Chapter 4 HP216

Type two diabetes

Accounts for 90 to 95% of cases of diabetes. It develops progressively over time. The body cells become insensitive or unresponsive to insulin when it is released to move sugar from the blood into the body cells. Obesity is a common trigger. Variations include insulin resistance, impaired fasting glucose, and pre-diabetes. Eventually the pancreas may become unable to produce any insulin.

Maltose

Also called malt sugar, consists of two molecules of glucose. It does not generally occur by itself in foods but rather is bound together with other molecules. As our body breaks down these large molecules, Maltose results as a byproduct. It is also the sugar that is formed during fermentation of carbohydrates and grains and other foods into alcohol.

Lactose

Also called milk sugar consists of one glucose molecule and one galactose molecule. Interestingly human breast milk has more lactose than cows milk, making human breast milk taste sweeter. Like all carbohydrates, the lactose and dairy products is derived from plants. Dairy cows, sheep, and goats produce lactose from plants they eat.

Bodies regulation of blood glucose levels

Among the hormones contributing to the blood glucose regulation insulin and glucagon are the key players. When we eat a meal our blood glucose levels rise. But glucose in our bloodstream cannot help our nerves, muscles, and other organs function unless it can cross into the cells. Glucose molecules are too large to cross cell membranes independently.

Glycogen

Animal store glucose is glycogen. It is stored in our bodies in the liver and muscles. Not found in food and therefore not a dietary source of carbohydrates. After an animal is slaughtered most of the glycogen is broken down by enzymes found in the animals tissues. Thus very little glycogen exists in meat as plants contain no glycogen, it is not a dietary source of carbohydrates. Restore glycogen in our muscles and liver. Our body can metabolize the store glycogen to glucose when we need Energy.

Symptoms of type two diabetes

Any of the type one signs and symptoms. there is a greater frequency of infections. There will be sudden vision changes. Patient will experience slow healing of wounds or sores. Tingling and numbness in the hands and feet. Very dry skin.

Digestion of carbohydrates part two

As a bolus of food leaves the mouth and enters the stomach all digestion of the carbohydrates ceases. This is because the acid in the stomach and activate salivary amylase. The majority of carbohydrates digestion occurs in the small intestine. The pancreas secretes an enzyme into the small intestine. Additional enzymes found in the microvilli of the enterocytes that line the intestinal tract work on breaking down disaccharides into monosaccharides.

Digestion of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth as a starch when the food you eat mixes with saliva during chewing. Saliva has enzymes which breaks starch down into smaller particles and eventually into the disaccharide maltose. As you take a bite of bread and taste are getting sweeter this indicates the breakdown of starch into maltose.

What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates CHO, one of the three macronutrients. An important energy source, especially for nerve cells. Good sources include fruits, vegetables, and grains. 1 g of carbohydrates provides 4 calories. Carbohydrate literally means hydrated carbon. When something is said to be hydrated, it contains water which is made of hydrogen and oxygen H2O. We obtain carbohydrates predominantly from plant foods.

Disaccharides

Carbohydrates that are made up of two monosaccharides. The three most common disaccharides found in foods are lactose, maltose and sucrose.

Galactose

Does not occur alone in foods. It joins with glucose to create lactose, one of the three most common disaccharides.

Prevention control of diabetes

Eat a healthy diet, get daily exercise, and keep a healthy body weight. Limit intake of added sugars. Choose fiber rich foods like whole-grain. And limit the consumption of red meat and processed meats. Avoiding alcoholic beverages which can cause hypoglycemia. Helpful lifestyle choices can prevent or delay onset of type two diabetes. Oral medications and insulin injections may be required once diabetes has been diagnosed.

Carbohydrates are needed for

Fuel for daily activities and exercise. They help preserve protein for other uses. When the diet does not provide enough carbohydrates, the process of gluconeogenesis converts proteins in the blood and tissues into glucose.

Gluconeogenesis

Glucagon also assists in the breakdown of proteins and the uptake of amino acids by the liver which creates glucose from amino acids

Glycogenolysis

Glucagon stimulates the liberal took invert store glycogen into glucose, which is released into the blood and transported to cells for energy

Monosaccharides

Glucose, fructose, and galactose are the most common monosaccharides in our diet. Each of these monosaccharides contains six carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms. Very slight difference in the arrangement of the atoms in these three monosaccharides because major differences in their levels of sweetness.

Glucose storage

Insulin also stimulates the storage of glucose in the bodies tissues. Glucose is stored is glycogen in the liver in muscles called glycogenesis and it is stored as triglycerides in the adipose tissue lipogenesis

Cellular reuptake

Insulin travels to the tissues. There is stimulates glucose transporters within the cells to travel to the cell membrane, where it facilitates glucose transport into the cells to be used for energy.

Fermentation

Is a process in which an agent such as yeast causes an organic substance to break down into simpler substances resulting in the production of energy molecule ATP adenosine triphosphate. Very little maltose remains in alcoholic beverages after fermentation process is complete thus they are not good source of carbohydrates.

Fiber

Like starch, fiber is composed of a long polysaccharide chain however our body does not easily break down the bonds that connect the fiber molecules. This means most fibers pass through the gastrointestinal tract without being digested and absorbed. So they contribute no energy to our diet. However, fiber offers many other health benefits. There are currently a number of definitions for fiber.

