Chapter 5-General Psychology
Behavior modification
(B-mod) The systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior.
Conditioned emotional reaction
(CER) an emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning
Conditioned response
(CR) an acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
(CS) a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Fixed interval
(FI) schedule, reinforcement if given only for a correct response made after a fixed amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement.
Fixed ratio
(FR) schedule, reinforcement is given after a specific number of correct responses
neutral stimulus
(NS) a stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response
Unconditioned response
(UR) An unlearned response to a stimulus
unconditioned stimulus
(US) a stimulus that elicits an unlearned response
Variable interval
(VI) schedule, the amount of time that must elapse before reinforcement can be given for a correct response is variable rather than fixed.
Variable ratio
(VR) schedule, the number of correct responses needed before reinforcement is given varies around some average number.
Characteristics of classical conditioning
- Extinction - Spontaneous recovery - stimulus generalization - stimulus discrimination - stimulus characteristics that strengthen conditioned responses
Guidelines for using praise to strengthen desirable behavior
- connect - use hugs - be specific - avoid empty flattery - reward the effort, not the outcome - avoid repeating yourself - don't end on a sour note
Guidelines for enhancing the effectiveness of reinforcement
1. Be specific 2. Use Specific language 3. Select a reinforcer 4. Explain the contingency 5. Apply the reinforcer 6. Track the frequency of the desirable behavior 7. Wean the child from the reinforcer
Intensity of the US
A stronger US will typically lead to faster conditioning than a weaker one
B.F. Skinner
American psychologist ____ (1904-1990) developed a more formal model of Thornike's theory called operant conditioning.
Extinction
the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response
Cognitive factor
the informational value of a conditioned stimulus as a reliable signal for predicting the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.
Punishment
the introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus after a response occurs, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response
Avoidance learning
the learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus
Escape learning
the learning of behaviors that allow an organism to escape from an aversive stimulus
Frequency of pairing
the more often the CS is paired with the US, the stronger and more reliable the CR will be
Radical behaviorism
the philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences
Classical conditioning
the process by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response identical or similar to one that was originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing or association of the two stimuli.
Operant conditioning
the process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated
Insight learning
the process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs
reconditioning
the process of relearning a conditioned response following extinction
spontaneous recovery
the spontaneous return of a conditioned response following extinction
Positive reinforcement
the strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs
Negative reinforcement
the strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs
Stimulus generalization
the tendency for stimuli that re similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
Stimulus discrimination
the tendency to differentiate among stimulus so that stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical too it, fail to elicit a conditioned response
Bob Koelling
Garcia and ____ noticed something unusual in the behavior of rats that had been exposed to nausea-inducing radiation. The rats developed an aversion of "conditioned nausea" to flavored water sweetened with saccharine when the water was paired with the nausea-producing radiation.
Wolfgang
German psychologist ___ Kohler (1927) experimented with a Chimp named Sultan, and placed a bunch of bananas outside the cage, forcing the Chimp to use sticks to get the fruit.
cockroaches
Japanese investigators Hidehiro Watanabe and Makoto Mizunami stimulated the antennae of _____ with a scent of peppermint (a CS) while they placed droplets of a sugary substance (a US) on the insects' mouths.
Timing
The strongest CRs occur when the CS is presented first and remains present throughout the administration of the US
Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, whereas those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur
True
True or False Classical conditioning helped explain such diverse behaviors such as; phobias, drug cravings, and taste aversions
True
True or False Classical conditioning works as a kind of built in early warning system.
True
True or False Conditioned stimuli are signal or cues that organisms use to make theses (cognitive factor) predictions.
True
True or False Examples of milder punishments include: (1) verbal reprimand, (2) removal of a reinforcer, and (3) time-out Punishment is also more effective when it is combined with positive reinforcement for alternative desirable behaviors.
True
True or False Garcia and his colleagues came up with an ingenious way to help sheep ranchers protect their sheep from coyotes. At the time of the study, free-ranging coyotes were killing thousands of sheep, and ranchers seeking to protect their flocks were killing many coyotes so that they became an endangered species. As an experiment, the researchers injected sheep carcasses with a poison that would sicken but not kill the coyotes and scattered the carcasses over the range. Not only did the sheep killings drop, but some coyotes also developed such an aversion to the taste of the sheep meat that they ran away at the sight or smell of sheep.
True
True or False Generally speaking, the greater the difference between the origional stimulus and the related stimulus, the weaker the conditioned response is.
True
True or False Insight learning may arise from a mental process of trial and error - the working out in your mind of possible solutions to a problem based on responses that succeeded in the past.
True
True or False John Watson also made his mark in the world of advertising, working as an executive at a major advertising firm after leaving academia. He came up with pairing items with sex appeal.
True
True or False Modern psychologists call the first part of the Law of Effect reinforcement, and the second part, punishment.
True
True or False Operant conditioning is also called instrumental learning
True
True or False Partial reinforcement has two general kinds of schedules: ratio and interval schedules
True
True or False People with chemical dependencies frequently encounter drug cravings, especially when they undergo drug withdrawal or go "cold turkey". Classical conditioning can also contribute to these strong desires.
True
True or False Schedules of partial reinforcement are much more common than schedules of continuous reinforcement in daily life.
