Chapter 7: Motivation Concepts

Interpersonal Justice

The degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect.

McClelland's Theory of Needs: Need for Power (nPow)

The need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise.

Distributive Justice

• Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. • Employees tend to perceive their outcomes are fairest when they are distributed equitably. • Differentiating the pay of team members on the basis of their inputs (how well they performed in games) attracted better players to the team, made it more likely they would stay, and increased team performance according to a study of U.S. National Hockey League.

Culture and Justice

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Goal-Setting Theory: Goal Commitment, Task Characteristics, and National Culture Factors - National Characteristics

Goals may have different effects in different cultures. In collectivist and high power-distance cultures, achievable moderate goals can be more motivating than difficult ones.

Goal-Setting Theory: Goal Commitment, Task Characteristics, and National Culture Factors - Task Characteristics

Goals themselves seem to affect performance more strongly when tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than novel, independent rather than interdependent, and on the high end of achievable.

Six Choices of Employees who Perceive Inequity

1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpaid). 2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality). 3. Distort perceptions of self ("I used to think I worked at a moderate pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else"). 4. Distort perceptions of others ('Mike's job isn't as desirable as I thought"). 5. Choose a different referent ("I may not make as much money as my brother-in-law, but I'm doing a lot better than my dad did when he was my age.") 6. Leave the field (quit the job).

Early Theories of Motivation: Hierarchy of Needs Theory - Social-Belongingness

Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.

Organizational Justice

An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice.

Early Theories of Motivation: Hierarchy of Needs Theory - Self-Actualization

Drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment.

Early Theories of Motivation: Hierarchy of Needs Theory - Physiological

Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.

Early Theories of Motivation: Hierarchy of Needs Theory - Esteem

Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention.

Early Theories of Motivation: Hierarchy of Needs Theory - Safety-Security

Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.

McClelland's Theory of Needs: Need for Affiliation (nAff)

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Reinforcement Theory: Operant Conditioning/Behaviorism and Reinforcement

• Argues that people learn to behave in a certain way to either get something they want or to avoid something they don't want. • People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so; that rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response; and that behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated. • 𝐁𝐞𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐦: ▪ A theory that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

Goal-Setting Theory: Difficulty and Feedback Dimensions

• Evidence suggests that specific goals increase performance; that difficult goals, when accepted, produce higher performances than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to higher performances than does non-feedback. • The more difficult the goal is, the higher the level of performance. • 𝐏𝐞𝐨𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐝𝐨 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐲 𝐠𝐞𝐭 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐛𝐚𝐜𝐤 𝐨𝐧 𝐡𝐨𝐰 𝐰𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐲 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐠𝐨𝐚𝐥𝐬 - 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬, 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐛𝐚𝐜𝐤 𝐠𝐮𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐫. ▪ Self-generated feedback - with which employees are able to monitor their own progress or receive feedback from the task process itself - is more powerful than externally generated feedback.

The Three Needs and their Link to Important Job Outcomes

• First, when jobs have a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback, along with an intermediate degree of risk, high achievers are strongly motivated. • Second, high nAch does not necessarily make someone a good manager, especially in large organizations. People with high nAch are interested in how well they do personally, and not in influencing others to do well. • Third, the most effective leaders are high in nPow and nAff.

Goal-Setting Theory: Goal Commitment, Task Characteristics, and National Culture Factors - Goal Commitment

• Goal-setting theory assumes an individual is committed to the goal and determined not to lower or abandon it. The individual (1) believes he or she can achieve the goal and (2) wants to achieve it. • Goal commitment is most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, when the goals are self-set rather than assigned, and when they are based at least partially on individual ability.

Self-Concordance Outcomes

• OB research suggests that people who pursue work goals for intrinsic reasons are more satisfied with their hobs, feel they fit into their organizations better, and perform better. • 𝐀𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐬, 𝐢𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐩𝐮𝐫𝐬𝐮𝐞 𝐠𝐨𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐮𝐬𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐜 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭, 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐲 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐤𝐞𝐥𝐲 𝐭𝐨 𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐠𝐨𝐚𝐥𝐬, 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐲 𝐝𝐨, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐲 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐢𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐲 𝐝𝐨 𝐧𝐨𝐭. ▪ Why? Because the process of striving toward a goal is fun whether or not the goal is achieved. • When people do not enjoy their work for intrinsic reasons, those who work because they feel obligated to do so can still perform acceptably, though they experience higher levels of strain as a result. • You should choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards. For organizations, managers should provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives. Managers need to make the work interesting, provide recognition, and support employee growth and development.

What Makes People More Likely to be Engaged in their Jobs?

• One key is the degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to engage in work. • Another factor is a match between the individual's values and those of the organization.

