Chapter 8 How (And When) is Language Possible?
broca's area
area of brain that affects clarity of speech. seems to be responsible for the motor movements that are required for coordinating facial, tongue, palate, and larynx movement. production of words
Wernicke's area
area of brain that controls the understanding of words and the ability to converse with others. production of sentences
cognitivist theories
as children develop their intellectual abilities their linguistic abilities follow suit. Children must first comprehend concepts relating to quantity before they are able to use words such as more and less. concepts comes first research suggests simultaneity
The design feature of language that refers to the fact that the sounds of human language are sent out in all directions, but that listeners perceive those sounds as coming from a specific direction is referred to as
broadcast transmission and directional reception
Putting it all toether
Using all four fields of anthropology: culture (tools) possible 2.5 mya, early H. Habilis signed language possible 2 mya, H. habilis spoken language possible 125,000 ya, H sapiens
behaviorist theories
children need to hear language from others around them (stimulus) and to praise (positive feedback) from parents and/or caretakers to develop their linguistic abilities. stimulus and reward doesn't explain "mouses"
theory theory (active construction of a grammar theory)
children observe and interact with the world around them and form theories about their experiences. Language, according to this idea, is the result of a complex set of theories that children create about the linguistic stimuli that they are exposed to. children observe and build theories different languages - different theories? Korean vs English, verbs vs nouns
A theory that as children develop their intellectual abilities, their linguistic abilities follow suit, is what kind of theory
cognitivist theory
Language acquisition device
compares specific languages with the core grammar and helps children to make the necessary adjustments as they acquire specific languages.
Linguistic anthropologist Robbins Burling argues that some of the earliest instances of language use might have been
comprehending calls, rather than generating them
When English-speaking children produce "incorrect" forms such as "sheeps," "gooses", and "taked" they are:
discovering and using grammatical regularities in their language
learn a language
discovering the specific details of how to speak and use that language by interaction with the individuals who speak it.
The design feature of language that refers to the fact that you can talk about things that are not present in which of the following
displacement
Design features of language unique to humans (according to Hockett)
displacement productivity traditional transmission
Signing is controlled in a different area of the brain than spoken language
false
Traditional transmission is a design feature of language that has only been observed in humans
false
productivity
feature that allows you to produce4 and comprehend entirely new utterances that you've never spoken or heard or seen before. Key feature in human language, whether it is spoken or written or signed.
Which of the following is considered to be the most likely order of steps along the road to the evolution of full-fledged human language?
from closed calls through blended calls to duality of patterning
Innatist theories
language is already hardwired into the human brain birth. In this view, a genetically built-in "core grammar" provides a universal set of rules. language hard-wired in brain language acquisition device helps with adjustments
rapid fading (transitoriness)
language signals don't last very long
specialization
language sounds are specialized for communication. when humans speak it is generally in order to transmit information.
directional reception
listeners perceive those sounds as coming from a specific direction
blending
mixing two signals into one new one combining calls to establish productivity starting from closed calls (limited, specific) a + b = a + b danger + food = danger + food moving to blended calls (prelanguage) a+b = ab danger + food = dangerous food breakfast + lunch = brunch making duality of patterning possible isolation of units for recombining a+b+c + abc, cba, bac, acb /kaets, aekts, skaet, taeks, aeskt/
Design features of language not unique to humans
vocal/auditory channel broadcast transmission/directional response rapid fading interchangeability total feedback specialization semanticity arbitrariness discreteness
The design feature of language that refers to the fact that language signals don't last very long is:
rapid fading
children and language
3 days - recognizing parents' sunds 3 months - cooing, playing with intonation 6 months - babbling, playing with sounds 9 months - beginning signs 1 year - recognizable spoken words 15 months - naming "explosion" 2 years - simple sentences, displacement then - negatives, questions, clauses
Anthropological theories stress the importance of understanding the impact of the social group, and in particular the speech community, on the ways that children learn to speak and to use their language in socially appropriate ways.
Broca's and Wernicke's areas of the brain appear to be two key areas in which language is processed.
Charles Hockett's design features help us to see how language is distinct from other forms of animal communication
Animal communication systems use some of Hockett's design features, but only human language uses all thirteen features that Hockett identified.
origins of culture
Associating language with complex tools evolution of tool design provides clues complexity of upper Paleolithic tools requires description (vs imitation) Associating language with cultural complexity art, music, ritual, cooperative hunting/childcare
Fossil record
Australopithecus (1.5 mya) first stone tools homo habilis ( 2 mya) control of fire Homo erectus (1.6 mya) organized hunting? Early homo sapiens (400,000) shelters, burials Homo sapiens sapiens (125,000) knitting, basketweaving Neanderthal (130,000) burials, music
Innatist theories argue that children don't learn language but are born with an internal grammar that they adjust to fit the specific language they hear around them.
Behaviorist theories argue that children learn by imitation and feedback.
design features of language
Charles Hockett - features by which human language could be identified and distinguished from more general category of animal communication. -1960s -Defining what is unique to humans -thirteen features four unique to human language
Human Brain
Cortex convoluted surface of the brain two millimeters thick surface area 1.5 square yards contains 100 million neurons Oldest part of cortex controls long term memory and emotions Newer part of cortex neocortex controls language 8O% of human brain divided (by sulci) into lobes frontal temporal parietal occipital two ceberal hemispheres connected by corpus callosum left hemisphere association calculation analysis language right hemisphere touch space music contexts for language use
Hockett suggested that the blending of distinct primate calls may have been a key factor in the development of human language.
