Chapter 8: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
intelligence quotient (IQ)
(1) originally, a ratio obtained by dividing a child's score (or mental age) on an intelligence '! test by chronological age (2) generally, a score on 1 an intelligence test
Multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner
- Gardner theorized distinct "intelligences." - Intelligences include academic intelligences, personal and social intelligences, talents, and philosophical intelligences. - The theory posits different bases in the brain for different intelligences.
Triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
- Intelligence is three-pronged-with analytical, creative, and practical components. - Analytical intelligence is analogous to academic ability.
General versus specific factors by Charles Spearman
- Spearman created factor analysis to study intelligence. - There is strong evidence for the general factor (g) in intelligence. - s factors are specific abilities, skills, and talents.
Primary mental abilities by Louis Thurstone
- Thurstone used factor analysis. - There are many "primary" abilities. - All abilities and factors are academically oriented.
Exemplar
A specific example
Algorithm
A systematic procedure for solving a problem that works invariably when it is applied correctly.
practic
Abilities to adopt to the demands of one's environment, apply knowledge in practical situations
Creative intelligence
Abilities to invent, discover, suppose, or theorize
Analytical intelligence
Abilities to solve problems, compare and contrast, judge, evaluate, and criticize
deviation IQ
Instead of dividing mental age by chronological age to compute an IQ, Wechsler based IQ scores on how a person's answers compared with those attained by people in the same age group. The average test result at any age level is defined as an IQ score of 100.
Concept
It can represent objects, events, and activities, and visions of things that never were or cannot be measured.
analytical intelligence
It enables us to solve problems and acquire new knowledge.
Stanford-Binet Intelligent Scale (SBIS)
It included more items than the Binet-Simon scale and was used with children aged two to sixteen.
emotional intelligence
It involves self-insight and selfcontrol-the abilities to recognize and regulate one's moods
Prototype
It is a concept of a category of objects or events that serves as a good example of the category.
Concept
It is a mental category that is used to class together objects, relations, events, abstractions, or qualities that have common properties.
mental age (MA)
It is determined by adding up the years and months of credit they attained.
creative intelligence
It is similar to Aristotle's "productive intelligence" and is defined by the ability to cope with novel situations and generate many possible solutions to problems.
Functional Fixedness
It is the tendency to think of an object in terms of its name or its familiar function.
analytical intelligence
It is the type of intelligence measured by standard intelligence tests.
incubation
Ivan has been trying to solve a frustrating problem for nearly three hours but does not seem to come up with the correct solution, he then decided to stand back from the problem for a while. After a few minutes, he came back to try and solve the problem again and the solution "suddenly" appear in his mind. What process is pertained in this situation?
Verbal meaning
Knowing the meanings of words (one of the primary mental abilities)
Displacement
Language makes it possible to transmit knowledge from one person to another and from one generation to another, furthering human adaptation.
Stanford-Binet Intelligent Scale (SBIS)
This test yielded an intelligence quotient (IQ) rather than an MA. As a result, American educators developed interest in learning the IQs of their pupils.
- awareness of one's own inner feelings - sensitivity to other people's feelings
Two kinds of personal intelligence
Visual and spatial abilities
Visualizing forms and spatial relationships (one of the primary mental abilities)
IQ= Mental age (MA)/Chronoligical age (CA) x 100
Wilhelm Stern's formula for computing IQ
males
______ seem to do somewhat better at manipulating visual images in working memory. ______ as a group excel in visual-spatial abilities of the sort used in math, science, and map-reading
gestures
_______ tends to develop ahead of words.
Peter Salovey John Mayer Daniel Goleman
_________ and __________developed the theory of emotional intelligence, which was popularized by psychologist _______________
Wechsler scales
_________ highlight children's relative strengths and weaknesses, as well as measure overall intellectual functioning.
Victoria Molfese
___________ and her colleagues (1997) found that the home environment was the single most important predictor of scores on IQ tests among children aged three to eight
intelligence
a complex and controversial concept; according to David Wechsler (1975), the "capacity ... to understand the world and resourcefulness to cope with its challenges."
anchoring and adjustment heuristic
a decision-making heuristic in which a presumption or first estimate serves as a cognitive anchor; as we receive additional information, we make , adjustments but tend to : remain in the proximity of the anchor
representativeness heuristic
a decision-making heuristic in which our estimates of frequency or probability of events are based
availability heuristic
a decision-~aking heuristic in which our estimates of frequency or probability of events are based on how easy it is to find examples
means-end analysis
a heuristic device in which we try to solve a problem by evaluating the difference between the current situation and the goal.
incubation
a hypothetical process that distances us from unprofitable but persistent mental sets.
