Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion

Instinct

A fixed behavior pattern that is characteristic of every member of a species and is assumed to be genetically programmed. Thus, instincts represent one kind of biological motivation. Psychologists generally agree that no true instincts motivate human behavior. However, most also agree that biological forces underlie some human behaviors.

Body mass index (BMI)

A measure of weight relative to height. · A BMI that is less than 18.5 is considered underweight, while one in excess of 25 is classified as overweight. To calculate your BMI, use this formula or search online for a BMI calculator: BMI = [Weight in pounds ÷ (height in inches × height in inches)] × 703 · Why are there variations in human weight? Heredity is one reason. What exactly do people inherit that affects body weight? Researchers Friedman and colleagues identified the hormone leptin, which affects the hypothalamus and may be an element in the regulation of body weight. Leptin is produced by the body's fat tissues. Decreases in body fat cause lower levels of leptin in the body. Lower levels of leptin stimulate food intake because the body "thinks" that it may be in danger of starvation. When leptin levels increase sufficiently people begin to lose weight due to the appetite-suppressing effects of rising levels of leptin. In one study, obese mice injected with leptin lost 30% of their body weight within 2 weeks. However, the bodies of humans who are obese appear to develop a tolerance for the effects of leptin. Consequently, researchers are currently searching for a way to counteract this tolerance in hopes of developing a leptin-based anti-obesity drug.

Emotion

A state involving physiological arousal, a cognitive appraisal of the situation that produced the state, and an outward behavior expressing the state.

Arousal

A state of alertness and mental and physical activation. · Arousal levels can range from no arousal (when a person is comatose), to moderate arousal (when pursuing normal day-to-day activities), to high arousal (when excited and highly stimulated).

Parental investment

A term used by evolutionary psychologists to denote the amount of time and effort men or women must devote to parenthood.

Drive-reduction theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that biological needs create internal states of tension or arousal—called drives— which organisms are motivated to reduce. · Popularized by Clark Hull (1943) where he stated that all living organisms have certain biological needs that must be met if they are to survive. · Assumes that humans are always motivated to reduce tension. Other theorists argue just the opposite, that humans are sometimes motivated to increase tension.

Arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation. · If arousal is less than the optimal level, we do something to stimulate it; if arousal exceeds the optimal level, we seek to reduce the stimulation.

Schachter-Singer theory

A two-factor theory stating that for an emotion to occur, there must be (1) physiological arousal and (2) a cognitive interpretation or explanation of the arousal, allowing it to be labeled as a specific emotion. · Stanley Schachter believed that the early theories of emotion left out a critical component—the subjective interpretation of why a state of arousal has occurred. Schachter and Singer (1962) proposed the two-factor theory. · Thus, Schachter concluded, a true emotion can occur only if a person is physically aroused and can find some reason for it. When people are in a state of physiological arousal but do not know why they are aroused, they tend to label the state as an emotion that is appropriate to their situation at the time. For example, a person who feels anxious but doesn't know why might identify the feeling as the same one she felt just before a dentist began performing a root canal procedure on one of her molars. Because she labeled the feeling, she experienced in the root canal situation as "anxiety," she will apply the same label to what she is currently feeling.

Motivation

All the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior.

Expectancy theory

An approach that explains work motivation in terms of workers' beliefs about the effectiveness and value of the effort they put forth on the job. · Motivation to engage in a given activity is determined by (1) expectancy, a person's belief that more effort will result in improved performance; (2) instrumentality, the person's belief that doing a job well will be noticed and rewarded; and (3) valence, the degree to which a person values the rewards that are offered. · Several studies have supported expectancy theory by showing that employees work harder when they believe that more effort will improve their performance, when they think that a good performance will be acknowledged and rewarded, and when they value the rewards that are offered.

Goal setting

An approach to work motivation that involves establishing specific, difficult goals rather than simply telling people to do their best in the absence of assigned goals. · An organization can enhance employees' commitment to goals by (1) having them participate in the goal setting, (2) making goals specific, attractive, difficult, and attainable, (3) providing feedback on performance, and (4) rewarding the employees for attaining the goals.