Benefits of fiber

May reduce the risk for colon cancer, promotes bowel health by helping to prevent hemorrhoids and constipation. May reduce the risk for heart disease and enhance weight loss. May lower the risk of type two diabetes. And reduce risk for diverticulosis

Fiber rich carbohydrates

Not all complex carbohydrate foods are fiber rich. For example, potatoes that have been processed in frozen hashbrowns retain very little of their original fiber. On the other hand some foods rich in simple carbohydrates such as fruits are also rich in fiber.

Glucagon secretion

One blood glucose levels are low the pancreas secretes the hormone glucagon from the Alpha cells into the bloodstream

Starches part two

Our body easily digest most starches however some starches in plants are not digestible and are called resistant. Technically resistant starch is classified as a type of fiber. When our intestinal bacteria ferment resistant starch, A fatty acid called butyrate is produced. Consuming resistant starch may be beneficial some research suggests that butyrate consumption reduces the risk for cancer. Legumes contain more resistant starch than other vegetables, fruits, or grains. This quality plus their high protein and fiber content, makes legumes a special health food

Starch

Plant store glucose not as a single molecule but as polysaccharides in the form of starch. Excellent food source of starch includes grains like wheat , rice, corn, oats, and barley, and legumes like peas, beans, lentils, and tubers like potatoes and yams. Our cells cannot use the complex starch molecules exactly as they occur in these plants. Instead our body must break them down into monosaccharide glucose from which they can then fuel our energy needs.

Glucose the most abundant carbohydrate

Produced by plants through photosynthesis. The preferred source of energy for the brain. An important source of energy for all cells. glucose does not generally occur by itself in foods, but attaches to other sugars to form disaccharides and complex carbohydrates. In our body glucose is preferred source of energy for the brain and it is a very important source of energy for all cells.

Photosynthesis

The green pigment in a plant called chlorophyll absorbs sunlight which provides the energy needed to fuel the manufacture of glucose.

Fructose

The monosaccharide that is the sweetest natural sugar, is found in fruits and vegetables. Fructose is also called fruit sugar. In many processed foods it comes in the form of high fructose corn syrup. The syrup is manufactured from corn and is used to sweet and soft drinks, desserts, candies, and jellies.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates

The second major type of carbohydrate generally consists of a long chain of glucose molecules called polysaccharides. They include starch, glycogen, most fiber.

Insulin

To get into the cells glucose needs assistance from the hormone insulin, which is secreted into the bloodstream by the pancreatic cells called beta cells. Insulin is transported in the blood throughout the body, where it stimulates special molecules called glucose transporters, which are located in the cells. To travel to the cell membrane and transport glucose into the cell. it is a key that opens the gates of the cell membrane, enabling the transport of glucose into the cell interior where it can be used for energy. Insulin also stimulates the liver and muscles to keep up glucose and store it is glycogen

Glucagon

When a person has not eaten for a while the blood glucose level declines. This decrease in blood glucose stimulates a different type of cell of the pancreas called an alpha cell to secrete the hormone glucagon. Glucagon acts in the opposite way of insulin it triggers Glycogenolysis in which the liver converts it stored glycogen into glucose which is then secreted into the bloodstream and transported to the cells for energy. Glucagon also assist in breakdown of the bodies proteins to amino acids, so that the liver can stimulate glycogenesis, the production of new glucose from amino acids.

Insulin secretion

When blood glucose levels increase after a meal, the pancreas secretes the hormone insulin from the beta cells into the bloodstream

Soluble fiber

fiber that dissolves in water or is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. Dissolves in water. They are also viscous forming a gel when wet, and fermentable. That is they are easily digested by bacteria in the colon. Soluble fiber is typically found in citrus fruits, berries, oat products, and beans. Research says that it can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and type two diabetes by lowering cholesterol and glucose levels.

Sucrose

is composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule. Because sucrose contains fructose it is sweeter than lactose or maltose. Sucrose provides much of the sweet taste found in honey, maple syrup, fruits, and veggies. Table sugar, brown sugar, powdered sugar, and many other products are made by refining the sucrose found in sugarcane and sugar beets.

Good sources of fiber include

legumes and other vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and nuts and seeds.

Functional fiber

nondigestible carbohydrates either isolated from natural sources or synthesized; these may be added to foods and dietary supplements. Consist of non-digestible forms of carbohydrates that are extracted from plants or manufactured in a laboratory and have known health benefits. Functional fiber is added to foods and is a form used in fiber supplements. Examples of functional fiber sources you might see on nutrition labels include cellulose, guar gum, Pectin, psyllium.

Dietary fiber

plant material that cannot be digested. A non-digestible part of the plant forms the support structures of leaves, stems, and seeds. In a sense, you can think of dietary fiber as a plant skeleton. This is also classified by solubility. Not found in food.

complex carbohydrates

polysaccharides, starches found in grains, potatoes, and vegetables. The second major type of carbohydrate generally consists of a long chain of glucose molecules called polysaccharides

Simple carbohydrates

sugars in fruits, honey, & sugar cane. Simple carbs are commonly referred to as sugars. Four of these sugars are called monosaccharides because they consist of a single sugar molecule. The other three sugars are disaccharides which consist of two molecules of sugar joined together.

Insoluble fiber's

the tough, fibrous structures of fruits, vegetables, and grains; indigestible food components that do not dissolve in water. Are those that do not typically dissolve in water. These fibers are usually non-viscous and typically cannot be fermented by bacteria in the colon. And soluble fiber is generally found in whole grains, such as wheat, rye, and brown rice as well as many vegetables. These fibers are not associated with reduce cholesterol levels but Are known for promoting regular bowel movements, alleviating constipation, and reducing risk of a bowel disorder called diverticulosis. Non-starch polysaccharides.