Mental Sets
a tendency to approach a problem in the same way that has worked in the past, which may make it harder to solve a problem
Mental Sets
a tendency to approach a problem in the same way that has worked in the past, which may make it harder to solve a problem can mislead us when the similarity between problems is illusory.
divergent thinking
a thought process that attempts to generate multiple solutions to problems challenge
convergent thinking
a thought process that narrows in on the single best solution to a problem.
primary mental abilities
according to Thurstone, the basic abilities that make up intelligence; examples include word fluency and numerical ability
systematic random search
an algorithm for solving problems in which each possible solution is tested according to a particular set of rules
Humans
are not the only species who use insight to solve problems.
Binet
assumed that intelligence increases with age, so older children should get more items right than younger children.
just read
Being reared together is, therefore, related with similarities in IQ environment plays a role in determining IQ scores.
Numerical ability
Computing numbers (one of the primary mental abilities)
Deductive reasoning
Deriving examples from general rules (one of the primary mental abilities)
systematic random search
In solving anagram puzzles, if you would list every possible letter combination, using from one to all letters and use a dictionary or a spell-checking program to see whether each result is, in fact, a word, what algorithm did you use?
parallel processing
In the anagram D N S U O, Kyla played with the order of the vowels at the same time that she tested which consonant was likely to precede them, arriving quickly at sou and sound. What method did Kyla use to solve the puzzle?
Crying
does not represent language; it is a pre-linguistic event
sixth year
during this year, children's vocabulary have expanded to 10,000
practical intelligence
enables people to deal with other people, including difficult people, and to meet the demands of their environment. help people get by in the real world.
Binet-Simon scale
first version of the Stanford-Binet Intelligent Scale (SBIS)
just read
genetic pairs (such as MZ twins) who were reared together show higher correlations in their IQ scores than similar genetic pairs (such as other MZ twins) who were reared apart. This finding holds for DZ twins, siblings, parents and their children, and unrelated people
Robert Sternberg
has constructed a three-pronged, or triarchic, theory of intelligence that resembles a view proposed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle
Richard Nisbett
he argues that our genetic codes could not possibly have changed enough in half a century to account for this enormous difference (flynn effect) and concludes that social and cultural factors such as the effects of improved educational systems and the penetration of the mass media must be among the reasons for the change.
Jean Piaget
he believed that language reflects knowledge of the world but that much knowledge can be acquired without language.
John Flynn
he found that IQ scores in the Western world increased substantially between 1947 and 2002, some 18 points in the United States.
Nativist theory of language development
holds that the innate (inborn) factors which make up children's nature cause children to attend to and acquire language in certain ways.
insight
in Gestalt psychology, a sudden perception of relationships among elements of the "perceptual field;' permitting the solution of a problem
language acquisition device (LAD)
in psycholinguistic theory, neural "prewiring" that facilitates the child's learning of grammar
Inductive reasoning
inferring general rules from examples. (one of the primary mental abilities)
analogy
is a partial similarity among things that are different in other ways.
analytical intelligence
it is similar to Aristotle's "theoretical intelligence" and can be defined as academic ability.
semanticity
meaning; the quality of language in which words are used as symbols for objects, events, or ideas
existential intelligence
means dealing with the larger philosophical issues of life.
anagrams
scrambled words
heritability
the degree to which the variations in a trait from one person to another can be attributed to, or explained by, genetic factors
framing effect
the influence of wording, or the context in which information is presented, on decision- : making
Displacement
the quality of language that permits one to communicate informa· tion about objects and events in another time and place
psycholinguistic theory
the view that language learning involves an interaction between environmental factors and an inborn tendency to acquire language
linguistic-relativity hypothesis
the view that language structures the way in which we view the world
academic ability
there is only a moderate relationship between ___________ and creativity.
holophrase
these are single-word utterances of children used to express complex meanings
chimpanzees
they are our closest genetic relatives
serial processing
to handle one element of the problem at a time used by novices (beginners)
telegraphic speech
two-word sentences they resemble telegrams because telegrams cut out the "unnecessary" words.
analogy heuristic
we use this whenever we try to solve a new problem by referring to a previous problem.
analogy heuristic
when you begin a new term with a new instructor, you probably consider who the instructor reminds you of. Then perhaps recall the things that helped you get along with the analogous instructor and try them on the new one. We tend to look for things that helped us in the past in similar situations. What example is this?
divergent thinking
you use this kind of thinking when you are trying to generate ideas to answer an essay question on a test.
functional fixedness
A pair of pliers could be a tool for grasping, a paperweight, or a weapon. However, when Brendon was asked what it is, he instantly thought of it as a tool for grasping because he probably used pliers only for grasping things. This situation is an example of ____________
second month
During this month, babies begin cooing, which is apparently linked to feelings of pleasure.
fifth or sixth month
During this month, children begin to babble.
second year
During this year, children begin to speak two- word sentences. These sentences are termed telegraphic speech.
seven to nine years
During this year, most children realie that words can have more than one meaning.
availability heuristic
Ezekiel was asked whether there are more biology majors or sociology majors in his college, he answered on the basis of sociology majors and biology majors that he know. What decision-making heuristic did Ezekiel use?
