Chapter 4: Consciousness
Define physical drug dependence
-A compulsive pattern of drug use -the user develops a drug tolerance -coupled with unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug use is discontinued
Define psychological drug dependence
-A craving or irresistible urge for a drug's pleasurable effects -even more difficult to combat than physical dependence -Some drugs that are probably not physically addictive (e.g., marijuana) may nevertheless create psychological dependence.
Define meditation
-A group of techniques -involve focusing attention on an object, a word, one's breathing, or one's body movements -in an effort to block out all distractions -to enhance well-being -to achieve an altered state of consciousness Forms of meditation: -yoga -Zen -transcendental meditation (TM)
Define suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
-A pair of tiny structures in the brain's hypothalamus that controls the timing of the circadian rhythm -the biological clock
Define hypnosis
-A procedure through which one person, the hypnotist, uses the power of suggestion to induce changes in thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, or behavior in another person, the subject -research shows that some people cannot be hypnotized -Individual differences in the degree to which people are open to suggestions when they are fully conscious is linked to hypnotizability.
Define REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
-A type of sleep -rapid eye movements -paralysis -fast and irregular heart and respiration rates -increased brain-wave activity -vivid dreams -is usually not found in stage 1 the first time through -is increased by daytime stress and anxiety -help to sort and retain memories -is where we do most of our dreaming, about 85% of REM involves dreams -dreams in REM tend to be longer, clearer, more bizarre and "dream like" than the thoughts and images we appear to have in non-REM -Eugene Azerinsky first discovered these bursts of rapid eye movements in 1952 -William Dement and Nathaniel Kleitman made the connection between rapid eye movements and dreaming
REM cycles
-After the first REM period of the night ends, a new sleep cycle begins -However, the remaining sleep cycles differ from the first one -the second cycle includes only Stages 2, 3, and 4, followed by a REM period. -The third cycle usually includes Stages 2, 3, and a REM period. -Later cycles include only Stage 2 and REM sleep -with each cycle, the REM period increases in duration, from a few minutes at the end of the first cycle to a half-hour or longer at the end of the fifth cycle. -Overall, sleepers average five cycles in a 7- to 8-hour night of sleep, which provides them with a total of 1 to 2 hours of slow-wave sleep and 1 to 2 hours of REM sleep.
Animals and cocaine
-Animals become addicted more readily to cocaine than to any other drug -Given unlimited access to cocaine, animals will lose interest in everything else, including food, water, and sex -They tend to die within 14 days, usually from cardiopulmonary collapse -Cocaine-addicted monkeys will press a lever as many as 12,800 times to get one cocaine injection
Older Adults and Sleep
-As people age, the quality and quantity of their sleep usually decrease -Some researchers hypothesize that the decline is due to a reduction in the need for sleep that is a part of the natural aging process -many older adults view the decline as a threat to their quality of life -Large-scale surveys of older adults in North America, Europe, and Japan suggest that up to two-thirds of them experience daytime sleepiness, nighttime awakenings, and insomnia on a regular basis
The Brain and Dreams
-Brain-imaging studies suggest that the general perception that events in REM dreams are stranger and more emotion provoking than waking experiences is probably true. -The areas of the brain responsible for emotions, as well as the primary visual cortex, are active during REM dreams -vivid REM dreams are associated with distributions of activity in the forebrain that are very similar to those exhibited by individuals with delusional disorders while they are awake -the prefrontal cortex, the more rational part of the brain, is suppressed during REM sleep, suggesting that the bizarre events that happen in REM dreams result from the inability of the brain to structure perceptions logically during that type of sleep. -Areas associated with memory are also suppressed during REM sleep, which may explain why REM dreams are difficult to remember.