Ensuring Justice

• Some managers are likely to calculate justice by their degree of adherence to the justice rules of the organization. These managers will try to gain greater subordinate compliance with behavioral expectations, create an identity of being fair to employees, or establish norms of fairness. • Other managers may be motivated in justice decisions by their emotions. When they have a high positive affect and/or low negative affect, these managers are most likely to act fairly.

Influencing Self-Efficacy in Others: Pygmalion Effect

• The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the Pygmalion Effect. The Pygmalion Effect is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true.

Informational Justice

• The degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions. • The more detailed and candid managers are with employees, the more fairly treated those employees feel. • While managers should be honest with employees, many managers are hesitant to share information. This is especially true in the case with bad news, which is uncomfortable for both the manager delivering it and the employee receiving it.

Job Engagement

• The investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. • Research indicates there are far more engaged employees in highly successful organizations than in average ones, and groups with more engaged employees have higher levels of productivity, fewer safety incidents, and lower turnover.

Procedural Justice

• The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. • Employees perceive that procedures are fairer when they are given a say in the decision-making process. Having direct influence over how decisions are made, or at the very least being able to present our opinion to decision makers, creates a sense of control and helps us to feel empowered.

Justice Outcomes

• When employees feel fairly treated, they respond in a number of positive ways. All the types of justice have been linked to higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors such as helping coworkers, as well as lower levels of counterproductive behaviors such as shirking job duties. • Distributive and procedural justice are more strongly associated with task performance, while informational and interpersonal justice are more strongly associated with citizenship behavior. • What one person sees as unfair; another might see as perfectly appropriate.

Expectancy Theory

• 𝐀 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐭𝐨 𝐚𝐜𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐚 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐚𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐜𝐭 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐛𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐚 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐚𝐥. ▪ In practical terms, employees are motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that it will lead to a good performance appraisal, that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards such as salary increases and/or intrinsic rewards, and that the rewards will satisfy their personal goals.

Four Ways Self-Efficacy Can be Increased: Arousal

• 𝐀𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐬𝐚𝐥: ▪ Leads to an energized state so we get "psyched up," feel up to the task, and perform better. ▪ If the task requires a steady, lower-key perspective, arousal may in fact hurt performance even as it increases self-efficacy because we might hurry through the task. • Intelligent, conscientious, and emotionally stable people are much more likely to have high self-efficacy.

Motivation

• 𝐌𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: ▪ The processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. • 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲: ▪ Describes how hard a person tries. - High intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable-job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a 𝐝𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 that benefits the organization. • 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞: ▪ This measures how long a person can maintain effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goals.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation: Self-Determination Theory - Cognitive Evaluation Theory

• 𝐂𝐨𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐄𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲: ▪ 𝐀 𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐞𝐥𝐟-𝐝𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲 𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐡 𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐱𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐜 𝐫𝐞𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐬 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐛𝐞𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐡𝐚𝐝 𝐛𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐮𝐬𝐥𝐲 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐬 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐬𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠. - E.g. If a computer programmer values writing code because she likes to solve problems, a bonus for writing a certain number of lines of code every day could feel coercive, and her intrinsic motivation could suffer.

Early Theories of Motivation: Two-Factor Theory - Hygiene Factors

• 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐬𝐮𝐜𝐡 𝐚𝐬 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝐩𝐚𝐲, 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐩𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬, 𝐩𝐡𝐲𝐬𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬, 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐡𝐢𝐩𝐬 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐬, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐣𝐨𝐛 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐡𝐲𝐠𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐞 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬. ▪ When they're adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. • If we want to motivate people on their jobs, we should emphasize factors associated with the work itself or with outcomes directly derived from it such as promotional opportunities, personal growth opportunities, recognition, responsibility, and achievement.

Three Relationships of Expectancy Theory

• 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐭 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐡𝐢𝐩: ▪ The probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. • 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞-𝐑𝐞𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐡𝐢𝐩: ▪ The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. • 𝐑𝐞𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐬-𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐆𝐨𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐡𝐢𝐩: ▪ The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

Four Ways Self-Efficacy Can be Increased: Enactive Mastery

• 𝐄𝐧𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲: ▪ Gaining relevant experience with the task or job.

Other Contemporary Theories of Motivation: Equity Theory/Organizational Justice

• 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲: ▪ A theory that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate inequities. ▪ Employees compare what they get from their jobs (their outcomes such as pay, promotions, recognition, or a bigger office) to what they put into it (their inputs such as effort, experience, and education). Employees therefore take the ratio of their Outcomes (O) to their Inputs (I) and compare it to the ratio of others, usually someone similar like a coworker or someone doing the same job.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation: Goal-Setting Theory

• 𝐆𝐨𝐚𝐥-𝐒𝐞𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲: ▪ A theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.

