Chapter 9

Which of the following is an example of a bidirectional influence of biological sex differences and experience? Boys' innate higher activity levels lead to different types of social interactions. Girls are given pink toys and boys are given camouflage toys. Throughout the world, boys are more direct and assertive, while girls are less direct. A girl who was playing monsters might attract the interest of a boy because boys are genetically predisposed to be fascinated by monsters.

Boys' innate higher activity levels lead to different types of social interactions.

What is an important difference between moral and social conventional rules? Conventional rules are viewed by children as more open to change than moral rules. Conventional rules are understood at a younger age. Moral rules are understood at a younger age. Moral rules are taught by parents and conventional rules are not.

Conventional rules are viewed by children as more open to change than moral rules.

Between 2 and 8 years of age, boys gradually play more with boys and girls with girls, a phenomenon known as _________. gender identity gender schema gender bias gender segregation

gender segregation

In a classic study of delay of gratification, it was observed how long 4-year-olds could wait for a larger treat when they had a smaller treat in front of them. Children who could wait longer, or who did not give in and eat the smaller treat, __________. had higher educational achievement and social competence in adolescence had higher educational achievement only had higher social competence only showed short-term but no long-term differences in educational achievement and social competence

had higher educational achievement and social competence in adolescence

Diana Baumrind's influential studies of parenting style showed that children of authoritarian parents were more likely to ________ than children of authoritative parents. fare worst both academically and psychologically have higher levels of both internalizing and externalizing behavior have lower self-control and to be impulsive and aggressive be confident and cheerful

have higher levels of both internalizing and externalizing behavio

The fact that in the afternoon child care is associated with rising levels of cortisol and staying at home with falling levels of cortisol ___________. means that child care causes cortisol levels to rise indicates that at least some children may experience child care as stressful is of little importance because the rise in cortisol is not related to stress levels in children the way it is in adults means that child care is stressful for nearly all children

indicates that at least some children may experience child care as stressful

Psychologists infer that children know they have a personality because when asked to compare themselves to a puppet's personality ______________. the children reported what their parents had told them about their personalities they described only the puppet's personality traits and not their own they were able to give examples of their own personality traits, using terms like "timid" and "agreeable" the children described how they usually acted in a way that was consistent with parents' assessment of their personality traits

the children described how they usually acted in a way that was consistent with parents' assessment of their personality traits

To reduce aggression in a highly aggressive young child, parents should try to stop ________. prosocial behavior rough-and-tumble play sociodramatic play the cycle of coercion

the cycle of coercion

A mutually responsive orientation at ages 1 to 2 years differs from secure attachment in infancy in that it consists of ___________. serving as the child's conscience an emotional component that is not present in parent-infant attachment warmth and responsiveness as well as the establishment of rules techniques to enforce compliance with rules

warmth and responsiveness as well as the establishment of rules

Young children display more advanced emotions, such as embarrassment, pride, and shame between ages ________. These self-conscious emotions are crucial to human interaction. 7 to 8 years 4 to 5 years 12 to 18 months 18 to 24 months

18 to 24 months

According to research, what should a father who wants to increase prosocial behavior in his 3-year-old boy do? Nothing because it is all genetic. Model prosocial behavior or help the child regulate his emotions. Punish the child for antisocial behavior. After the child misses an opportunity to be prosocial, explain to the child what he could have done instead.

Model prosocial behavior or help the child regulate his emotions.

A child asks for some candy in the car ride to the grocery store and starts crying when denied. Her father calmly explains that they are stopping at the store to buy groceries for dinner, and not candy. He tells his daughter she is expected to hold his hand and walk through the store quietly. Which parenting technique did this father use? The father reduced opportunities for misbehavior. The father established family routines and responsibilities. The father rewarded the child for positive behavior, especially when it is inconsistent with negative behavior the child has exhibited in the past. The father used milder punishment techniques rather than resort to spanking.

The father established family routines and responsibilities

Which of the actions below appropriately uses more than one of the parenting techniques recommended in the chapter in a situation in which a child has just hit another child hard enough to leave a bruise? The parent ignores the act of aggression, waits for the child to do something nice to the other person, and then praises this alternative behavior. The parent angrily scolds the child, but does not spank the child. The parent explains to the child how aggression makes others feel and puts the child in time out to calm down and think about it. The parent threatens to spank the child to make the situation memorable, but does not actually spank the child.