Stimulus motives

Motives that cause humans and other animals to increase stimulation when the level of arousal is too low (examples are curiosity and the motive to explore). · Think about sitting in an airport or at a bus stop or any other place where people are waiting. How many people do you see playing games on their cellphones or laptops? Waiting is boring; in other words, it provides no sources of arousal. Thus, people turn to electronic games to raise their level of arousal.

Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by an overwhelming, irrational fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, compulsive dieting to the point of self-starvation, and excessive weight loss. · There are important differences between dieting (even obsessive dieting) and anorexia nervosa. For one, among people with anorexia, perceptions of body size are grossly distorted. No matter how emaciated they become, they continue to perceive themselves as fat. Researchers have learned that such unrealistic perceptions may result from a general tendency toward distorted thinking. · Frequently, people with anorexia not only starve themselves but also exercise relentlessly in an effort to accelerate the weight loss. Further, they don't necessarily avoid food or the ritual of eating. Indeed, most people with anorexia are fascinated with food and the process of preparing it. Many become skilled in giving the appearance of eating while not actually swallowing food. o To accomplish this, some of them habitually chew and spit out their food, often with such dexterity that others with whom they eat don't notice. · Among young females with anorexia, progressive and significant weight loss eventually results in amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation). Some may also develop low blood pressure, impaired heart function, dehydration, electrolyte disturbances, and sterility, as well as decreases in the gray matter volume in the brain. Moreover, prolonged self-starvation induces changes in the lining of the stomach that can make it extremely difficult for people with anorexia to recover normal functioning of the digestive system even after they have begun eating normally. Unfortunately, as many as 6% of those suffering from anorexia nervosa eventually die of starvation or complications from organ damage.

Bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by repeated and uncontrolled (and often secretive) episodes of binge eating. · As many as 50% of those with anorexia also develop bulimia nervosa. Individuals who do not have anorexia can develop bulimia alone. Many people with bulimia come from families in which family members make frequent negative comments about others' physical appearances. · An episode of binge eating has two main features: (1) the consumption of much larger amounts of food than most people would eat during the same period of time and (2) a feeling that one cannot stop eating or control the amount eaten. Binges— which generally involve foods that are rich in carbohydrates, such as cookies, cake, and candy—are frequently followed by purging. Purging consists of self-induced vomiting and/or the use of large quantities of laxatives and diuretics. People with bulimia may also engage in excessive dieting and exercise. Athletes are especially susceptible to this disorder. · Bulimia nervosa can cause a number of physical problems. The stomach acid in vomit eats away at the teeth and may cause them to rot, and the delicate balance of body chemistry is destroyed by excessive use of laxatives and diuretics. People with bulimia may have a chronic sore throat as well as a variety of other symptoms, including dehydration, swelling of the salivary glands, kidney damage, and hair loss. The disorder also has a strong emotional component; the person with bulimia is aware that the eating pattern is abnormal and feels unable to control it. Depression, guilt, and shame accompany both binging and purging. Some evidence suggests that decreased function of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine appears to contribute to this disorder.

Incentive

An external stimulus that motivates behavior (for example, money or fame). · For example, the prospect of getting a generous tip serves as an incentive for restaurant servers to serve their customers promptly and courteously.

Homophobia

An intense, irrational hostility toward or fear of homosexuals.

Drive

An internal state of tension or arousal that is brought about by an underlying need and that an organism is motivated to reduce. · For example, when you are deprived of food or go too long without water, your biological need causes a state of tension—in this case, the hunger or thirst drive. You become motivated to seek food or water to reduce the drive and satisfy your biological need.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Another view of motivation, associated with the humanistic personality theory of Abraham Maslow, suggests that physiological motivations are the foundation for so called higher-level motives. He proposed that motivation is the process through which humans seek to meet their needs. Human needs, Maslow claimed, are hierarchical in nature, with our need for food and shelter at the bottom and our need for self-actualization at the top.

