddhist activity is performed in order to "make merit," gain health or wealth, and have good luck. Critics scorn the modern "cafeteria approach" to Buddhism. The contemporary world, they explain, has adopted only the elements it likes- meditation, Zen design, and the exoticism of Tibet- and with these it is now creating a new kind of Buddhism in its own image. Buddhism, they say, is becoming a yuppie supermarket of meditation cushions, gongs, and posters.

What does the image of the Reclining Buddha represent?

Following the pronouncement of his impending death, the Buddha turned on his right side and died. The many sculptures and paintings of the so-called Reclining Buddha may be images of his serene moment of death. In any case, Buddhists idealize the Buddha's attitude toward death as a model for everyone.

Why is avoiding to cause suffering to others so essential in Buddhism?

For Buddhism, ahimsa ("nonharm") is fundamental. The ideal holds that to cause suffering to any being is cruel and unnecessary- life is already hard enough for each of us. Ahimsa discourages causing not only physical pain but also psychological hurt or the exploitation of another. Upon reaching a real understanding that every being that feels can suffer, the individual gains wider sympathy. It is then natural and satisfying for the individual to live with gentleness.

How did Honen expand Pure Land belief and help make it the most popular form of Mahayana Buddhism?

In Japan, the Pure Land movement was spread by the monk Honen, who was originally a Tendai monk at Mount Hiei. His movement became a separate sect called Jodo Shu ("Pure Land sect"). Shinran, a disciple of Honen, continued the laicization of the nembutsu, as the chant is called in Japanese. He taught that human actions to attain salvation were unimportant in comparison to the saving power of the Buddha. Convinced that monastic practice was unnecessary, Shinran married. The movement Shinran began eventually grew into the Jodo Shin Shu ("True Pure Land sect"). Pure Land sects have been extremely popular in China and Japan, and this popularity has made them the largest form of Mahayana Buddhism.

What analogies does the author of the text use to make this concept clear?

For the sake of logical convenience, we often talk about each person or thing as if it were a single unified reality. Let us first consider something nonhuman, say, a car. We call it a car as if it were one single reality, but actually it is made up of many things- glass, aluminum, rubber, paint, headlights, belts, pistons, wires, and fluids- many of which are either in need of repair right now or probably soon will be. Then think of how each human being, though called by a single name, is actually made up of organs, body parts, instincts, memories, ideas, and hopes- all of which are constantly changing. Consider also one's self-perception. I naively think I am the same person from day to day, even if I get a haircut or lose weight or see a film. But if I recall myself at age 10 and then compare that person with who I am now, I seem now to be someone quite different.

What is "engaged" Buddhism?

From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century, Buddhism outside Asia was primarily made up of ethnic Buddhists (most immigrants) and so-called elite Buddhists (non-Asian intellectuals and academics). These two groups have interacted and been joined by a large middle-class following. A new type of Buddhism is emerging from the interaction of the three groups: engaged Buddhism. This movement comprises a wide variety of people, who as Buddhists, work for social betterment. A broadly based Western Buddhism- in Europe, North America, and Australia- is taking on such a life of its own that it is beginning to be called the "fourth vehicle" (yana) of Buddhism.

What types of symbols were used in Buddhism?

Images of the Buddha did not appear in the earliest centuries of Buddhism; instead, artists used symbols to represent him and his teachings. One symbol was the eight-spoked wheel, which derived from the Noble Eightfold Path and represented all the basic Buddhist teachings, the Dharma. The wheel may have been suggested either by the disk of the sun, symbolizing light and health, or by the wheel of a king's chariot, a symbol of royal rulership. The umbrella, often carried to protect an important person from the hot sun, symbolized the Buddha's authority. Other common symbols included a set of footprints, a lotus flower, and an empty throne.

What is samsara?

In Buddhism, as in Hinduism, the everyday world of change is called samsara, a term that suggests decay and pain. Liberation from samsara, however, is attained in nirvana. The notion has many similarities with the Hindu goal of moksha ("liberation").

How should nirvana be understood?