Define NREM (non-REM) sleep
-Four sleep stages -characterized by slow, regular respiration and heart rate -little body movement -blood pressure and brain activity that are at their 24-hour low points -occurs and dominates during stages 1,2,3, & 4 -is dream free about 90% of the time -heart and respiratory rates slow slightly - blood pressure is reduced
Kids and Sleep
-Infants and young children have the longest sleep time and the highest percentages of REM and slow-wave sleep -infants and children also have more erratic sleep patterns than individuals in other age groups children from age 6 to puberty are the most consistent sleepers and wakers -They fall asleep easily, sleep soundly for 10 to 11 hours at night, and feel awake and alert during the day -Moreover, they tend to fall asleep and wake up at about the same time every day
Melatonin
-Melatonin induces sleep, perhaps through its ability to keep all of the body's tissues aware of both the time of day and the time of year
Work and sleep
-Moving work schedules forward from days to evenings to nights makes adjustment easier because people find it easier to go to bed later and wake up later than the reverse -And rotating shifts every 3 weeks instead of every week lessens the effect on sleep even more
REM and Weird Dreams
-One hypothesis is based on the finding that different neurotransmitters are dominant in the cortex during wakefulness and during REM sleep -When we are awake, powerful inhibiting influences exert control over the functioning of the cortex, keeping us anchored to reality, less subject to impulsive thoughts and acts, and more or less "sane." -These inhibiting influences are maintained principally by cortical neurons that are responding to serotonin and norepinephrine. -These neurotransmitters are far less plentiful during REM dreaming, when a higher level of dopamine causes other cortical neurons to show intense activity. -This uninhibited, dopamine-stimulated activity of the dreaming brain has been likened to a psychotic mental state
What functions follow Circadian Rhythms
-Physiological functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, appetite, secretion of hormones and digestive enzymes, sensory acuity, elimination, and even the body's response to medication all follow circadian rhythms. -Many psychological functions—including learning efficiency, the ability to perform a wide range of tasks, and even moods—ebb and flow according to these daily rhythms
What is theory of dissociated control
-Proposed by: Bowers and his colleagues -hypnosis does not induce a splitting of different aspects of consciousness -hypnosis weakens the control of the executive function over other parts (subsystems) of consciousness, allowing the hypnotist's suggestions to contact and influence those subsystems directly -the hypnotized person's responses are automatic and involuntary, like reflexes, and are not controlled by normal cognitive functions
SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)
-S.I.D.S. stands for "Sudden Infant Death Syndrome," sometimes referred to as "Crib Death" Causes: -sleep apnea -weak arousal reflex which causes to baby to inhale Danger signs: -premature babies -baby "snoring" -parents who smoke -teenaged mothers -soft bed objects such as pillows, comforters, blankets, etc.
Sensory Stimulation & Deprivation
-Sensory stimulation is necessary to maintain continual brain arousal Sensory deprivation (taking away any of the senses like hearing, taste, sight, etc.) will yield one or more of the following: -difficulty in performing simple tasks -irritability -hallucinations -auditory (hearing) sensitivity -tactile (touch) sensitivity -pain sensitivity -taste sensitivity -vision sensitivity -olfactory (smell) sensitivity
Define dyssomnias
-Sleep disorders -the timing, quantity, or quality of sleep is impaired -Their effects are also more severe than those of parasomnias.
Define parasomnias
-Sleep disturbances in which behaviors and physiological states that normally take place only in the waking state occur while a person is sleeping -Frightening dreams are also parasomnias
What is somnambulism
-Sleepwalking -occurs during a partial arousal from Stage 4 sleep in which the sleeper does not come to full consciousness -can be nothing more than mumbling or as complex as carrying on complete conversations -occurs during stages 3 and 4 -parasomnia
Meditation benefits
-Studies suggest that meditation can be helpful for a variety of physical and psychological problems, especially those that involve the emotions Example: researchers have found that regular meditation helps individuals, even those who are severely depressed, learn to control their emotions -meditation may prove helpful in lowering blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and other measures of cardiovascular health -imaging research suggests that meditation may actually change the structure of the brain
Marijuana
-THC (tetrahydrocannabinol): the ingredient in marijuana that produces the high -Many of the receptors for THC are in the hippocampus, which explains why the drug affects memory -remains in the body for 2 to 4 weeks Effects: -impairs attention and coordination -slows reaction time -interfere with concentration -interfere with logical thinking -interfere with formation of new memories -interfere with retrieval of stored memories
Environment and Circadian Rhythms
-The most significant environmental cue is bright light, particularly sunlight -Specialized cells (photoreceptors) in the retina at the back of each eye respond to the amount of light reaching the eye and relay this information via the optic nerve to the SCN -From dusk until just before dawn, the message from the retina to the SCN is relayed to the pineal gland, causing it to secrete the hormone melatonin. -During the daylight hours, the pineal gland does not produce melatonin
What causes people to progress from substance use to substance abuse?