Obesity

BMI over 30. · More than one-third of adults in the United States are obese. Most individuals who are obese require the help of a physician to attain a healthy weight. For one thing, many suffer from other health problems, such as diabetes, that are linked to their weight problems in complex ways. Thus, any weight-loss program they undertake must be managed in such a way that does not aggravate other conditions. Children who are obese also require medical assistance to lose weight because caloric restriction diets can interfere with their growth. · For unknown reasons, some people who suffer from obesity appear to be unable to reverse the trend of continual weight gain. For these individuals, bariatric surgery, procedures in which the capacity of the stomach is modified to reduce the amount of food that the person can consume, may be the only alternative. Candidates for bariatric surgery must have a BMI in excess of 40. Individuals with BMIs ranging from 35 to 39 may be considered for the surgery if they have a weight-related health problem, such as diabetes or high blood pressure. Among more than 80% of patients, the bariatric surgical technique known as gastric bypass results in both weight reduction below the obesity threshold and improvements in weight-related health conditions. However, physicians stress that any person who undergoes the surgery must be willing to commit to postoperative lifestyle changes, including following a healthy diet and exercise regimen.

Set point theory

Belief that brain mechanisms regulate body weight around a genetically predetermined 'set point'

Display rules

Cultural rules that dictate how emotions should generally be expressed and when and where their expression is appropriate. · Often a society's display rules require people to give evidence of certain emotions that they may not actually feel or to disguise their true feelings. For example, Americans are expected to look sad at funerals, to hide disappointment at not winning, and to refrain from making facial expressions of disgust when served food that tastes bad. Display rules in Japanese culture dictate that negative emotions must be disguised when other people are present. In East Africa, young males from traditional Masai society are expected to appear stern and stony-faced and to "produce long, unbroken stares".

Basic emotions

Emotions that are unlearned and universal, that are reflected in the same facial expressions across cultures, and that emerge in children according to their biological timetable of development; fear, anger, disgust, surprise, happiness, and sadness are usually considered basic emotions.

Achievement motivation

Factors that move people to seek success in academic settings.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

In early research, social-cognitive theorist Henry Murray (1938) developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which consists of a series of pictures of ambiguous situations. The person taking the test is asked to create a story about each picture—to describe what is going on in the picture, what the person or persons pictured are thinking about, what they may be feeling, and what is likely to be the outcome of the situation. The stories are presumed to reveal the test taker's needs and the strength of those needs.

Social motives

Motives (such as the needs for affiliation and achievement) that are acquired through experience and interaction with others. · This group of motives includes those that influence our behavior in social settings such as workplaces and schools.

Motive

Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal. · For example, the motives that might compel a student to study for an exam are many. The student might derive self-esteem from getting good grades, or she might desire to escape from the anxiety that comes from a failing grade. Either motive would push her in the direction of moving through the motivational steps outlined above. Thus, two people could exhibit exactly the same behavior on the basis of very different motives.

Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists

Psychologists who apply their knowledge in the workplace and are especially interested in work motivation and job performance. · I/O psychologists design behavior modification plans that use reinforcers such as supervisor praise, bonuses, and extra time off to motivate employees to improve job performance.

Primary drives

States of tension or arousal that arise from a biological need and are unlearned. · Most people would agree that, at times, physiological needs demand our full attention. Primary drives are unlearned and include thirst, hunger, and sex.

Work motivation

The conditions and processes responsible for the arousal, direction, magnitude, and maintenance of effort of workers on the job.

Intrinsic motivation

The desire to behave in a certain way because it is enjoyable or satisfying in and of itself. · Motives can arise from something inside yourself, such as when you keep studying because you find the subject matter interesting. Such activities are pursued as ends in themselves, simply because they are enjoyable, not because any external reward is attached.

Extrinsic motivation

The desire to behave in a certain way in order to gain some external reward or to avoid some undesirable consequence. · In real life, the motives for many activities are both intrinsic and extrinsic. Although grades are extrinsic motivators, outstanding grades—especially when earned on a particularly difficult assignment or exam—usually bring with them a sense of pride in a job well done (an intrinsic motivator).

Sexual orientation

The direction of one's sexual interest—toward members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), toward one's own sex (homosexuality), or toward both sexes (bisexuality).