Early Theories of Motivation: Hierarchy of Needs Theory

• 𝐇𝐢𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐡𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐬: ▪ 𝐀𝐛𝐫𝐚𝐡𝐚𝐦 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐰'𝐬 𝐡𝐢𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐡𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐬 - 𝐩𝐡𝐲𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥, 𝐬𝐚𝐟𝐞𝐭𝐲, 𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥, 𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐞𝐦, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐞𝐥𝐟-𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐳𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 - 𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐡, 𝐚𝐬 𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐬 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐬𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐝, 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐧𝐞𝐱𝐭 𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐝𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐧𝐭. - If you want to motivate someone, you need to understand what levels of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying needs at or above that level.

Goal-Setting Theory: Goal Setting and Ethics

• 𝐈𝐟 𝐰𝐞 𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐨𝐚𝐥𝐬, 𝐰𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭? 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐲 𝐟𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐬 𝐰𝐞 𝐬𝐞𝐭 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐠𝐨𝐚𝐥-𝐚𝐜𝐡𝐢𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭. ▪ E.g. When money is tied to goal attainment, we may focus on getting the money and become willing to compromise ourselves ethically. If instead we are primed with thoughts about how we are spending our time when we are pursuing the goal, we are more likely to act ethically. ▪ Time pressure also increases as we are nearing a goal, which can tempt us to act unethically to achieve it.

Goal-Setting Theory: Goal-Setting Implementation

• 𝐌𝐚𝐧𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐛𝐲 𝐎𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 (𝐌𝐁𝐎): ▪ A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period and including feedback on goal progress. A more systematic way to utilize goal setting is with MBO. ▪ Organization's overall objectives are translated into specific cascading objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, and individual). ▪ Many elements in MBO programs match the propositions of goal-setting theory. You'll find MBO programs in many businesses, health care, educational, government, and nonprofit organizations.

Early Theories of Motivation: McClelland's Theory of Needs

• 𝐌𝐜𝐂𝐥𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐝'𝐬 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐬: ▪ A theory that achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation.

Goal-Setting Theory: Individual and Promotion Foci

• 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐅𝐨𝐜𝐮𝐬: ▪ A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment, and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals. • 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐅𝐨𝐜𝐮𝐬: ▪ A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations. • 𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: ▪ Consider studying for an exam. You could engage in promotion-focused activities such as reading class materials, or you could engage in prevention-focused activities such as refraining from doing things that would get in the way of studying, such as playing videogames.

Other Contemporary Theories of Motivation: Reinforcement Theory

• 𝐑𝐞𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲: ▪ A theory that behavior is a function of its consequences. ▪ Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused. ▪ Reinforcement theories ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes some action.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation: Self-Determination Theory - Self-Concordance

• 𝐒𝐞𝐥𝐟-𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐝𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞: ▪ The degree to which people's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation: Self-Determination Theory

• 𝐒𝐞𝐥𝐟-𝐃𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲: ▪ A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation. ▪ 𝐏𝐞𝐨𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐨 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐲 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥 𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬, 𝐬𝐨 𝐚𝐧𝐲𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐦𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐬 𝐚 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐮𝐬𝐥𝐲 𝐞𝐧𝐣𝐨𝐲𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐚𝐬𝐤 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐤𝐞 𝐚𝐧 𝐨𝐛𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐧 𝐚 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧. - E.g. "It's strange," said Marcia. "I started work at the Humane Society as a volunteer. I put in 15 hours a week helping people adopt pets. And I loved coming to work. Then, three months ago, they hired me full-time at $11 an hour. I'm doing the same work I did before. But I'm not finding it as much fin."

Other Contemporary Theories of Motivation: Self-Efficacy

• 𝐒𝐞𝐥𝐟-𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐜𝐲: ▪ 𝐀𝐧 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐮𝐚𝐥'𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐬𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚 𝐭𝐚𝐬𝐤. - Also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory. - The higher the self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.

Reinforcement Theory: Social-Learning Theory and Reinforcement

• 𝐒𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥-𝐋𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲: ▪ The view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience. ▪ Social-Learning Theory is an extension of operant conditioning - that is, it assumes behavior is a function of consequences.

McClelland's Theory of Needs: Need for Achievement (nAch)

• 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐫𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐞𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐥, 𝐭𝐨 𝐚𝐜𝐡𝐢𝐞𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐡𝐢𝐩 𝐭𝐨 𝐚 𝐬𝐞𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐬, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐬𝐮𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐞𝐝. ▪ McClelland and subsequent researchers focused most of their attention on nAch. High achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of success as 0.5 - that is, a 50-50 chance.

Early Theories of Motivation: Two-Factor Theory

• 𝐓𝐰𝐨-𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐲: ▪ A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Also called motivation-hygiene theory.

Four Ways Self-Efficacy Can be Increased: Verbal Persuasion

• 𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐛𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐮𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧: ▪ We become more confident when someone convinces us we have the skills necessary to be successful.

Four Ways Self-Efficacy Can be Increased: Vicarious Modeling

• 𝐕𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠: ▪ Becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task.