-The physical pleasure associated with drug-induced altered states of consciousness is one reason. -Genetically based differences in the way people respond physiologically to drugs -personality and social factors -Stress-related variables -Social and cultural factors
Define circadian theory of sleep
-The theory that sleep evolved to keep humans out of harm's way during the night -also known as the evolutionary or adaptive theory
Define restorative theory of sleep
-The theory that the function of sleep is to restore body and mind -holds that being awake produces wear and tear on the body and the brain, whereas sleep serves the function of restoring body and mind
Explain how psychologists view consciousness
-William James likened consciousness to a flowing stream (the stream of consciousness) that seems to be under our control at some times but not at others. -Sigmund Freud emphasized the notion that unconscious wishes, thoughts, and feelings are hidden from consciousness because they evoke too much anxiety. -James and Freud, behaviorist John Watson urged psychologists to abandon the study of consciousness, claiming that it could not be studied scientifically. -Because of the strong influence of behaviorism, with its emphasis on observable behavior, psychologists did not study consciousness for several decades
Define circadian rhythms
-Within each 24-hour period, the regular fluctuation from high to low points of certain bodily functions and behaviors
Alcohol
-a depressant -The more alcohol a person consumes, the more the central nervous system is depressed Symptoms of being drunk: -slurred speech -poor coordination -staggering -Impaired depth -impaired motion perception Effects of alcohol: -decreases the ability to form new memories -That's why an episode of heavy drinking is often followed by a "morning after," during which the drinker is unable to remember the events that occurred while he or she was under the influence of alcohol -alcohol placebos have similar effects on memory function, so a drinker's expectations contribute to alcohol's effects to some extent
sleep cycle
-a period of sleep lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep, followed by REM sleep -when you fall asleep you enter into stage one sleep. From there you go through stages 2,3, & 4. -once you get to stage 4 you spend a little time there -you then move up through stages 2 and 3 to something like sage one but it is not stage one it is REM sleep -this starts a 90 minute cycle which goes on all night -the first cycle starts with the first visit to REM then moves down through stages 2,3 & 4. -the next 90 minutes cycle begins with a return to REM and followed by stages 2 and 3 -later cycles include only stage 2 and REM
Cocaine
-a stimulant derived from coca leaves, can be sniffed as a white powder, injected intravenously, or smoked in the form of crack The euphoria: followed by an equally intense crash, marked by depression, anxiety, agitation, and a powerful craving for more of the drug -Withdrawl: psychological—the inability to feel pleasure and the craving for more cocaine.
What is manifest content?
-according to Freud -the content of the dream as recalled by the dreamer
What is latent content
-according to Freud -the underlying meaning of the dream -which he considered more significant
Depressants and the brain
-act on GABA receptors to produce a calming, sedating effect -can play a role in reducing a patient's nervousness prior to undergoing a medical procedure -if ingestion of too much alcohol, or of a combination of alcohol and other depressants, floods the brain with GABA, consciousness will be lost, and death may follow -Examples: alcohol, barbiturates such as propofol, and benzodiazepines (Valium and Librium, for example)
Teens and Sleep
-adolescents' sleep patterns are strongly influenced by their schedules. -Factors such as part-time employment and early school start times cause many teenagers to sleep little more than 7 hours on a typical week night -When adolescents are free from such scheduling pressures, however, they tend to sleep even longer than elementary-age children -Thus, some sleep researchers think that insufficient sleep may be at least partly responsible for discipline and learning problems in secondary schools.
Stimulants
-also called "uppers" -speed up activity in the central nervous system -suppress appetite -can make a person feel more awake, alert, and energetic -Stimulants increase pulse rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate -reduce cerebral blood flow In higher doses: -make people feel nervous -jittery -restless -can cause shaking or trembling -interfere with sleep
What is narcolepsy?
-an incurable sleep disorder -dyssomnia characterized by: -excessive daytime sleepiness -uncontrollable attacks of REM sleep, usually lasting 10 to 20 minutes -People with narcolepsy, who number from 250,000 to 350,000 in the United States alone, tend to be involved in accidents virtually everywhere—while driving, at work, and at home. Cause: -abnormality in the part of the brain that regulates sleep -it appears to have a strong genetic component. Cure: -no cure for narcolepsy -stimulant medications improve daytime alertness in most patients.
What are alpha waves
-associated with deep relaxation
What are beta waves
-associated with mental or physical activity
What are withdrawal symptoms
-both physical and psychological -usually the exact opposite of the effects produced by the drug -withdrawal supports continued addiction
What is sleep apnea?