Many people in the West associate nirvana with a psychological state, because it is described as evoking joy and peace; but perhaps it is better to see nirvana as being indescribable and beyond all psychological states.

What does arhat signify?

Meaning "perfect being", "worthy"; In Theravada, a person who has practiced monastic disciplines and reached nirvana, the ideal

How is nirvana related to samsara? When did this idea develop?

In Mahayana Buddhism, the religious ideal broadened: from the exemplar of the monastic person, fairly detached from family life, it expanded to include nonmonks, women, and the married. Mahayana began to explore the possibilities of following a religious path that was active in the world. This difference signaled a shift in the notion of what is virtuous. It might have represented a reaction against Indian asceticism and the cult of the sannyasin, or it might have indicated a new form of devotionalism and love of ritual. It might also have come from a widening of the concept of nirvana. Nirvana was now thought to be found within samsara, the everyday world of change. In Mahayana, the human body and material realm are viewed positively, and there is a great openness toward art and music. Mahayana grew as the senses and emotions were increasingly viewed as means of spiritual transformation.

What does Theravada meditation involve and how is it carried out?

In the Theravada tradition, one approach to meditation is especially significant. It is called Vipassana ("insight"), because it emphasizes being fully attentive to the present moment. This attentiveness, sometimes called mindfulness, is primarily accomplished by sitting quietly and paying attention to one's exhalation and inhalation. The same type of meditation may also be done while walking. The meditator walks extremely slowly on flat ground, being aware at each moment of the motion of the right foot, then the left foot, and so on. In Sri Lanka and elsewhere, some monasteries have special walking tracks for this type of meditation.

What is the irony of the spread of Buddhism in the West?

Ironically, even as it gains followers in the West, Buddhism has been weakened in many countries and regions that have been its traditional home. When Communist governments took over Mongolia and China, Buddhism was severely repressed. This pattern continued when the Chinese government took over Tibet. The Dalai Lama went into exile, and at least a million Tibetans are thought to have died in the ensuing persecution. Several thousand temples and monasteries were destroyed, particularly during the Cultural Revolution, causing both human suffering and an incalculable loss to the world of art. In recent years a modest amount of rebuilding has occurred in all these regions, with financial support of Buddhists from abroad. While some governments fear that monasteries might become centers of antigovernment activity, they also recognize the importance of Buddhist sites both to the inhabitants and to tourists, whose goodwill (and foreign exchange) they wish to encourage.

How is this leader chosen?

It became a common belief in Tibetan Buddhism that certain major lamas are reincarnations of earlier lamas, who in turn are considered emanations or Buddhas and bodhisattvas. A belief in reincarnation thus solved the problem of transmission of leadership, which in a celibate monastic order cannot pass to a son. When a major lama dies, his reincarnation is sought, found, and trained. The current Dalai Lama, for example, was found in eastern Tibet. A delegation of monks, after consulting a state oracle about the place of rebirth, took objects (such as prayer beads) that had been used by the previous Dalai Lama and mixed them with similar objects. The boy who was recognized as the current Dalai Lama selected only those used by the previous Dalai Lama, helping to prove his identity.

How does Buddha's third noble truth run counter to our culture? Why?

It is hard to argue with the reasonableness of the third noble truth, yet it goes against modern Western notions. The Western tendency is to strain to achieve every imaginable desire. This tendency seems to thrive in cultures- such as many modern ones- that emphasize individual legal and moral rights, competition between individuals, and individual success in school, in one's job, and in sports. Belief in a distinct and permanent self or an immortal soul may be the origin of such individualism. This tendency is rather different from the sense of self that comes from a worldview that values the individual's membership in the group- a view of self more common, traditionally, in tribal and Asian cultures.

What are examples of literary and artistic movement in the West which were influenced by Buddhism?

