chapter 4 learning and memory

evoked set

"It's time for the Christmas shopping list," thought Martha's mother, so she asked Martha for a quick list of her favorite perfumes. Martha gave her mother six names that were all her "favorite." This group constitutes Martha's ________ for perfume.

false

A free recall test of a sample of potential customers would involve showing ads one at a time and asking each respondent if she had seen it before.

true

A mother observes her daughter stirring batter in a bowl just the way she does when she bakes. The daughter has modeled her mother's behavior.

shaping

A sales manager pays a bonus to new trainees when they develop a good sales prospectus. Later, after the trainees have completed two months of training, the manger pays a bonus only for an actual sale. The manager is applying what process of instrumental conditioning to help the trainees be productive in their sales careers?

extinction

A woman no longer receives compliments on the perfume that she wears. In learning terms, the stimulus-response connection has weakened. Which of the following processes best explains what has occurred in the example?

variable-interval reinforcement

A department store decides to use "secret shoppers" at unannounced times to test for service quality among its personnel. Store personnel are rewarded for excellent service attitudes. Which of the following reinforcement schedules would most likely apply in this situation?

by measuring a behavioral change that could directly be tied to a previous experience

According to the definition of learning, how could a researcher ever show that cognitive learning had taken place in a subject?

encoding

According to the information processing-approach to studying the memory process, in the ________ stage, information enters in a way the system will recognize it.

stimulus discrimination

According to the theory of classical conditioning, ________ should be encouraged by promoting unique attributes of a well-established brand.

von Restorff Effect

Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall of the stimulus. This result is called the ________.

∙ Fixed-interval reinforcement-After a specified time period has passed, the first response that is made brings reward. Under such conditions, people tend to respond slowly right after being reinforced, but their responses speed up as the time for the next reinforcement looms. Example: crowding a store on the last day of a sale but not returning until the next sale. ∙ Variable-interval reinforcement-After a variable unspecified time period has passed, the first response that is made brings reward. Because the person does not know exactly when to expect the reinforcement, responses must be performed at a consistent rate. Example: using mystery or secret shoppers to watch store employees and their attempt to provide quality service. ∙ Fixed-ratio reinforcement-Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses. This schedule motivates people to continue performing the same behavior over and over again. Example: repeat shopping to earn prizes by earning credits or trading stamps. ∙ Variable-ratio reinforcement-The person is reinforced after a certain number of responses, but he or she does not know how many responses are required. People in such situations tend to respond at very high and steady rates, and this type of behavior is very difficult to extinguish. Example: gambling or playing slot machines.

An important factor in instrumental (operant) conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate reinforcements are given for a behavior. The chapter discusses four possible schedules of reinforcement. Briefly describe each schedule and give a short example. Be sure to use the proper terminology for each schedule.

operant

Another name for instrumental conditioning is ________ conditioning.

spreading activation

As May-Lee considers her purchase of perfume, she shifts back and forth between thinking about claims made by the different brands, remembering ads she has seen, and considering her emotional responses to the various brands. Which of the following processes most accurately describes what May-Lee is going through?

stimulus and response

Behavioral learning theorists do not focus on internal thought processes; rather, they look to external evidence to study learning. What aspects of the environment are of most concern to behaviorists in studying learning?

false

Behavioral theorists rely on internal mental states to explain learning.

conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus

Classical conditioning takes place when a(n) ________ is continuously matched with a(n) ________.

instrumental conditioning

Claudia Norman, a marketing consultant, recommended that brand equity for a new environmentally-friendly product could be established by giving initial customers free memberships in the Sierra Club organization. Claudia used which of the following in her recommendation?

true

Cognitive learning theory approaches tend to stress the importance of internal mental processes.

Classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response of its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus. The person who first studied this form of conditioning was Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist (while doing research on digestion in animals). Operant (or instrumental) conditioning occurs as an individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes. B. F. Skinner demonstrated the effects of instrumental conditioning by teaching animals to dance, play ping-pong, and so on by systematically rewarding them for desired behaviors. Although responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple, those in instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may be more complex and shaped over a period of time. Instrumental learning occurs as a result of a reward following the desired behavior. It takes place over a period of time while the individual tries a variety of other behaviors and abandons them because they are not reinforced. In instrumental learning, the response is performed because it is instrumental in gaining a reward or avoiding punishment.