-consists of periods during sleep when breathing stops, and the individual must awaken briefly to breathe -dyssomnia Causes: -the brain stops sending signals to the diaphragm to contract drawing air into the lungs -an obstruction of some sort blocks the upper air passage major symptoms: -excessive daytime sleepiness -extremely loud snoring -accompanied by snorts, gasps, and choking noises. -breathing stops for 20 seconds to 2 minutes -people awaken gulping for air -A person with sleep apnea will drop off to sleep, stop breathing altogether, and then awaken struggling for breath. -After gasping several breaths in a semi-awakened state, the person falls back to sleep and stops breathing again. -Severe sleep apnea can lead to chronic high blood pressure and other types of cardiovascular disease -Men are more likely than women to have sleep apnea. -When the surgery is effective, sleep apnea sufferers not only sleep better but also exhibit higher levels of performance on tests of verbal learning and memory
Barbiturates
-depress the central nervous system -Depending on the dose, a barbiturate can act as an anesthetic, sedative, or sleeping pill Effects of abuse: -drowsy -confused -thinking and judgment suffer -coordination and reflexes are affected -Barbiturates can kill if taken in overdose -Alcohol and barbiturates, when taken together, are a potentially fatal combination. Examples: phenobarbital and propofol (the anesthetic that caused the death of pop star Michael Jackson)
Narcotics
-derived from the opium poppy -produce both pain-relieving and calming effects. -affects mainly the braim -also paralyzes the intestinal muscles, which is why it is used medically to treat diarrhea. -Because opium suppresses the cough center, it is used in some cough medicines -Morphine and codeine, natural constituents of opium, may be found in some drugs prescribed for pain relief.
Hallucinogens (psychedelics)
-drugs that can alter and distort perceptions of time and space, alter mood, and produce feelings of unreality -hallucinogens also cause hallucinations -hallucinogens usually magnify the mood of the user at the time the drug is taken -hallucinogens hamper rather than enhance creative thinking
Marijuana and Age
-early use is associated with a somewhat smaller brain volume and a lower percentage of the all-important gray matter in the brain's cortex. -users who started younger were also shorter and weighed less than users who started when older -causes the cerebral cortices of users who begin smoking it in adolescence to age more rapidly than those of nonusers -appears to permanently stunt the development of neurons in the hippocampal regions of the brains of young users, an effect that may lead to memory impairment that persists into adulthood -early use affects the capacity of the prefrontal cortex to respond to danger alerts from the amygdala
Alexander Borbely and Sleep
-explains how a synthesis of the circadian and restorative theories can be used to explain the function of sleep -people feel sleepy at certain times of day is consistent with the circadian theory -sleepiness increases the longer a person is awake is consistent with the restorative theory -the urge to sleep is partly a function of how long a person has been awake and partly a function of the time of day
Modern brain-imaging techniques
-fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) -they have allowed psychologists to accumulate a large body of evidence leading to a better understanding of the neurological basis of consciousness.
Sleep Deprivation
-failing to get enough sleep affects your ability to learn -going without sleep can seldom last more than 96 hours greater periods of lost sleep can lead to: -hallucinations -bizarre behavior -slurred speech -"sleep deprivation psychosis" ---which produces confusion, disorientation and delusions ---symptoms can be reversed with one good night's sleep -7-8 hours of sleep is considered normal and healthy -5-11 hours is still considered to be normal for some people
The effects of cocaine
-felt within 2 to 3 minutes, and the high lasts 30 to 45 minutes -constricts the blood vessels -raises blood pressure -speeds up the heart -quickens respiration -heart palpitations -an irregular heartbeat -heart attacks -high doses can cause strokes in healthy young individuals -holes in the nasal septum and in the palate
Alertness
-follows a circadian rhythm, one that is quite separate from the sleep/wakefulness cycle -Larks: alertness decreases between 2:00 and 5:00 p.m. and between 2:00 and 7:00 a.m. -Owls: Their alertness starts to rise at a time when that of most others is declining. -the percentage of owls among children seems to be far lower than it is among adults, suggesting that learning plays a role in the development of the owl chronotype
What are Sleep terrors
-happen during Stage 4 sleep -often begin with a piercing scream -The sleeper springs up in a state of panic, hallucinations, and fear -eyes open, heart pounding, perspiring, breathing rapidly -sleep terrors resolve quickly, and the individual falls back to sleep -sleep terrors occur early in the night -can last for as long as 15-20 minutes -people awaken covered in perspiration with heart pounding -they have only a very vague memory of what happened -it is prevalent in childhood -parasomnia
Heroin
-highly addictive narcotic derived from morphine. -Heroin addicts describe a sudden "rush" of euphoria, followed by drowsiness, inactivity, and impaired concentration. -Withdrawal symptoms begin about 6 to 24 hours after use, and the addict becomes physically sick. -Nausea, diarrhea, depression, stomach cramps, insomnia, and pain grow worse and worse until they become intolerable—unless the person gets another "fix."