Sexual response cycle

The four phases— excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution— that make up the human sexual response in both males and females, according to Masters and Johnson. · The excitement phase is the beginning of the sexual response. Visual cues, such as watching a partner undress, are more likely to initiate the excitement phase in men than in women. Tender, loving touches coupled with verbal expressions of love arouse women more readily than visual stimulation. And men can become aroused almost instantly, while arousal for women is often a more gradual, building process. For both partners, muscular tension increases, heart rate quickens, and blood pressure rises. As additional blood is pumped into the genitals, the male's penis becomes erect, and the female feels a swelling of the clitoris. Vaginal lubrication occurs as the inner two-thirds of the vagina expands and the inner lips of the vagina enlarge. In women especially, the nipples harden and stand erect. · After the excitement phase, the individual enters the plateau phase, when excitement continues to mount. Blood pressure and muscle tension increase still more and breathing becomes heavy and more rapid. The man's testes swell, and drops of liquid, which can contain live sperm cells, may drip from the penis. The outer part of the woman's vagina swells as the increased blood further engorges the area. The clitoris withdraws under the clitoral hood (its skin covering), and the breasts become engorged with blood. Excitement builds steadily during the plateau phase. · The orgasm, the shortest of the phases, is the highest point of sexual pleasure, marked by a sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension. Involuntary muscle contractions may seize the entire body during orgasm, and the genitals contract rhythmically. Orgasm is a two-stage experience for the male. First is his awareness that ejaculation is near and that he can do nothing to stop it; second is the ejaculation itself, when semen is released from the penis in forceful spurts. The experience of orgasm in women builds in much the same way as for men. Marked by powerful, rhythmic contractions, the female's orgasm usually lasts longer than that of the male. About 40 to 50% of women regularly experience orgasm during intercourse. · The orgasm gives way to the resolution phase, a tapering-off period, when the body returns to its unaroused state. Men experience a refractory period in the resolution phase, during which they cannot have another orgasm. The refractory period may last from only a few minutes for some men to as long as several hours for others. Women do not have a refractory period and may, if restimulated, experience another orgasm right away.

Facial-feedback hypothesis

The idea that the muscular movements involved in certain facial expressions produce the corresponding emotions (for example, smiling makes one feel happy). · Could controlling one's facial expressions be a means of controlling the emotions themselves? Some evidence supports this notion. In classic research, Ekman and colleagues (1983) demonstrated that physiological measures of emotion such as heart rate and muscle tension changed in response to changes in research participants' facial expressions. More recently, researchers have found that people's facial expressions are more likely to change the intensity of the emotion they are really feeling as well as to enable them to change from one state to another. Thus, if you are angry and you adopt an angry expression, you will feel angrier. Moreover, neutralizing your facial expression may be the first step toward gaining control when your emotions are heading in a direction that you think may be more harmful than helpful.

Homeostasis

The natural tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state in order to ensure physical survival. · Body temperature, blood sugar level, water balance, blood oxygen level—in short, everything required for physical existence—must be maintained in a state of equilibrium, or balance. When such a state is disturbed, a drive is created to restore the balance.

Need for achievement (n Ach)

The need to accomplish something difficult and to perform at a high standard of excellence. · The need for achievement, rather than being satisfied with accomplishment, seems to grow as it is fed. Researchers David McClelland and John Atkinson have conducted many studies of the n Ach. People with a high n Ach pursue goals that are challenging yet attainable through hard work, ability, determination, and persistence. Goals that are too easy, those anyone can reach, offer no challenge, and hold no interest because success would not be rewarding. Impossibly high goals and high risks are not pursued because they offer little chance of success and are considered a waste of time. The goals of those with high n Ach are self-determined and linked to perceived abilities; thus, these goals tend to be realistic. · For example, a player with high school basketball play with a high n Ach is likely to do an honest assessment of his skills and pursue scholarship offers from colleges whose teams play at the level that is most appropriate for his abilities. By contrast, a high school basketball player with low n Ach who desires to play at the college level may adopt a goal that says "If I don't get a scholarship offer from a top-tier college, I won't play at all." This is because, according to researchers, people with low n Ach are not willing to take chances when it comes to testing their own skills and abilities. They are motivated more by their fear of failure than by their hope and expectation of success. This is why they set either impossibly high goals or ridiculously low ones, which anyone can attain. After all, who can fault a person for failing to reach a goal that is impossible for almost anyone?

Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

The part of the hypothalamus that acts as a feeding center to incite eating. · Excessive food avoidance or consumption may also be caused by dysfunctions in the brain's feeding/satiety (fullness) system. Stimulating the feeding center causes animals to eat even when they are full. And when the feeding center is destroyed, animals initially refuse to eat.

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

The part of the hypothalamus that acts as a satiety (fullness) center to inhibit eating. · If the VMH is surgically removed, animals soon eat their way to gross obesity. Moreover, some of the substances secreted by the gastrointestinal tract during digestion, such as the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK), act as satiety signals.

Yerkes-Dodson law

The principle that performance on tasks is best when the arousal level is appropriate to the difficulty of the task: higher arousal for simple tasks, moderate arousal for tasks of moderate difficulty, and lower arousal for complex tasks. · But performance suffers when arousal level is either too high or too low for the task. For instance, how often have you heard great athletes who "choke" in critical situations compared to those who "come through" under pressure? Perhaps high-pressure situations push the athletes who choke past the optimal point of arousal but have just the opposite effect on the reliable athletes. · The relationship between arousal and performance is most often explained in terms of attention. Low arousal allows the mind to wander, so performance declines for tasks that require concentration, such as taking a test. By contrast, high arousal interferes with concentration by taking up all the available space in working memory. The ideal level of arousal for test taking, then, is an amount that is sufficient to keep the mind from wandering but not so great as to interfere with the memory demands of taking the test. Critics of this theory have argued that arousal is merely one of many variables that influence attention. Moreover, they point out that the Yerkes-Dodson law is based primarily on animal research. For these reasons, they caution against generalizing arousal theory to complex human behaviors such as test performance without taking into account other factors that influence how humans allocate attention.

Self-actualization

The pursuit of self-defined goals for personal fulfillment and growth. · For example, a successful businessman who retires early to devote his time to charitable work is pursuing self-actualization goals. Thus, in Maslow's view, it is impossible for an individual to attain self-actualization without first meeting his or her needs at the lower levels of the hierarchy. · One implication of Maslow's theory is that we must work through our lower needs to experience the fulfillment that comes from pursuing personal growth for its own sake. However, the hierarchy also implies that humans are motivated by their lowest unmet need. If we ask, for example, why a student in school is failing to achieve one of Maslow's esteem needs, it is possible that the student has an unmet lower need. He or she may be hungry (physiological need), feel threatened in the school environment (safety need), or be concerned about peer rejection (belongingness need). Consequently, Maslow's theory has helped educators understand that providing students with adequate nutrition, ensuring their safety while at school, and supporting their social development may be as critical to achievement as curriculum materials and teaching strategies are. · Despite the practical implications of Maslow's theory, critics have often charged that self-actualization is an elusive concept. Maslow agreed to some extent and, in an effort to better illustrate the phenomenon, he studied people he believed were using their talents and abilities to their fullest. He studied some historical figures, such as Abraham Lincoln and Thomas Jefferson, and some individuals who made significant contributions during his or her own lifetime, including Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Albert Schweitzer. Maslow found these self-actualizers to be accurate in perceiving reality— able to judge honestly and to spot quickly the fake and the dishonest. Most of them believed that they had a mission to accomplish or need to devote their life to some larger good. Finally, the hallmark of self-actualizers is frequently occurring peak experiences— experiences of deep meaning, insight, and harmony within and with the universe.

Metabolic rate

The rate at which the body burns calories to produce energy. · Influenced by genes.

Affective neuroscience

The study of the neurological foundations of emotion.