Compare and contrast classical and instrumental (operant) conditioning.

true

Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times.

true

Consumers' attraction to slot machines can be explained by the variable-ratio reinforcement schedule the machines use.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. The learner need not have the experience directly. We can also learn by observing events that affect others. We learn even when we are not trying. This casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge is known as incidental learning.

Define the terms learning and incidental learning.

fixed-interval reinforcement

Determining the most effective reinforcement schedule to use with consumers is important to marketers. What type of reinforcement schedule is most likely being used when after a period of time has passed, the first response a consumer makes brings the reward?

The four conditions are: ∙ The consumer's attention must be directed to the appropriate model, which, for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity, he must want to emulate. ∙ The consumer must remember what the model says or does. ∙ The consumer must convert this information into actions. ∙ The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions.

For modeling behavior to occur during observational learning, four conditions must be met. What are those conditions? Be specific in your description.

Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar, conditioned responses. The idea is that people react to other stimuli (similar stimuli) in much the same way they respond to the original stimuli. For example, a drug store's bottle of private brand mouthwash might be deliberately packaged so as to resemble a name brand (such as Listerine). The consumer would assume this "me-too" product has the same characteristics as the name brand and buy it because of its lower price. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus. In this case, reactions are weakened and will soon disappear. National manufacturers remind consumers that if they buy cheaper brands they will not get the same results as they do when they buy the national brand.

Discuss what stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are and present an example of each that is relevant to the field of marketing.

true

Episodic memories are likely to become part of a person's long-term memory

telescoping

Erika landed a job as an analyst for a small marketing research firm whose task was to observe and probe patient behaviors at a small Midwestern clinic. In her study, she noticed that many of the patients had a tendency to underestimate the time since their last doctor visit. The memory lapse she observed was due to a memory problem called ________.

stimulus generalization

Family branding, licensing, and look-alike packaging are all marketing strategies based on ________.

false

Fixed-interval reinforcement explains why airlines' frequent flyer programs are so successful.

behavioral learning

Frank is sitting in his Psychology 101 class listening to his professor attempt to explain the "black box" process and its connection with learning. He suddenly smells the aroma of fresh cinnamon rolls, and his mouth begins to water. He looks around and sees a student in the last row bite into a big, juicy roll. "I wish I were sitting next to him," Frank thinks, "because I know I could steal a bite." What Frank just went through in class was similar to the "black box" process being described by his professor. This process is most closely associated with which of the following learning methods?

In contrast to behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment. Supporters of this viewpoint also stress the role of creativity and insight during the learning process.

Give a brief explanation of cognitive learning.

Because of stimulus generalization, the customer learns to associate the benefits and feelings of the old product with the new package. At the same time, retroactive interference is causing the memory of the original package to weaken.

Gradually changing the package of a product that depends heavily on brand loyalty can be successful if each change is minor. Over the course of a year or more the package may change totally in appearance without offending or confusing brand loyal customers. What factors contribute to forgetting and allow this marketing strategy to work?

halo effect

Herbal companies traditionally sold their products in cylinder-shaped plastic containers that were very characteristic of the herbal market. One company broke with tradition and began to sell its herbal products in bottles that appeared to be straight from the pharmacy's shelf. They were rectangular with white labels that looked very professional and very serious. Sales went through the roof. What form of stimulus generalization most likely worked for the herbal company?

extinction

If a conditioned stimulus is only occasionally matched with an unconditioned stimulus, the association between the two will become weakened. This is called ________.

positive reinforcement

If a woman gets compliments after wearing Obsession perfume, she is more likely to keep buying the product and wearing it. What type of instrumental conditioning has occurred in the situation?

recognition

In a typical ________ test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before.

true

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.

Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative outcome is avoided, while punishment occurs when an action causes a negative outcome.

In instrumental conditioning, what is the distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment?

Memory markers are retrieval cues. The song acted as a mnemonic device that allowed Jason to retrieve episodic memories. A mnemonic is a cue that is memorized along with a memory that will trigger the memory. Episodic memories are those that allow us to remember what we did, or what happened to us or others, and in what order. Spontaneous recovery explains why Jason's memories came back in a rush.