Amphetamines
-increase arousal -relieve fatigue -improve alertness -suppress the appetite -give a rush of energy high doses (100 milligrams or more) -cause confused and disorganized behavior -extreme fear and suspiciousness -delusions and hallucinations -aggressiveness and antisocial behavior -even manic behavior and paranoia -can stop blood flow, causing hemorrhaging and leaving parts of the brain deprived of oxygen Withdrawal -physically exhausted; he or she will sleep for 10 to 15 hours or more, only to awaken in a stupor, extremely depressed and intensely hungry methamphetamine -known as "crank" or "speed" -comes in a smokable form ("ice") -highly addictive and can be fatal -leads to dramatic changes in appearance because the drug interferes with the body's ability to maintain and repair the skin, hair, and teeth
REM and Memory
-may be critical to the consolidation of memories after learning -Classic Study: found that research participants who were learning a new perceptual skill showed an improvement in performance, with no additional practice, 8 to 10 hours later if they had a normal night's sleep or if the researchers disturbed only their NREM sleep. -Performance did not improve, however, in those who were deprived of REM sleep.
Stimulants and the brain
-mimic the effects of epinephrine -effects of the sympathetic nervous system include suppressed hunger and digestion -this is why "diet pills" typically contain some kind of stimulant, such as caffeine -Excessive amounts can send heart rates and blood pressure levels zooming -death can even result from the ingestion of a single, large dose. Examples: amphetamines (such as "speed" or "ice"), cocaine, caffeine epinephrine: the neurotransmitter that triggers the sympathetic nervous system.
Opiates and the Brain
-mimic the effects of the brain's own endorphins -produce a feeling of well-being -opiates are useful in pain management -when taken regularly, will eventually completely suppress the production of endorphins. As a result, natural pain management systems break down, and the brain becomes dependent on the presence of opiates to function normally. -Examples: morphine and heroin Endorphins: chemicals that have pain-relieving properties
What are nightmares?
-more frightening than sleep terrors -they occur during REM sleep -far more vivid -sleepers often awaken to full consciousness during a nightmare and remember it in detail -nightmares more often occur in the early-morning hours, when REM periods are the longest. -are "bad" or frightening dreams -are brief and occur about twice per month -parasomnia
Nicotine
-nicotine increases alertness -very addictive -hypnosis cannot be considered effective in helping smokers break the habit -over-the-counter nicotine patches help about one in five smokers quit and enable many others to cut down on the number of cigarettes they smoke
NREM dreams
-occur during NREM sleep, although these are typically less frequent and less memorable than REM dreams
Lucid Dreams
-people attempt to exert control over a dream while it is in progress -Researchers have compared EEG and brain-imaging data from experimental group participants who have been instructed to make an effort to control the content of their dreams to control group participants who sleep naturally -Such studies show that activity in the brains of lucid dreamers differs from that in the brains of control group participants -lucid dreaming has been advocated as an intervention for psychological problems such as depression. -its effects appear to be inconsistent among individuals with depression
jet lag
-produces memory deficits that may be permanent -experienced airline workers are just as likely to suffer from jet lag as passengers on their first intercontinental flight -Melatonin supplements have been found to be helpful for alleviating jet lag in some long-distance travelers -melatonin is most effective when taken during the day, when natural melatonin levels are low. -People who take it at night, just before bedtime, are likely to see little effect because natural melatonin levels are near their peak at that time.
What is the neodissociation theory of hypnosis?
-proposed by Ernest Hilgard -proposed to explain why hypnotized individuals can accomplish very difficult acts, even undergoing surgery without anesthesia -the theory describes that hypnosis induces a split, or dissociation, between two aspects of the control of consciousness: the planning function and the monitoring function -During hypnosis, it is the planning function that carries out the suggestions of the hypnotist and remains a part of the subject's conscious awareness. -The monitoring function monitors or observes everything that happens to the subject, but without his or her conscious awareness. -Hilgard called the monitoring function, when separated from conscious awareness, "the hidden observer."
What is cognitive theory of dreaming
-proposed by Hall -dreaming is simply thinking while asleep -Advocates of Hall's approach argued for a greater focus on the manifest content—the actual dream itself—which is seen as an expression of a broad range of the dreamer's concerns rather than as an expression of sexual impulses
What is activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming
-proposed by J. Allan Hobson -He rejects the notion that nature would equip humans with the capability of having dreams that would require a specialist to interpret -This hypothesis suggests that dreams are simply the brain's attempt to make sense of the random firing of brain cells during REM sleep. -Hobson believes that dreams also have psychological significance because the meaning a person imposes on the random mental activity reflects that person's experiences, remote memories, associations, drives, and fears. -Just as people try to make sense of input from the environment during their waking hours, they try to find meaning in the conglomeration of sensations and memories that are generated internally by this random firing of brain cells.