The parent explains to the child how aggression makes others feel and puts the child in time out to calm down and think about it

Children who can guess what a character described as selfish might do next in a story appear to have a level of understanding of other people that has been termed ____________. conscience positivity bias mutually responsive orientation an informal theory of human social behavior

an informal theory of human social behavior

A mother asks her 3-year-old son to keep his food on the table, and reminds him when he "accidentally" knocks it off. When he throws food at his sister, she explains to him that this is against the rules because it makes things dirty and hurts his sister's feelings. This parenting style would be classified as ________. permissive authoritative authoritarian uninvolved

authoritative

The finding that many Chinese parents use a style that is more demanding and less overtly affectionate than the average Western (European or Euro American) parent _____. shows that coercive parenting in China has the opposite effect as in the West is associated with greater behavior problems in Chinese children than children raised by parents in the West can be viewed as a culturally-influenced variation on authoritative parenting means that many Chinese children will experience a sense of rejection and hostility

can be viewed as a culturally-influenced variation on authoritative parenting

A cultural difference in moral socialization goals was found in which Taiwanese parents emphasized ____________ with their young children, whereas European American parents emphasized ______________ days or weeks after the original misbehavior. self-esteem and a positive self-concept; both a positive and a negative self-concept positive actions of the child after a misdeed occurred; listening to their parents children's misdeeds and their consequences; the children's autonomy and self-esteem children's misdeeds and their consequences; how their children would be punished for misdeeds

children's misdeeds and their consequences; the children's autonomy and self-esteem

Although the total amount of aggressive behavior decreases between 4 and 8 years of age, as a proportion of aggressive behavior, instrumental aggression ________ and reactive aggression ________. stays the same; decreases increases; decreases declines; stays the same declines; increases

declines; increases

Four-year-old Lisa meets a friendly dog at the park. Before petting the dog, she asks the dog's owner if it's OK. Lisa is demonstrating ________. emotional regulation prosocial behavior effortful control mutually responsive orientation

effortful control

A child who shouts and bites another child who has just taken his toy needs some help in __________. prosocial behavior effortful control self-esteem emotional regulation

emotional regulation

Parents promote gender typing not only through direct reinforcement of gender-typical behavior, but also by _____________. punishing gender-atypical play, particularly in girls explaining the gender schema to children engaging in gender-typical play with their children choosing opposite-gender playmates for their children

engaging in gender-typical play with their children

Adoptive parents who were authoritative tended to have adoptive children with higher social competence at age 7, independently of the child's temperament or attachment security. This finding suggests that there are ______________. both genetic and environmental influences of parenting style on social competence genetic influences of parents on social competence influences of attachment security on later social competence but no influence of parenting style environmental influences of parenting style on social competence

environmental influences of parenting style on social competence

Studies measuring cortisol levels as children were induced to experience a self-conscious emotion revealed that________. pride is actually the most stressful emotion evaluative embarrassment and shame are more stressful than simple embarrassment guilt and shame are two names for the same emotional response cortisol levels in children do not rise in response to stress

evaluative embarrassment and shame are more stressful than simple embarrassment

To measure environmental influences of parents on their children's prosocial development, researchers adopted a clever design in which they ________. followed twins longitudinally to see if identical twins would be more similar over time than fraternal twins in prosocial behavior experimentally manipulated a parent's level of prosocial behavior compared identical twins to fraternal twins and if the former were more similar, concluded there was a genetic component examined whether differences in treatment between identical twins were associated with differences in later prosocial behavior

examined whether differences in treatment between identical twins were associated with differences in later prosocial behavior

According to Vygotsky, sociodramatic play may have benefits for ______. development of conscience development of the imagination physical development executive functioning

executive functioning

A longitudinal study of personality types revealed that undercontrolled children were rated by teachers as having more ___________ than the other two groups, and lower scores in reading and math. Overcontrolled children had more ______________ in relation to resilient children. internalizing problems; externalizing problems externalizing problems; academic problems academic problems; externalizing problems externalizing problems; internalizing problems

externalizing problems; internalizing problems

The inner knowledge of gender, i.e., of one's maleness or femaleness, is known as _________. gender identity gender reinforcement gender segregation gender schema

