Chapter 8: Learning (Objectives 10-17)

OBJECTIVE 11: State Thorndike's law of effect, and explain its connection to Skinner's research on operant conditioning.

Thorndike's law of effect asserts that rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Using this as his starting point, Skinner devoted his life to exploring the principles and conditions of learning through operant conditioning.

OBJECTIVE 14: Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of continuous and partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules, and identify four schedules of partial reinforcement.

If continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. Continuous reinforcement is preferable until a behavior is learned. In partial reinforcement (reinforcing responses only part of the time), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Reinforcement schedules may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between responses. Fixed-ratio schedules offer rewards after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed-interval schedules offer rewards after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.

OBJECTIVE 10: Identify the two major characteristics that distinguish classical conditioning from operant conditioning.

In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between behaviors it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior (automatic responses to some stimulus). In operant conditioning, the organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences).

OBJECTIVE 12: Describe the shaping procedure, and explain how it can increase our understanding of what animals and babies can discriminate.

In shaping, we use reinforcers to guides a person's or an animal's behavior toward a desired goal. Building on existing behaviors, we reward successive approximations to some desired behavior. Because nonverbal animals and babies can respond only to what they perceive, their reactions demonstrate which events they can discriminate.

OBJECTIVE 16: Explain how latent behavior and the effect of external reward demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning.

Latent learning, as shown in rats' learning of cognitive maps or children's delayed imitation of others' behavior, indicates that we can learn from experience,w ithout apparent reinforcement. An external reward's ability to undermine our interest and pleasure in an activity weakens the idea that behaviors that are rewarded will increase in frequency.

OBJECTIVE 13: Compare positive and negative reinforcement, and give one example each of a primary reinforcer, a conditioned reinforcer, an immediate reinforcer, and a delayed reinforcer.

Positive reinforcement adds something desirable to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes something undesirable to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry or having nausea end during an illness) are innately satisfying- no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards (such as the food or medicine we buy them with). Immediate reinforcers (such as the nicotine addicts cigarette) offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers (such as a weekly paycheck) require the ability to delay gratification.

OBJECTIVE 17: Explain how biological predispositions places limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning.

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Training that attempts to override these tendencies will probably not endure because the animals will revert to their biological predisposed patterns.

OBJECTIVE 15: Discuss the ways negative punishment, positive punishment, and negative reinforcement differ, and list some drawbacks of punishment as a behavior-control technique.

Both positive punishment (administering an undesirable consequence, such as spanking) and negative punishment (withdrawing something desirable, such as taking away a favorite toy) attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child's disobedience). Negative reinforcement (such as taking aspirin) removes something undesirable (such as a headache) to increase the frequency of behavior. Punishments undesirable side effects may include suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors, teaching aggression, creating fear, and encouraging discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present), and fostering depression and feelings of helplessness.