What are over-the-counter drugs
-psychoactive drugs -Example: antihistamines, decongestants, herbal preparations
What are controlled substances
-psychoactive drugs -approved for medical use -Example: antidepressants
Epinephrine and sleep
-released into the system -causing blood pressure to rise and heart rate -respiration to become faster and less regular -there is an external calm during REM sleep -The large muscles of the body—arms, legs, trunk—become paralyzed.
Minor tranquilizers
-sold under the brand names Valium, Librium, Dalmane, and Xanax (also used as an antidepressant) -prescribed for several medical and psychological disorders -Abuse of these drugs is associated with both temporary and permanent impairment of memory and other cognitive functions. Example: benzodiazepines
Designer Drugs
-specially formulated to mimic the pleasurable effects of hallucinogenic stimulants without, supposedly, their negative side effects. Ecstasy: -methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) -Ecstasy, or methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) -Users describe a wonderfully pleasant state of consciousness Effects of Ecstasy: -impair a variety of cognitive functions -impairs memory, sustained attention, analytical thinking, and self-control -causes dehydration, a side effect that can lead to fatal heat exhaustion -devastating effects on serotonin -impair the capacity for judging social cues by changing the way Ecstasy users think about social cues, the drug may indirectly increase their proclivity for aggressive behavior. -by changing the way Ecstasy users think about social cues, the drug may indirectly increase their proclivity for aggressive behavior. Serotonin: influences cognitive performance (including memory), as well as moods, sleep cycles, and the ability to control impulses
What is evolutionary theory of dreaming
-suggest that vivid, emotionally charged REM dreams serve a protective function -Such dreams often involve threatening situations in which we may actually find ourselves. -Example: an individual may dream that he is driving at 70 miles per hour on a highway when his car's brakes suddenly go out -According to the evolutionary view, such a dream would provide the dreamer with an opportunity to rehearse strategies that may help him manage a similar threat in real life.
What is Somniloquy
-technical term for sleeptalking (sleep talking) -can occur in any stage -sleeptalkers mumble nonsensical words and phrases -parasomnia
muses
-the ancient Greeks believed that a special group of gods and goddesses were responsible for inducing the trancelike state that artists and musicians often experience in association with their creative activities
What is sociocognitive theory of hypnosis
-the behavior of a hypnotized person is a function of that person's expectations about how subjects behave under hypnosis -People are motivated to be good subjects, to follow the suggestions of the hypnotist, and to fulfill the social role of the hypnotized person as they perceive it -most hypnotized persons are neither faking nor merely complying with suggestions skin conductance: -most effective and reliable indicator of deception in the laboratory -indicates emotional response by measuring perspiration Kinnunen and others used skin conductance and found that 89% of supposedly hypnotized people had been truly hypnotized. -majority of hypnosis researchers seem to support the sociocognitive theory
cortisol
-the biochemical substance that ramps up our bodies' alertness in emergencies -Larks: highest levels before noon -Owls: highest levels in the late afternoon
What is nucleus accumbens
-the pleasure center of the brain -often associated with addiction
REM dreams
-the type that occur almost continuously during each REM period -REM dreams have a story-like or dreamlike quality and are more visual, vivid, and emotional than NREM dreams
peyote
-the use of an illegal drug called peyote by members of the Native American Church, sometimes called peyotism, is controversial -Some mental health professionals have argued that the religious use of peyote may lead to the development of substance abuse problems among church members -advocates for the use of peyote in the Native American Church argue that church officials take care to regulate the dosages of the drug that are available for consumption during their rituals -In support of this claim, advocates cite the fact that there has never been a reported case of peyote overdose resulting from a church ceremony -The church's official doctrines also condemn substance dependence as a moral failing. -As a result, advocates say, dependence is unlikely to develop.
What is drug tolerance
-the user becomes progressively less affected by the drug -must take increasingly larger doses to achieve the same effect or high -Tolerance occurs because the brain adapts to the presence of the drug by responding less intensely to it. -the liver produces more enzymes to break down the drug. -The various bodily processes adjust so that they can continue to function with the drug in the system.