gender identity

A 4-year-old boy who adamantly believes that only boys can be firefighters and only girls can be nurses is applying his ________ to the classification of these two careers. positivity bias informal theory of human social behavior gender identity gender schema

gender schema

Evidence for ________ is provided by studies showing that each gender pays greater attention and has better memory for objects and events associated with their own gender. gender schema theory an informal theory of human social behavior mutually responsive orientation theory gender theory

gender schema theory

Children's emotional knowledge is greater when parents _________. praise positive emotions and ignore negative emotions label and explain emotions punish children for emotional displays display more emotions themselves in discipline situations

label and explain emotions

High quality child care is linked to _________ and ____________. average levels of aggression; low levels of social competence high levels of aggression; average levels of social competence low levels of aggression; high levels of social competence high levels of aggression; low levels of social competence

low levels of aggression; high levels of social competence

Girls exposed to male sex hormones prenatally may tend to show ______________. masculine play preferences low levels of aggression toward peers problematic levels of aggression toward peers confused gender schemas

masculine play preferences

A style of parenting characterized by expectations of immediate and unquestioned obedience, use of physical punishment, and a high level of affection and use of reasoning that has been observed in some African American parents living in low-income areas of the inner city, is known as_____. respeto no-nonsense parenting authoritarian parenting familismo

no-nonsense parenting

Young children's self-assessments of their abilities and personality traits are often characterized by an overconfidence known as _________. self-esteem positivity bias gender schema theory self-concept

positivity bias

When a child seeks to harm another child's social reputation or social relationships, this type of aggression is called _______ aggression. prosocial relational hostile instrumental

relational

The style of play most characteristic of boys, involving physical play and mock aggression, is called ________ play. rough and tumble cooperative pretend sociodramatic parallel

rough and tumble

Which type of play generally does not begin until a child is at least 2 years of age? parallel play simple social play rough and tumble play cooperative pretend play

rough and tumble play

An overall sense of self-worth is known as _______. internal working model positivity bias self-concept self-esteem

self-esteem

Parenting intervention studies can be used to ________. show that changes in parenting style may be causally linked to changes in child behavior help separate genetic influences from other factors show that child behavior does not influence parenting eliminate child behavior problems

show that changes in parenting style may be causally linked to changes in child behavior

With regard to personality type, overcontrolled children are _________ and undercontrolled children are __________. self-confident and emotionally stable; shy but obedient shy but obedient; impulsive and emotional irritable under stress; happy and have a high activity level impulsive and emotional; self-confident and emotionally stable

shy but obedient; impulsive and emotional

Extensive experience in child care (an average of 20 hours per week or more) over the first four years is linked at age five to ____________. lower levels of afternoon cortisol slightly higher internalizing problems slightly higher externalizing of problems and lack of compliance with teachers slightly higher rates of behavior problems in low-income children

slightly higher externalizing of problems and lack of compliance with teachers

Which method of parental correction has been frequently (though not consistently) associated with negative outcomes, such as higher aggression and antisocial behavior, reduced quality of parent-child relationships, and elevated child mental health problems? removing privileges time-outs spanking praise for good behavior

spanking

A Chinese boy whose parents recently emigrated from China to the United States becomes impatient with a trip to the grocery store and starts whining loudly. He is likely to be __________. told, "You're tired and hungry aren't you? We'll be done soon" hugged and kissed until he calms down told by his parents that he is embarrassing them given a new toy to keep him quiet

told by his parents that he is embarrassing them

Part of the reason children can discriminate between moral and social conventional rules at such a young age is that parents ____________. strongly stress social conventional rules and ignore moral rules in socializing their children explain the differences between the two types of rules clearly to young children treat moral rules more seriously and speak about different kinds of issues in connection with the two types of rules pass along genetic tendencies to follow moral but not social conventional rules

treat moral rules more seriously and speak about different kinds of issues in connection with the two types of rules

According to Kochanska's longitudinal studies, children who develop a mutually responsive orientation with their parents are more likely to __________ than the children of power-assertive parents. break their parents' rules understand their parents' rules mind their parents but disobey in laboratory situations cheat at games

understand their parents' rules

Children who engage in more sociodramatic play with peers or siblings are found in longitudinal studies to exhibit higher levels of____. aggression, which they learn to control externalizing problems ability to clean up a classroom understanding of other people's mental states (theory of mind)

understanding of other people's mental states (theory of mind)