Just as Buddhism has influenced Japanese art, so Buddhism has influenced Western art via Japan. There is no doubt that the Japanese influence on Western art has been extraordinary since Japan opened to the West. French art of the late nineteenth century was invigorated by the discovery of Japanese prints and scrolls, which flooded into France around 1880. Asymmetry, a love of nature, and an appreciation for the passing moment- features of much Japanese art- begun to appear in the world of the Impressionists and Postimpressionists, particularly Vincent van Gogh, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and Claude Monet. One of van Gogh's self-portraits was almost certainly influenced by pictures of Buddhist monks that he had seen. Monet's Japanese-style water garden, with its pond of water lilies at Giverny, near Paris, is a good example of the influence Japan had at the turn of the century in France. Haiku and other forms of Japanese poetry began to influence Western poetry at the same time. We see this particularly in the Imagist school, which produced short poems that depended on a few strong images presented in simple language. Poets who exemplified this style include Ezra Pound, E. E. Cummings, Hilda Doolittle, and William Carlos Williams.

What does Tathata mean literally?

Literally translated, the word tathata means "thatness," "thusness," or "suchness."

What does Soka Gakkai practice under this form (Nichiren) of Buddhism?

Nichiren Buddhism has produced several branches. Among the most important are Nichiren Shu ("Nichiren sect"), Nichiren Sho-Shu ("True Nichiren sect"), and Soka Gakkai ("Value Creation Educational Society"). The Nichiren Shu treats its founder as a bodhisattva, or Buddhist saint. The Nichiren Sho-Shu elevates Nichiren to the role of a reincarnation of the Buddha, "the Buddha or the present age." The Soka Gakkai branch was formerly a lay arm of Nichiren Sho-Shu. However, an angry split occurred between 1991 and 1992, and Soka Gakkai became fully independent. There is in all these branches an acceptance of the material world and an attempt to improve it. Soka Gakkai particularly works to reform society through political means, seeking peace through intercultural understanding.

What is the meaning of the Lotus Sutra?

One of the most widely loved works of Mahayana was the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra ("lotus sutra of the good law"), known simply as the Lotus Sutra. In this sutra, the Buddha shows his transcendent, cosmic nature. As he preaches to thousands of disciples, his light and wisdom extend out into the universe. Using parables, the sutra insists rather democratically that all people have the Buddha nature and that all, therefore, can become Buddhas. Many of its parables talk of the "skillful means" that can lead people of differing types and mentalities to enlightenment.

What is karuna, and how is it different from the Western notion?

Refers to compassion; Empathy; In Mahayana, wisdom remained an important goal, but the pairing of wisdom and compassion was central to its teachings. Compassion became an essential virtue and the preeminent expression of wisdom. The term for this compassion is karuna, which may also be translated as "empathy," "sympathy," or "kindness." Karuna is somewhat different from the Western notion of kindness, in which one separate human being, out of an abundance of individual generosity, gives to another separate human being. Rather, karuna implies that we all are part of the same ever-changing universe. Deep down, the individual is not really different from anyone or anything else. To be kind to others is actually to be kind to oneself. Karuna in action simply means living out this awareness of the unity of the universe. With this perception of the interrelatedness of all beings, including animals, compassion comes naturally: if I am kind, my kindness will be shown toward anything that can feel pain.

How did Siddhartha try to prepare himself for the deeper insights that would supply the answer to his questions?

Seeking answers to his questions, Siddhartha discovered that his teachers agreed on some issues but not on others. So, in the company of five other nomadic "seekers" he set out to find the answers he needed. To rid himself of distractions and to purify himself spiritually, Siddhartha also practiced great austerity. Living on as little food, drink, and sleep as possible, he hoped that he would find new insight and even gain spiritual powers.

What criticism is made of Mahayana?

Some critics of Mahayana Buddhism claim that it has allowed ritual and speculation- which was deemphasized by the Buddha- to creep back in. It is possible that the Indian love of ritual and imagery remains alive in a new form of Mahayana. For example, the fire ceremony of some Mahayana sects certainly derives from Vedic practice. But this is really to say that Mahayana initially was thoroughly Indian and sought to express its truths in very Indian ways. It is possible that some practices or attitudes of early Buddhism did not always fulfill the religious needs of the many laypeople who appreciated ritual. Mahayana Buddhism, however, has abundantly met almost every religious and philosophical need. It is the source of some of the most extraordinary creations of the human mind- in its art, architecture, philosophy, psychology, and ceremony.