Lazarus theory

The theory that a cognitive appraisal is the first step in an emotional response and all other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on it. · The theory of emotion that most heavily emphasizes the cognitive aspect has been proposed by Richard Lazarus (1991a, 1991b, 1995). · This theory is most compatible with the subjective experience of an emotion's sequence of events—the sequence that William James reversed long ago. Faced with a stimulus—an event—a person first appraises it. This cognitive appraisal determines whether the person will have an emotional response and, if so, what type of response. The physiological arousal and all other aspects of the emotion flow from the appraisal. In short, Lazarus contends that emotions are provoked when cognitive appraisals of events or circumstances are positive or negative—but not neutral. · Critics of the Lazarus theory point out that some emotional reactions are instantaneous occurring too rapidly to pass through a cognitive appraisal. Lazarus responds that some mental processing occurs without conscious awareness. And there must be some form of cognitive realization, however brief, or else a person would not know what he or she is responding to or what emotion to feel—fear, happiness, embarrassment, and so on. Further, researchers have found that reappraisal, or changing one's thinking about an emotional stimulus, is related to a reduction in physiological response.

Cannon-Bard theory

The theory that an emotion-provoking stimulus is transmitted simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, providing the conscious mental experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing the physiological arousal. · Another early theory of emotion that challenged the James-Lange theory was proposed by Walter Cannon (1927), who did pioneer work on the fight-or-flight response and the concept of homeostasis. Cannon claimed that the bodily changes caused by the various emotions are not sufficiently distinct to allow people to distinguish one emotion from another. Cannon's original theory was later expanded by physiologist Philip Bard (1934). · In other words, the feeling of an emotion (fear, for example) occurs at about the same time as the experience of physiological arousal (a pounding heart). One does not cause the other. Consequently, a proponent of the Canon-Bard theory would argue that the figure below should consist of two cells instead of three. The first would show the growling dog, and the second would show both the physical and the cognitive response of the frightened person.

James-Lange theory

The theory that emotional feelings result when an individual becomes aware of a physiological response to an emotion-provoking stimulus (for example, feeling fear because of trembling). · American psychologist William James (1884) argued that an event causes physiological arousal and a physical response, after which the individual perceives the physical response as an emotion. At about the same time James proposed his theory, a Danish physiologist and psychologist, Carl Lange, independently formulated nearly the same theory.

Goal orientation theory

The view that achievement motivation depends on which of four goal orientations (mastery/approach, mastery/avoidance, performance/avoidance, performance/approach) an individual adopts. Here's how each of the orientations might affect a college student: · Students with a mastery/approach orientation will study and engage in other behaviors (e.g., attend class) so as to increase their knowledge and overcome challenges. · Those who have a mastery/avoidance orientation will exhibit whatever behaviors are necessary to avoid failing to learn (a different outcome than a failing grade, by the way). · Students with a performance/avoidance orientation will measure their performance against that of other students and are motivated to work to the point where they are at least equal to their peers. · Finally, those who have a performance/approach orientation try to surpass the performance of their peers in an attempt to enhance their own sense of self-worth. Research indicates that the performance/approach orientation is more strongly associated with high grades than any of the others.

Positive psychology

The view that psychologists should study and promote the development of human strengths such as optimism. · Positive psychologists such as Barbara Fredrickson (2009) suggest that positive emotions enable us to focus on applying and modifying the coping strategies that have worked well for us in the past to new challenges. By contrast, negative feelings direct our attention to our problems. · One of today's most influential clinical psychologists, Martin Seligman, has enthusiastically endorsed the idea that people can and should exert control over their emotions to maintain positive emotional states (e.g., happiness) and avoid negative ones (e.g., anger). Moreover, he has argued that the field of psychology can help people do so by devoting as much time and energy to studying human strengths such as optimism, a positive outlook on life, as we do to studying weaknesses such as psychological disorders.

Set point

The weight the body normally maintains when one is trying neither to gain nor to lose weight. · Set point is affected by the number of fat cells in the body and by metabolic rate, both of which are influenced by the genes. Researchers think that fat cells send biochemical messages indicating how much energy is stored in them to the hypothalamus. Presumably, the genes influence what the hypothalamus "believes" to be the appropriate amount of energy to store. One of the most important current lines of research in this area aims to identify these biochemical messages and influence them in ways that will lower the set points of obese individuals.