Jason heard an old but familiar song that reminded him about a summer in Austria when he was in college. As he thought more about his summer of the past, a flood of memories came rushing back. Describe what was happening to Jason in terms of memory markers. What specific term is used to describe the process whereby his memories came flooding back?

false

John Deere established a reputation for building dependable farm tractors. When the company began to build small yard tractors, it insisted on using the same logo on its small mowers as on its large tractors. John Deere was applying stimulus generalization through look-alike packaging.

instrumental conditioning

John wants to teach his dog to do tricks such as "sit up," "roll over," and "fetch a stick." By systematically rewarding his dog for responding in the correct way, John is able to accomplish great progress over a 30-day period. John was able to teach his dog using which of the following learning processes?

nostalgia

Many marketers use "the good old days" as a common theme in promotional messages. This is a strategy of focusing on ________.

true

Marketers assist in the process called elaborative rehearsal when they use catchy slogans or jingles to help consumers remember information about products or services.

Two basic measures of impact are recognition and recall. In the typical recognition test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before. In contrast, free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they have seen without being prompted for this information first-obviously, this task requires greater effort on the part of respondents. Under some conditions, these two memory measures tend to yield the same results, especially when the researchers try to keep the viewers' interest in ads constant. Generally, though, recognition scores tend to be more reliable and do not decay over time the way recall scores do. Recognition scores are almost always better than recall scores because recognition is a simpler process and more retrieval cues are available to the consumer.

Measuring memory for marketing stimuli is often difficult. Discuss the differences between recognition and recall. Give examples of methods for testing each form. Which one is thought to be the more reliable measure of memory?

service script

Melissa knows that when she goes to the dentist she must make an appointment, show up on time, bring proof of insurance, and have her teeth cleaned before any other dental services will be performed. With respect to her visit to the dentist, Melissa has learned a schema known as a(n) ________.

interference

Memories of products are often replaced (forgotten) as we learn additional information. This displacement of information is called ________.

incidental

Much learning takes effort and time, but some learning is so casual as to be unintentional. This type of learning is referred to as ________ learning.

modeling

On her first visit to China, Jane did not know how to pay for the produce she had selected at a market. She watched several Chinese women pay for their selections, and then Jane copied their behavior. In this example, Jane used ________.

true

One of the goals of successful marketing is to have potential customers think of the marketer's product whenever they try to remember products within a certain category. This remembered set of products is called an evoked set.

true

Secret shoppers may be used by marketers to test the effectiveness of service quality among employees. This is a form of variable-interval reinforcement.

true

Shari Gomez sees the big red heart on the front of a Cheerios box and immediately thinks of an ad she has seen that discusses the heart-healthy benefits of Cheerios. This is an illustration of a stimulus-response connection.

An unusual ad has greater salience. Stimuli that stand out in contrast to their environment are more likely to command attention, which in turn increases the likelihood they will be recalled. This phenomenon is called the von Restorff Effect.

People have a tendency to remember unusual ads more effectively than ads that are not. Why? What is this phenomenon called?

response bias

People tend to give "yes" responses to questions, regardless of what they are asked. This is an example of ________.

frequency

The popular marketing technique known as ________ marketing applies the principles of instrumental conditioning by reinforcing regular purchases; consumers are given rewards with values that increase along with the amount purchased.

true

Retrieval is the process whereby we recover information from long-term memory.

incidental learning

Sam Bolton hums the Purina Cat Chow jingle as he drives down the expressway. A thought suddenly occurs to Sam: "Why am I humming this stupid jingle? I don't buy this stuff. In fact, I don't even have a cat." Sam knows this jingle through ________.

state-dependent retrieval

Samantha is passing down the cereal aisle when she spots a box of Frosted Flakes cereal featuring Tony the Tiger on the box front. She remembers the taste of the cereal and how much fun she had talking to Tony while she ate her cereal as a kid. She buys a box and leaves the cereal aisle without examining any other cereal products. What aspect of the retrieval process did Samantha use in her product search process?

Too much repetition was decreasing the strength of the CS, thus leading to extinction of the learned relationship between the logo, the quality of the product, and the association with Scott's company.

Scott thought of himself as a very successful marketer. He created a campaign with a product logo that was very popular and that customers associated with a quality product. It was so popular that in a few months, the logo began to appear almost everywhere. Instead of increasing sales of the product, the customer demand began to decrease as competitors' products became more successful. What characteristic of learning was most likely ruining Scott's apparent success?

true

Stimulus generalization can create a halo effect.

the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar, conditioned responses

Stimulus generalization refers to ________.

response bias

Susan selects and runs her focus groups carefully. She wants to make sure that each focus group member provides meaningful information for her research purpose. As she is examining potential focus group candidates, she notices that three men and two women seem to provide "yes" answers regardless of what she asks them. They seem to want to be on the focus group very badly and appear eager to be "good subjects." If Susan follows prudent testing methodology, she should reject these test subjects in order to avoid the possibility of which of the following biases?

halo effect

The ________ refers to the tendency people have to react to stimuli similar to an original stimulus in a classical conditioning situation in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus.

false

The observational learning process begins with a step called motivation.