True
True or False Shaping involves learning in small steps through applying the method of successive approximations in which the experimenter reinforces a series of ever-closer approximations of the target response.
True
True or False Stimulus discrimination in daily life allows us to differentiate between threatening and nonthreatening stimuli.
True
True or False Stimulus generalization has survival value. It allows us to respond to a range of stimuli that are similar to an original threatening stimulus.
True
True or False TO modify behavior through reinforcement, it is important to establish a clear contingency, or connection, between the desired behavior and the reinforcement.
True
True or False Thorndike in 1905, proposed a principle that he called law of effect.
True
True or False Throndike argued that animals did not employ reasoning, insight, or any other form of higher intelligence to find their way to the exit. Rather, it was through a random process of trial and error that they gradually eliminated useless responses and eventually chanced upon the successful behavior. Successful responses were then "stamped in" by the pleasure they produced and became more likely to be repeated in the future.
True
True or False Watson and Rayner selected an 11-month-old boy called Albert B. (known as Little Albert). They repeatedly paired the rat and loud sound, which resulted in Albert developing a fear response to the sight of the rate alone.
True
True or False Physical punishment has many drawbacks: (1) punishment may suppress undesirable behavior, but it doesn't eliminate it, (2) punishment does not teach new behaviors, (3) punishment can have undesirable consequences, (4) punishment may become abusive, and (5) Punishment may represent a form of inappropriate modeling.
True
True or false Psychologists have identified several key factors to the timing and intensity of stimuli that serve to strengthen conditioned responses. - frequency of pairing, Timing, Intensity of the US
Contingency contracting
Which involves an exchange of desirable reinforcers, is a more formal way of establishing a contingency.
Robert, Nicholas
__ Ader and ___ Cohen (1982) showed that classical conditioning even extends to the workings of the immune system.
FI-30
__ schedule means that after an interval of 30 seconds has elapsed since the last response was delivered, regardless of the number of responses it made during the 30-second interval
VR-20
__ schedule means that reinforcement is administered after an average of every 20 responses
VI-60
__ schedule means that the period of time that elapses before reinforcement is given varies around an average of 60 seconds across occasions.
FR-6
__ schedule, reinforcement is given after each sixth response
Edward, C. H.
___ Tolman and ___ Honzik (1930) trained rats to run a maze.
Edward Thorndike
____ (1874-1949) studied learning in animals because he found them easier to work with than people. He constructed a device called a "puzzle box"
John Watson
____, the founder of behaviorism, believed that Pavlov's principles of conditioning could explain emotional responses in humans. In 1919, Watson and Rosalie Rayner (his future wife) set out to prove that a fear response could be acquired through classical conditioning.
Puzzle box
a cage in which the animal had to perform a simple act to make its escape and reach a dish of food placed withing its view just outside the cage
Discriminative Stimulus
a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response
Déjà vu
a feeling of having been in a place before when you've never actually been there.
Token economy program
a form of behavior modification in which tokens earned for preforming desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers
Computer-assisted instruction
a form of programmed instruction in which a computer is used to guide a student through a series of increasingly difficult questions
Behavior thearpy
a form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning.
Programmed instruction
a learning method in which complex material is broken down into a series of small steps that learners master at their own pace
Cognitive Map
a mental representation of an area that helps an organism navigate its way from one point to another
Shaping
a process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer approximations of the desired response
Negative punishment
a reinforcing stimulus is removed as a consequence of an undesirable behavior, which over time tends to reduce the frequency of the undesirable behavior.
Learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior acquired through experience
Operant response
a response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences.
Reinforcer
a stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated
Schedule of continuous reinforcement
a system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a response is produced
Schedule of partial reinforcement
a system of reinforcement in which only a portion of responses is reinforced
Conditioned taste aversion
an aversion to a particular food or beverage acquired through classical conditioning
Positive punishment
an aversive or unpleasant stimulus is imposed as a consequence of an undesirable behavior, which over time tends to reduce the frequency of the undesirable behavior.
Skinner box
an experimental apparatus developed by B.F. Skinner for studying relationships between reinforcement and behavior
Phobias
excessive fears of particular objects or situations
Superstitious behavior
in Skinner's view, behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement
Biofeedback training
is a technique for teaching people to change certain bodily responses, including heart rate and types of brain waves. Relies on operant conditioning principles.
Secondary reinforcers
learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers
Latent learning
learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided
Cognitive learning
learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it
schedules of reinforcement
predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement
Ratio schedules
reinforcement is based on the number of responses
Interval schedules
reinforcement is bassed on the timing of responses
Primary reinforcer
reinforcers, such as food or sexual stimulation, that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives
Immune System
the body's system of defense against disease
Robert Rescorla
Psychologist ___ (1988-2009) takes a cognitive perspective in explaining classical conditioning. he challenged the conventional behaviorist view that classical conditioning is based simply on the repeated pairing of a previously neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. He argued that conditioning depends on a cognitive factor.
John Garcia
Psychologist ____ was the first to demonstrate experimentally the role of classical conditioning in the acquisition of taste aversion.
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist ____ (1849-1936) discovered Classical Conditioning. Classical conditioning is also called learning by association.