Duality of patterning appears to remain a language feature uniquely possessed by humans.
Evidence from the fossil record
Evidence from basicranium where muscles attach more curved = lower larynx Austrlopithecus (1.5 mya) not curved Homo habilis (2 mya) no data Homo erectus (1.6 mya) some curve early Homo sapiens (400,000 ya) definite curve Homo sapiens sapiens (125,000 ya) ditto Neanderthal (130,000 ya) no curve
humans share nine features with contemporary primates, suggesting that those nine may have been part of the prehistoric primate communication system from which language emerged.
Four features of language - productivity, displacement, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning - are unique to humans.
How is language possible
How do you open a closed call/sign system? through blending (Hockett) situations requiring communicating two ideas (dangerous food) through play? mimicking, pretending, discovering symbolism How do you discover/use duality of patterning? through identifying discrete recombinable units also through play playing with symbols playing with language shintiri, other pig latins
Fossil Record
Koobi Fora, Kenya Broca's and Wernicke's areas present in homo habilis 1.8 - 2 mya but not in Australopithecus 1.26 - 1.8 mya
human vocal tract
Lowering of the larynx where vocal cords are located Lengthening of the pharynx more space for tongue increased vowel resonance differentiation of vowels: [I] [a] [u] Human infants born with high larynx begins to lower at 3 months reaches adult location by 3 - 4 years except in adult males; further descent at adolescence
Language can be defined as a kind of communication.;
Many animals communicate, but only humans appear to have language.
duality of patterning
One of the most important features of a language system. It appears to be a combination of features of discreteness and productivity. discrete units at one level can be combined to crate different kinds of units at a different level -/k, ae.t,s/ kaets, skaet, taeks, taesk critical, according to Hockett, in distinguishing between human language and other forms of communication thought by Hockett to be the last to emerge in the evolution of language
We don't really know how humans first developed the capacity for language.
Some theories stress a greaual development, while others seek to find a single defining moment.
Theoretical Linguistics
Still speculative language too complicated to have evolved over time language developed all at once and is innate feature in humans children born with universal grammar only need to acquire specifics
Both the Broca and Wernicke areas of the brain are present in the left hemisphere of the brain, so language is understood to be a primarily left brain activity.
The discovery of evidence of Broca's and Wernicke's areas in Homo habilis fossils dating from 1.8 and 2 million years ago suggests that a kind of proto-language was indeed possible at an early date. Homo habilis as first brain with Broca's and Wernicke's areas
Cognitivist theories suggest that children develop language simultaneously with their mental abilities
Theory theory suggests that children analyze language as they hear it, building theories about grammar and structure as they go.
The design feature of language that refers specifically to the use of speaking and hearing as a key feature of language is
vocal auditory channel
interchangeability
a speaker can send and receive the same signal
A theory that language is the result of a complex set of theories that children create about the linguistic stimuli they are exposed to is what kind of theory?
active construction of a grammar (or theory) theory
The design feature of language that refers to the fact that there is no necessary or casual connection between a signal and its meaning is:
arbitrariness
anthropological observations
ochs and schieffelinsettings stress ethnographic field studies of children language learned in social encouragement by adults is not universal baby talk is not universal becoming part of a speech community learning how and when to use language ideas about language learning bilingualism vs monolingualism can adults learn more languages? adult impatience classwork vs fieldwork
Although the capacity for speech appears to be part of the human genetic makeup, most linguistic anthropologists now believe that children learn languages:
primarily in social and cultural settings
The design feature of language that allows you to produce and comprehend entirely new utterances that you've never spoken or heard before is which of the following?
productivity
vocal-auditory channel
refers specifically to the use of speaking and haring as a key feature of language, reflecting an ideology of orality that persists even to this day.
displacement
refers to the fact that you can talk (and here, talk includes sign) about things that are not present.
communication
some scholars define broadly as the sending of signals. Other define more narrowly as the sending and receiving of signals.
broadcast transmission
sounds of human language are sent out in all directions
total feedback
speakers can hear themselves talk (and signers can feel themselves sign) and that they can monitor what they say as they say or sign it.
semanticity
specific sound signals (and specific signed signals) can be directly linked to specific meanings.
traditional transmission
the fact that language is learned in social groups.
arbitrariness
there is no necessary or casual connection between a signal and its meaning. Any signal can be used to refer to any thing.
acquire language
to map the details of a specific language onto a universal grammar.
The design feature of language that refers to the fact that speakers can hear themselves talk and that they can monitor what they say as they say it is referred to as
total feedback
Broca's area, an area of the frontal region of the left cerebral hemisphere of the brain, and Wernicke's area an area in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain, appear to be the key areas of the brain in which language is processed.
true
Children's language games such as Pig Latin or Shintiri are valuable tools in teaching children to turn their language into an object of analysis.
true
Language areas of the brain appear to develop in response to the presence of linguistic signals
true
Ottenheimer's research with Shintriri suggested to her that the evolutionary shift from blended calls to duality of patterning may ha e occurred in the context of children's language play.
true
While research into brain functioning suggests that language might have been possible as early as 2 million years ago, fully modern speech may not have been possible until 100,000 years ago, in Homo sapiens, due to the importance of lowered larynx positioning.
true
discreteness
units used for communication can be separated into distinct units that cannot be mistaken for one another.Nor do these units blend into one another.