Marijuana and medical treatment
-treating the eye disease glaucoma -controlling nausea and vomiting in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy -improving appetite and curtailing weight loss in some AIDS patients -may also be helpful in the treatment of spinal cord injuries and other kinds of nerve damage -smoking marijuana is not as harmful to the lungs as cigarette smoking -pills containing the active ingredients in marijuana are already legally available by prescription, many experts contend that it is not necessary to legalize the use of marijuana cigarettes for medical purposes -people who smoke marijuana for medicinal purposes determine the dose of THC they receive by increasing and decreasing how deeply they inhale. -U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has stated unequivocally that smoked marijuana has no known medical benefits and should continue to be regarded as a dangerous drug
light mask
-used to reset shift workers' biological clocks -allows researchers to control the amount of light to which the closed eyelids of research participants are exposed -studies suggest that exposing participants to bright light during the last 4 hours of sleep is an effective treatment for the kinds of sleep-phase delays experienced by shift workers -this device may become important in the treatment of sleep disorders associated with shift work.
subjective night
-when one's biological clock is telling them to go to sleep -alertness and performance deteriorate if people work during subjective night -energy and efficiency are at their lowest points -reaction time is slowest -productivity is diminished -industrial accidents are significantly higher -shift workers get less sleep overall than non-shift workers -Some studies show that the deleterious effects of shift work persist for months or even years after shift work ends -In one study, researchers found that pilots who were flying between midnight and 6:00 a.m. were 50% more likely to make errors
What is REM rebound
-when people are deprived of REM sleep -they make up for it by getting an increased amount of REM sleep afterward
effects of altered states of consciousness
1) Perception II) Emotions III) Memory IV) Sense of time V) Thoughts VI) Feelings of self-control VII) Motor coordination VIII) Respiration XIV) Suggestibility
Define psychoactive drug
Any substance that alters mood, perception, or thought; called a controlled substance if approved for medical use
Define substance abuse
Continued use of a substance after several episodes in which use of the substance has negatively affected an individual's work, education, and social relationships -attention and memory deficits -loss of the ability to accurately sense the passage of time -declines in the capacity to plan and control behavior Example: a person who has missed work several times because of alcohol intoxication, but who continues to drink
Define consciousness
Everything of which we are aware at any given time—our thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions of the external environment.
Caffeine
Examples: Coffee, tea, cola drinks, chocolate, energy drinks such as Red Bull, and more than 100 prescription and over-the-counter drugs contain caffeine. -more mentally alert -can help them stay awake -improve visual acuity by making the retina more sensitive to light withdrawal symptoms: -nervousness, instability, headaches, drowsiness, and decreased alertness -combining alcohol and caffeine can lead to severe dehydration: causes a hangover
Culture and Mediation
Forms of meditation: -yoga -Zen -transcendental meditation (TM) These have their roots in Eastern religions and are practiced by followers of those religions to attain a higher spiritual state These approaches are often used in the United States to: -increase relaxation -reduce arousal -expand consciousness
Dream Facts
I) Dreams are a time of high emotional activity a) blood pressure and respiration go up b) heart rates become irregular c) we become sexually aroused II) It is hard to awaken people in REM because they incorporate outside noises into their dreams III) We experience "Body Stillness" a) it is like being paralyzed, we do not move b) lack of this paralysis produces what is called "REM Behavior Disorder" 1) we thrash about in bed 2) we may get out of bed while asleep 3) we may attack our bed partner 4) we may engage in unusual behaviors
altered states of consciousness demonstrate what?
I) Impaired cognitive functioning II) Loss of self-control III) Distorted sense of time IV) Hypersuggestability (taking suggestions very easily like in hypnosis) V) Changes in emotions VI) Hallucinations
Dream statistics and information
I) One out of three dreams is in color II) We dream 4 - 5 times per night in an 8 hour period III) If we prevent a person from dreaming they will experience: a) memory lapses b) concentration difficulties c) tenseness and anxiousness IV) People under stare spend more time dreaming
Misconceptions about hypnosis (cont)
If you think: It has something to do with a sleeplike state. The reality is: It does not. Hypnotized subjects are fully awake. If you think: Certain personality types are likely to be hypnotizable. The reality is: There are no substantial correlates with personality measures. If you think: People who are hypnotized lose control of themselves. The reality is: Subjects are capable of saying no or terminating hypnosis. If you think: Hypnosis can enable people to "relive" the past. The reality is: Age-regressed adults behave like adults playacting as children. If you think: A person's responsiveness to hypnosis depends on the technique used and who administers it. The reality is: Neither is important under laboratory conditions. It is the subject's capacity that is important.