- expertise - mental sets - insight
Factors that affect problem-solving
emotional intelligence
Failure to develop ________ is connected with poor ability to cope with stress, depression, and aggressive behavior is connected with poor ability to cope with stress, depression, and aggressive behavior
Perceptual speed
Grasping perceptual details rapidly, perceiving similarities and differences between stimuli (one of the primary mental abilities)
World War I
Group tests for children were first developed during ___________.
David Wechsler
He originated the most widely used series of intelligence tests
convergent thinking
In a multiple choice question, what kind of thinking do you use to arrive at the right answer?
Thinking
Paying attention to information, mentally representing it, and making decisions about it.
divergent thinking convergent thinking
Problem-solving can involve both kinds of thinking. At first__________ helps generate many possible solutions.__________is then used to select likely solutions and reject others.
- semanticity - infinite creativity - displacement
Properties that distinguish language from the communication systems of lower animals.
Read SOCIOECONOMIC AND ETHNIC DIFFERENCES on page 180. I do not know how to generate questions : )
Read SOCIOECONOMIC AND ETHNIC DIFFERENCES on page 180. I do not know how to generate questions : )
Memory
Recalling information (e.g., words and sentences) (one of the primary mental abilities)
Thinking
Refers to conscious, planned attempts to make sense of and change the world.
girls
Reviews of the research suggest that _____ are somewhat superior to ______ in verbal abilities, such as vocabulary, ability to generate sentences and words that are similar in meaning to other words, spelling, knowledge of foreign languages, and pronunciation.
just read
Several studies with one- and two-year-old children in Colorado and Minnesota have found a stronger relationship between the IQ scores of adopted children and those of their biological parents than between the children's scores and those of their adoptive parents. Environmental
g
Spearman's symbol for general i~telligence, which he defined as broad reasoning and problem-solving abilities
s
Spearman's symbol for specific factors, or s factors, which he believed accounted for individual abilities
- analytical intelligence - creative intelligence - practical intelligence
The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
The Wechsler Scales
The Wechsler scales group test questions into a number of separate subtests. Each subtest measures a different intellectual task.
infinite creativity
The capacity to create rather than imitate sentences.
Dreaming and daydreaming
These do not represent thinking.
Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences
These factors affect intelligence
Word fluency
Thinking of words quickly (e.g., rhyming and doing crossword puzzles) (one of the primary mental abilities)
linguistic-relativity hypothesis
the categories and relationships we use to understand the world are derived from our language.
parallel processing
dealing simultaneously with two or more elements of the problems. method used by the experts.
language
the communication of information by means of symbols arranged according to rules of grammar.
framing effect
proponents of legalized abortions labeled themselves as "pro-choice" whereas opponents labeled themselves as "pro-life" each group frames itself in a positive way.
Benjamin Whorf
proposed the linguistic-relativity hypothesis
Howard Gardner
proposed the theory of multiple intelligences
naturalist intelligence
refers to the ability to look at natural events such as kinds of animals and plants, or the stars above, and to develop insights into their nature and the laws that govern their behavior.
Noam Chomsky
refers to the inborn tendency as language acquisition device.
Elizabeth Bates
researcher of children's language development
emotional intelligence
resembles two of Gardner's "intelligences"-intrapersonal skills and interpersonal skills (including insight into the feelings of other people).
Heuristics
rules of thumb that help us simplify and solve problems and are often based on strategies that worked in the past. They do not guarantee a correct solution.
infinite creativity
the capacity to combine words into original sentences
Elizabeth Bates
she noted that the development of sign language "has to do with how easily one can imitate and reproduce something with a great big fat hand as opposed to the mini, delicate hundreds of muscles that control the tongue ... You can also see somebody using a hand, which you can't do with a tongue."
overregularization
some children tend to say "I seed it" instead of "I saw it", "Mommy sitted down" instead of "Mommy sat down". This is an example of _____________
heritability
studies generally suggest that the _______ of intelligence is between 40% and 60% (Neisser et al., 1996). In other words, about half of the difference between your IQ score and the IQ scores of other people can be explained by _______.
mental age (MA)
the accumulated months of credit that a person earns on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale shows the intellectual level at which a child is functioning.
overregularization
the application of regular grammatical rules for forming inflections (e.g., past tense and plurals) to irregular verbs and nouns