When did images of Buddha begin to appear?

Symbols may have been used at first simply because artists were struggling with the basic challenge of depicting simultaneously the humanity of the Buddha and his great spiritual attainment, his enlightenment. By the first century of the Common Era, however, images of the Buddha began to appear. In Theravada countries we now frequently see statues of the Buddha meditating, standing (with hand outstretched in blessing), walking, or reclining.

What does Tantric Buddhism teach, and what is a power experience of this form of Buddhism?

Tantric Buddhism opposed the original Buddhist detachment from the world and its negative attitude toward bodily pleasure. The Tantras taught that the body and all its energies could be used to reach enlightenment. For Tantric Buddhism, enlightenment is an experience of ultimate oneness that occurs when a practitioner unites all opposites. Sexual union is a powerful experience of unity, and Tantric Buddhism uses the imagery and (rarely) the practice of sexual union to help attain enlightenment. In its imagery and belief system, Tantric Buddhism shows influence from Hinduism- particularly its tendency to pair a male and a female deity and its love of multiple deities. Vajrayana believes the divine Buddha nature expresses itself in a multitude of male and female deities.

What does Tathata mean in Buddhism?

Tathata is a rich notion that invites each person's experience and interpretation. Tathata represents a view of experience that says that reality is released in each moment, as we savor patterns, relationships, and change. Because no moment is exactly the same, and no object is exactly the same, each can be observed and appreciated as it passes. Thus, simple, everyday events reveal the nature of reality. We may experience "thatness" when two elements come together in an unexpected way- for example, when a small child says something childlike but wise. Sometimes it comes when we notice a moment of change, such as when, after a long string of muggy summer days, we get to add a blanket to the bed on the first crisp autumn night. Or it might be when we notice elements coming together somewhat unexpectedly- for example, when a bird drinks from a water fountain or a dog joyously sticks its nose out of the window of a passing car. It might be when we recognize the uniqueness of a simple object or event, such as the beauty of a particular apple in the supermarket, or the special way that the shadow of a tree falls on a nearby building at this particular moment. The experience can also come from something funny or sad. Although tathata involves the mundane, it is also a poetic moment that will never return in exactly the same way.

What does Buddhism accept and reject about the soul and how does this faith avoid an apparent contradiction?

The Buddha rejected the notion of a soul (an unchanging spiritual reality), but he accepted some notion of rebirth. How, we might then ask, can an individual be reborn if there is no soul? Buddhism holds that while there is no individual soul, the elements of personality that make up an individual can recombine and thus continue from one lifetime to another.

What are the two questions Buddha placed the most emphasis?

The Buddha wished to concentrate on the two most important questions about existence: How can we minimize suffering- both our own and that of others? And how can we attain inner peace?

What adjective best describes the Buddha's teaching?

The Buddha's teachings are like the Buddha himself- practical.

What is Tripitaka? What was its original meaning?

The Theravada collection of the Buddha's teachings is called the Pali Canon. As a whole, this mass of material is called Tipitaka (Pali), or Tripitaka (Sanskrit), which means "three baskets." The name comes from the fact that the writings were divided according to their subject matter into three groups. A. The first collection (called Vinaya- Pali and Sanskrit) outlines the procedural rules for monastic life. These include rules on begging, eating, relations with monks and non monks, and other disciplines. B. The second collection comprises sayings of the Buddha in the form of sermons or dialogues. This type of material is called Sutta (Pali), or Sutra (Sanskrit). C. A third collection, developed later, is called abhidhamma (Pali), or abhidharma (Sanskrit), meaning "the works that go beyond the elementary teachings." It systematized the doctrine presented more or less randomly in the sutras.

What sort of approach does Theravada Buddhism take?

The Theravada school takes its name from its goal of passing on the Buddha's teachings unchanged. It means "the way (vada) of the elders (thera)." Theravada monks originally passed on the teachings in oral form, but they eventually wrote them down. Although the school's claim to have kept its teachings relatively unchanged over time is doubtful, it is true that Theravada has a deliberately conservative orientation.

What role does meditation play in the tradition of Vajrayana?

The Vajrayana tradition, with its love of art and ritual, has developed many complex meditations. Vajrayana meditation tends to make use of ritual objects (bells, candles, butter lamps), images, mandalas, Sanskrit words (mantras), hand gestures (mudras), and visualization exercises. Frequently the meditation involves forming a mental image of a favorite deity and then taking on the identity of that deity for the duration of the meditation. Other meditations involve contemplating the moon, clouds, or water. Some meditations make use of imaginative techniques; the meditator mentally creates a lotus, a moon disc, a written Sanskrit syllable, an altar of deities, colors, or rays of light, often imagining these in a certain order.

How was Buddhism able to spread in East Asia when it advocated monastic celibacy?

The appeal of Mahayana Buddhism in ancient China is worth considering. Mahayana Buddhism had virtues that appealed to a wide spectrum of the population. It accept local cults and continued their practice of using rituals that promised magic, healing, and fertility for the masses of ordinary people. It created great temples with beautiful art and ceremony. It promoted peace and family harmony. It answered questions about the afterlife and performed funeral and memorial services for the dead. It provided a secure way of community life for people not interested in having children or creating their own families. It offered philosophical insights not already present in Chinese culture. And it provided many rulers with prayers and rituals that would help protect the nation and the rulers themselves.

What tradition did Westerners miss when they first examined Theravada Buddhism?

The earliest Western translators and scholars of Theravada Buddhism saw Buddhism through the lens of their own culture. Key to their conception of what makes a religion was a body of written scriptures; the scholars assumed that written scriptures played a central role in believers' lives. More recent scholarship points out that Buddhist teachings have been largely passed on orally. Because the vast majority of Buddhists have been unable to read, they have learned their religious beliefs and practices not from reading books, but from hearing sermons, seeing temple paintings, and listening to older family members. And long before written material existed, certain monks were known as specialists in chanting the words of the Buddha, the rules of their order, and the precepts of right living. Eventually this oral material was indeed written down and codified. But, as we learn about the written scriptures, we must understand the primary role that oral transmission has played.

What is sartori, and what were the two Buddhist views of how it is to be accomplished?

The enlightenment experience (called satori) brings an awareness of the unity of oneself with the rest of the universe. In the long history of Buddhism, some teachers have emphasized the importance of regular meditation and the effectiveness of meditative techniques, saying that they produce enlightenment gradually but inevitably, like the coming of dawn. Others have stressed that enlightenment can occur as a sudden awakening to one's true nature, like a flash of lightening, anywhere and at any time.

Therefore, what is the essence of this third noble truth?

The essence of the Third Noble Truth is this: I cannot change the outside world, but I can change myself and the way I experience the world.

What replaces the arhat of Theravada Buddhism?

The esteem for karuna influences the human ideal in Mahayana. Instead of the Theravada ideal of the arhat, who is esteemed for detached wisdom and unworldly living, the ideal in Mahayana Buddhism is the person of deep compassion, the bodhisattva ("enlightenment being"). Because a bodhisattva embodies compassion, it is often said that a bodhisattva will refuse to fully enter nirvana, in order to be reborn on earth to help others.

What type of Buddhism flourished in Japan?

The history of Buddhism is Japan shows a movement toward increasing the power of laypeople. The first period, when the capital was Nara, was dominated by essentially monastic Buddhist schools. In the second period, after the capital moved, the dominant schools (Shingon and Tendai) were ritualistic and appealed to the aristocracy. Their prominence lasted for about four hundred years. In the thirteenth century, however, two schools (Pure Land and Zen) particularly appealed to commoners and the military. Because Zen was adopted by many in the military, which controlled Japan until 1868, it became enormously influential in Japanese culture in general.

What is the central teaching of the Vimalakirti Sutra?

The influential Vimalakirti Sutra teaches that it is possible to live a devout Buddhist life without necessarily becoming a monk. The hero of the sutra is the man Vimalakirti, who was, as one historian describes him, "a layman rich and powerful, a brilliant conversationalist, a respected householder who surrounded himself with the pleasures of life, but was also a faithful and wise disciple of the Buddha, a man full of wisdom and thoroughly disciplined in his conduct." Because the main figure is not a monk but more like a devout gentleman, we can see why this sutra became popular with laypeople. Its purpose, though, was serious. It showed that individuals can work successfully amidst the dangers of worldly life, can avoid causing harm, and can actually help themselves and others.

Who is Guanyin and to whom is she compared?

The most significant of the heavenly bodhisattvas has been Avalokiteshvara, who looks down from a location above in order to give help. In India, Avalokiteshvara was portrayed as male, but in China this bodhisattva was conceived as feminine because of her association with compassion and mercy. Her name in Chinese is Guanyin ("hears cries"). She first appeared in early depictions as having both male and female characteristics, but eventually she became entirely feminine. As an object of devotion, she plays a role similar to that of Mary in Europe.

What are the Tantras? What does this term mean?

The pre-Buddhist Tibetan religion worshiped the powers of nature. As was the case with many native religions, these powers were often envisioned as demons that had to be appeased. Shamanistic rituals involving animal sacrifice and the use of bones, dance, and magical incantations were intended to control the demonic powers. This Tibetan religion was challenged by a new religion, a special type of Buddhism practices in northeast India, named Tantric Buddhism for its scriptures, the Tantras ("spread out")

What is understood by "skillful means"?

The same kind of openness to a variety of religious paths that we saw in Hinduism is typical of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana recognizes that people differ greatly and find themselves at different stages of spiritual development. For example, a person who would not benefit from study or meditation might be able to achieve a new level of understanding through the use of ritual, imagery, and religious objects. Mahayana is open to anything that can lead to great spiritual awareness, a concept known as "skillful means" (Sanskrit: upaya).

This idea of Buddha, called anatta, is a rejection of what belief?

The second mark of reality is that each person and each thing is not only changing but is made up of parts that are constantly changing, a concept referred to as "no permanent identity." In the case of people, it is called "no permanent soul" or "no self." The Pali term is anatta; in Sanskrit it is anatman ("no Atman") because of the Buddha's refusal to accept the Hindu notion of timeless, unchanging reality (Atman) underlying everything- people, things, essences, and gods.

Why do people suffer?

The third characteristic of reality, known as dukkha (Pali), or duhkha (Sanskrit), is usually translated as "suffering" or "sorrow," but it also means "dissatisfaction" or "dis-ease." It refers to the fact that life, when lived conventionally, can never be fully satisfying because of its inescapable change. Even in the midst of pleasure, we often recognize that pleasure is fleeting. Even when all the bills are paid, we know that in a few days there will be more. Try as we might to put everything in our lives in order, disorder soon reasserts itself. In the midst of happy experiences, we may worry about the people we love. And there are times when ever-changing life brings misery: the death of a parent or spouse or child, divorce, sickness, fire, flood, earthquake, war, the loss of job or home.

What does nirvana mean?

The word nirvana seems to mean "blown out," or "cool," suggesting that the fires of desire have been extinguished.

Since everyone cannot be a full-time monk, what is offered to laypeople?

Theravada monks must beg daily for their food, which has meant that they, like Buddha's early followers, have to live close to laypeople. In fact, Theravada monasteries are often in the middle of towns. Many monasteries run schools, meditation centers, and medical clinics, as well as care for stray animals. In return, monks are the beneficiaries of regular donations. When Theravada monks go out on their begging rounds in the early morning, people who wish to donate food freely offer them rice and vegetables. Donors believe they are receiving beneficial karma from their acts of generosity, and people support the monasteries much like other societies give to libraries and other social agencies. At Buddhists festivals monks are given new robes and pails of essential items, such as soap, toothpaste, razors, and canned goods. Donations are especially given at the New Year festival and at the beginning and end of the rainy season. This period, often called Buddhist Lent, begins in late summer and lasts for three months. During this time monks stay in their monasteries for study.

What made Theravada popular with political leaders in Southeast Asia?

Theravada spread very early from India to Sri Lanka, where it has gone through several phases of growth and decline. By the fourth century, it had been carried- along with other elements of Indian culture- to Myanmar (Burma) and to Thailand. Theravada did not become predominant in Myanmar (Burma) until the mid-eleventh century, when Bagan began to flourish as a great Buddhist city and center of Theravada under King Anawratha. Fourteenth-century Thailand, having freed itself of Khmer domination, also adopted Theravada Buddhism. The conservatism of Theravada Buddhism was politically appealing to rulers for its moral rigor. Today it is the dominant religion in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.

How does Mahayana see the universe?

They show a worldview of a universe populated by holy personalities and full of the divine. These notions may seem dry when expressed in words, but they become very meaningful when expressed as art in temples or museums. These ideas underlie Mahayana sculpture, painting, and belief.

What was the central text (sutra) of this form (Nichiren) of Mahayana Buddhism?

Unlike the other sects discussed thus far, Nichiren Buddhism began in Japan. Its founder was a Tendai monk, NIchiren. After being trained at Mount Hiei, Nichiren sought a simpler path than Tendai, which used many sutras and practices in the search for enlightenment. Out of the thousands of Mahayana texts, Nichiren wanted to find one that contained all the essential teachings of Buddhism. Following the lead of the Tendai tradition, which had already given much attention to the Lotus Sutra, Nichiren asserted that the Lotus Sutra was indeed the embodiment of all essential religious teaching. He thought of himself as a reincarnation of a minor Buddha in the Lotus Sutra (his monastic name Nichiren means "sun lotus").

What happens to the individual when nirvana is reached?

Upon attaining nirvana, the individual has self-control and is no longer driven from inside by raging emotional forces or from outside by the unpredictable events of life. It may not necessary imply the elimination of anger (stories tell of the Buddha's getting angry at disputes within the monastic community), but it does suggest a general inner quiet. Nirvana is also believed to end karma and rebirth after the present life. To reach nirvana, Buddhism recommends following the Noble Eightfold Path.

What does the name Buddha mean?

Whatever the cause of his enlightenment, Siddhartha arose and said that he was now a person who had woken up. From this came his new name: the Buddha, the Awakened One, taken from a Sanskrit word meaning "to wake up."

What two options were foretold for the life of Siddhartha? What did his father do about it?

When a sage inspected the child, he saw special marks on Siddhartha's body, indicating that he would be an illustrious person. At his naming ceremony, priests foretold that his life could go in one of the two directions: either he would follow in his father's footsteps, inheriting his position and becoming a great king, a "world ruler"; or, if he were exposed to the sight of suffering he would become a great spiritual leader, a "world teacher." Siddhartha's father, wanting his son to succeed him, took measures to keep the boy from exposure to suffering. Kept in a large, walled palace compound, Siddhartha grew up in luxury; married, at an early age, a young woman his father had chosen; and had a son. He was educated and trained as a warrior to prepare for eventually taking over his father's role.

What is the basis for the name of this movement (Zen)?

Zen takes its name from the seventh step of the Noble Eightfold Path- dhyana ("meditation"). In Chinese the word is chan, and in Japanese it is zen. (In the discussion here, Chan refers to the sect in China, and Zen refers to the sect as it developed in Japan.) The complexity that had overtaken Chinese Buddhism helped create a counterbalancing movement toward simplification. For the Chan sect in China, simplification came from looking directly to the enlightenment experience of Siddhartha Gautama. Siddhartha had become the Buddha, the Enlightened One, through his practice of meditation. Although he did not deny the value of ritual, the Buddha did not think that it led to enlightenment. Taking after the Buddha, members of the Chan movement, in their desire for enlightenment, favored the technique of seated meditation, just as Siddhartha Gautama had.