Misconceptions about hypnosis
If you think: It's all a matter of having a good imagination. The reality is: It's all a matter of having a good imagination. If you think: It's mostly just compliance. The reality is: Many highly motivated subjects fail to experience hypnosis. If you think: It's a matter of willful faking. The reality is: Physiological responses indicate that subjects are not lying. If you think: Relaxation is an important feature of hypnosis. The reality is: It's not. Hypnosis has been induced during vigorous exercise. If you think: It is dangerous. The reality is: Standard procedures are no more distressing than lectures.
Misconceptions about hypnosis (cont some more)
If you think: When hypnotized, people can remember more accurately. The reality is: Hypnosis may actually muddle the distinction between memory and fantasy and may artificially inflate confidence. If you think: Hypnotized people can be led to do acts that conflict with their values. The reality is: Hypnotized subjects fully adhere to their usual moral standards. If you think: People do not remember what happens during hypnosis. The reality is: Posthypnotic amnesia does not occur spontaneously. If you think: Hypnosis can enable people to perform otherwise impossible feats of strength, endurance, learning, and sensory acuity. The reality is: Performance following hypnotic suggestions for increased muscle strength, learning, and sensory acuity does not exceed what can be accomplished by motivated subjects outside hypnosis.
ground-breaking sleep study
Researchers: Drummond and others -used brain-imaging techniques to map the patterns of brain activity during a verbal learning task in two groups of participants -first to use brain-imaging techniques to examine the effects of sleep deprivation on verbal learning experimental group: -who were deprived of sleep for about 35 hours -areas of the prefrontal cortex (coordination of thought processes) were even more active in the sleep-deprived participants than in those who slept normally -temporal lobes almost totally inactive control group: -slept normally -the prefrontal cortex was highly active, as were the temporal lobes -on average, these rested participants scored significantly higher on the learning task than did their sleep-deprived counterparts -temporal lobes (language perception) active The parietal lobes (integration of information from different senses) of the latter group became highly active, however, as if to compensate for their sleep-deprived condition. And, the more active the parietal lobes, the higher a sleep-deprived participant scored on the learning task. Conclusion: -indicates that the cognitive functions used in such learning are significantly impaired by sleep deprivation. -shows that there are compensatory mechanisms in the parietal lobes that can reduce this impairment to some degree
NREM stages of sleep
Stage 1: Transition from waking to sleeping; irregular waves with occasional alpha waves. 1) it is a light sleep 2) breathing becomes irregular 3) the brain waves are low voltage and irregular 4) heart rate slows 5) body muscles relax 6) body temperature begins to drop slightly Stage 2: Transition from light to deeper sleep; sleep spindles (waves with alternating periods of calm and flashes of intense activity) appear. 1) body temperature drops more 2) "spindles" appear. Spindles are short bursts of brain wave activity Stage 3: Deeper sleep; slow-wave sleep begins when EEG shows 20% of brain waves are delta waves. 1) "Delta" brain waves begin to appear. They are very large and slow, about one per second 2) the person becomes hard to awaken Stage 4: Deepest sleep; Stage 4 sleep begins when 50% of waves are delta waves. 1) this is called "deep sleep" 2) it takes most people about one hour to reach this stage 3) it is comprised of almost entirely delta brain waves About 40 minutes after entering Stage 4, delta waves begin to disappear, and we transition back through Stage 3, Stage 2, and Stage 1. As we reenter Stage 1, REM (rapid eye movement) sleep begins, a period during which the brain is highly active.
What is insomnia?
Symptoms: -difficulty falling or staying asleep -waking too early -sleep that is light, restless -poor quality sleep Transient (temporary) insomnia: -lasting 3 weeks or fewer -can result from jet lag -emotional highs or lows -brief illness or injury that interferes with sleep Chronic insomnia: -lasts for months or even years -plagues about 10% of the adult population -The percentages are even higher for women, the elderly, and people suffering from psychiatric and medical disorders. -insomnia may be treated with drugs, but, in most cases, physicians encourage patients to adopt sleep hygiene practices to obtain long-term relief -dyssomnia
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
average LSD "trip": -lasts for 10 to 12 hours -usually produces extreme perceptual and emotional changes -including visual hallucinations and feelings of panic Withdrawal Symptoms: None -bad LSD trips have ended tragically in accidents, death, or suicide -Former LSD users sometimes experience flashbacks, brief recurrences of previous trips that occur suddenly and without warning hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD): -visual cortex becomes highly stimulated whenever the individuals shut their eyes, causing them to experience chronic visual hallucinations whenever they try to sleep
altered states of consciousness
changes in awareness produced by sleep, Sensory deprivation, meditation, hypnosis, or drugs
modafinil
helps people remain alert without the side effects of stimulants such as caffeine