Theories of emotion

Typically, psychologists have studied emotion in terms of three components: physical, cognitive, and behavioral. The three components appear to be interdependent. For instance, in one study, participants who were better at detecting heartbeat variations (the physical component) rated their subjective experiences of emotion (the cognitive component) as being more intense than did participants who were less able to detect physical changes. However, neither the physical nor the cognitive components completely determine how emotion is expressed (the behavioral component). Moreover, there is a long-standing debate among psychologists about which component comes first in the overall experience of emotion.

Bulimia nervosa cause and treatment?

· Bulimia nervosa tends to appear in the late teens and affects 1 to 2% of women. Like those with anorexia, people with bulimia have high rates of other psychiatric disorders. Further, perhaps as many as one-third of them have engaged in other kinds of self-injurious behavior, such as cutting themselves intentionally. About 10 to 15% of all people with bulimia are males, and homosexuality or bisexuality seems to increase males' risk for bulimia. · Bulimia, like anorexia, is difficult to treat. Some behavior modification programs have helped extinguish bulimic behavior, and cognitive- behavioral therapy has been used successfully to help those with bulimia modify their eating habits and their abnormal attitudes about body shape and weight. Certain antidepressant drugs have been found to reduce the frequency of binge eating and purging in some individuals with bulimia.

Generally, psychologists consider motivation to have three components: activation, persistence, and intensity. To understand each, think about the role of motivation in studying for an exam:

· In the activation phase, you take the first steps required to achieve your goal of being prepared for the exam. You find out what will be covered on the exam; locate the appropriate material in your textbook, notes, and other resources; and develop a study plan. · Persistence is the faithful and continued effort put forth in working toward a goal. In other words, this phase of motivation requires that you put your plan into action and stick to it even in the face of distractions and obstacles. · Intensity refers to the focused energy and attention applied in order to achieve the goal. When you study, do you get caught up in your interest in the subject matter or in the emotional roller coaster that comes from thinking about the alternate possibilities of success and failure? Either way, it's the intensity component of motivation that's at work.

Anorexia nervosa cause and treatment?

· It is difficult to pinpoint the cause of this disorder. Most individuals who are diagnosed with anorexia are well behaved and academically successful. Psychological risk factors for eating disorders include being overly concerned about physical appearance, worrying about perceived attractiveness, and feeling social pressure in favor of thinness. Some investigators believe that young women who refuse to eat are attempting to control a portion of their lives, which they may feel unable to control in other respects. · Anorexia is very difficult to treat. Most people with anorexia are steadfast in their refusal to eat, while insisting that nothing is wrong with them. The main thrust of treatment, therefore, is to get the individual to gain weight. The patient may be admitted to a hospital, fed a controlled diet, and given rewards for small weight gains and increases in food intake. The treatment usually includes some type of psychotherapy and/or a self-help group. Some studies show that antidepressant drugs may help in the treatment of anorexia. Others suggest that protein-rich supplements help individuals with anorexia regain their normal appetites. Multidimensional treatment programs—that is, those that combine medication, nutritional therapy, and psychotherapy—may prove to be the most successful approach.

Researchers on basic emotions

· Izard (1992, 1993) suggests that there are distinct neural circuits that underlie each of the basic emotions, and Levenson and others (1990) point to specific autonomic nervous system activity associated with the basic emotions. · In studying the range of emotion, Ekman (1993) has suggested considering emotions as comprising families. The anger family would range from annoyed to irritated, angry, livid, and, finally, enraged. Furthermore, the anger family, if it exists, also includes various forms in which the emotion is expressed, according to Ekman (1993). Resentment, for example, is a form of anger "in which there is a sense of grievance". Just as there are many words in the English language to describe the variations in the range of any emotion, Ekman and Friesen claim that subtle distinctions in the facial expression of a single emotion convey its intensity. · Charles Darwin (1872/1965) maintained that most emotions and the facial expressions that convey them are genetically inherited and characteristic of the entire human species. If Darwin was right, then everyone should label the expressions in the Try It the same way. Do your labels agree with those of others? To test his belief, Darwin asked missionaries and people of different cultures around the world to record the facial expressions that accompany the basic emotions. Based on those data, he concluded that facial expressions were similar across cultures. Modern researchers agree that Darwin was right.