∙ Family branding-A variety of products capitalize on the reputation of a company name. Positive corporate images help to sell the company's different product lines. ∙ Product line extension-Related products are added to an established brand. ∙ Licensing-Well-known brand names are "rented" by others. This strategy is increasing in popularity as marketers try to link their products and services with well-established figures. ∙ Look-alike packaging-Distinctive packaging designs create strong associations with a particular brand. Imitating the look of an existing successful brand is common in today's crowded marketplace.

The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers' positive associations with an existing brand or company name. In this context, list and briefly discuss the four strategies based on stimulus generalization presented in the text.

Skinner

The researcher and theorist most associated with instrumental conditioning is ________.

false

The salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility (i.e., frequency of price changes).

false

The spacing effect describes the tendency for consumers to recall printed material more effectively when the advertiser repeats the target item repeatedly in a short time period rather than periodically over a longer time span.

true

The success of hybrid ads supports the idea that the viewing environment of a marketing message affects recall.

false

The two major approaches associated with behavioral learning theory are classical conditioning and observational learning.

When animals or people learn with a fixed schedule, they learn that reinforcement comes after a certain number of repetitions or in a certain time interval. If the reinforcement is not forthcoming, extinction begins to take place. When animals or people learn with a variable schedule, they also learn that reinforcement is not always forthcoming. However, they continue to work, expecting to eventually be rewarded.

Variable reinforcements result in behavior that is more difficult to extinguish than fixed schedules. Why?

It was originally believed that STM had an upper limit of five to nine chunks of information. People combine small pieces of information into a large whole in a process called chunking. Based on more current research, the optimal capacity of STM appears to be about three to four chunks of information.

What is the capacity of short-term memory? Comment and explain.

positive reinforcement

What mechanism is used when a consumer learns to perform responses that produce rewarding outcomes?

cognitive learning

What type of learning theory emphasizes that people are problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment?

true

When Pavlov's famous dogs responded to a bell signaling feeding time, they were exhibiting what is called classical conditioning.

false

When Shira was a young girl, her teacher gave her a sticker every time she earned above 90% on a test. Shira's teacher was using classical conditioning.

false

When a company engages in a "piggybacking strategy," it is hoping that customers will be able to discriminate between the company's product and a competitor's product.

spontaneous recovery

Which of the following has occurred when a stimulus is able to evoke a weakened response years after the stimulus was first perceived?

stimulus discrimination

Which of the following occurs when a customer learns that two products are different even though the packages of both products look similar?

behavioral learning

Which theory listed below assumes that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events?

variable-interval reinforcement

Which type of reinforcement best characterizes what an individual would typically experience while fishing?

Although learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience, and although an injury is an experience, the injury itself is not the cause of any subsequent change in behavior. Behavior changes to accommodate the results of the injury. We may, for instance, learn to walk in a certain way because we are negatively reinforced by the absence of pain. We may learn certain behaviors by watching others with the same injury adapt. If the same bone was broken and we were never aware of the injury, there would be no change in behavior and no learning.

Why isn't the behavioral change associated with breaking a bone typically considered to be learning?

Visual stimuli literally arrive at the speed of light. It takes time for the brain to recognize and process information. Without a means of storing sensory information for a short period of time, new stimuli would override old stimuli before it could be processed. The attention process would have to shut out new incoming sensations while it worked on what it had, which would reduce the person's interaction with the world and decrease the probability of recognizing danger or opportunity in an ever-changing environment.

Why would short-term memory be greatly impaired, or perhaps made impossible, without sensory memory?

meaning

Within a knowledge structure, which of the following is the LEAST complex knowledge unit?

Memory

________ involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed.

Observational

________ learning occurs when an individual watches the actions of others and notes the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors.

Episodic

________ memories relate to events that are personally relevant; therefore, a person's motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong.

Sensory

________ memory permits temporary storage of information we receive from our senses.

Learning

________ refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.

Classical conditioning

________ was first demonstrated in experiments performed on dogs by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals.