Chapter 9 | AP Environmental Science

Sources of Water Pollution (Order of Most to Least)

1. Sewage 2. Farm runoff 3. Air pollutants 4. Industrial wastewater 5. Shipping 6. Offshore oil 7. Litter

Donora, Pennsylvania

1948 Industrial smog from the local zinc and steel smelting plants settling in the valley where the town was located and resulting in 20 deaths and 7,000 hospitalized

Great London Smog

1952 Cold weather combined with windless conditions and airborne pollutants from coal formed a thick layer of industrial smog Over 100,000 people become ill and 12,000 people died

Exxon Valdez

1989 Oil tanker Exxon Valdez spilled oil into Prince William Sound, Alaska Billions of salmon, billions of herring eggs, 250,000 seabirds, 3,000 otters, 300 seals, 300 bald eagles, and 22 whales died Destroyed majority of plankton

Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill

2010 Deepwater Horizon drilling rig BP Billions of dollars in damage Fishing industry, tourism industry, habitat of birds, fish, and other wildlife species were destroyed

Acid Rain

A broad term that is used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the atmosphere

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

A colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air Produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing compounds and forms when there is not enough oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, such as when operating a stove, a water heater, or an internal-combustion engine in an enclosed space Produced From: § Volcanic activity § Natural and man-made fires, such as wildfires and burning crop residues § The burning of fossil fuels § Photochemical reactions in the troposphere (largest source) A temporary atmospheric pollutant in urban areas In the presence of oxygen, nitrogen dioxide, and ultraviolet radiation, it produces tropospheric ozone, a component of photochemical smog CO + 2CO₂ + UV → CO₂ + O₃

Water Pollution: Phosphates (PO₄³-)

A component of inorganic fertilizers Not water soluble and adhere to soil particles Soil erosion contributes to the buildup of phosphates in water Phosphate buildup is more damaging in freshwater systems because it may contribute to algal bloom, and it may also provide an advantage to invasive species that are more tolerant of higher phosphate levels in water Ex. - cattails replacing endemic sawgrass Steps Involved in Algal Blooms § Ani increase in algae occurs due to increased nitrate and phosphate concentrations and results in decreased light penetration and the killing off of deeper plants and their supply of oxygen § The oxygen concentration decreases because of increased material for decomposers (consumers of dissolved oxygen) § Lower oxygen concentrations cause fish and aquatic organisms to die and contaminate the water at a high rate § Decaying fish and algae produce toxins in the water

Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ)

A generic term for nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide Produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air Formed whenever nitrogen occurs in the presence of high temperature combustion Forest fires, internal combustion engines, lightning, power station boilers, and volcanos NOₓ gases react to form acid rain Central to the formation of tropospheric ozone When NOₓ and volatile organic compounds react in the presence of sunlight, they form photochemical smog, especially in the summer Agricultural fertilization and the use of nitrogen-fixing plants also contribute to atmospheric NOₓ by promoting nitrogen fixation by organisms

Plastic - "The Great Pacific Garbage Patch"

A large system of rotating ocean currents of marine litter in the central North Pacific Ocean Characterized by high concentrations of floating plastics, chemical sludge, and other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre The garbage patch formed gradually as a result of marine pollution gathered by ocean currents The gyre's rotational patterns draws waste material from North America and Japan As materials are captured in the currents, wind-driven surface currents gradually move floating debris toward the center, trapping it in the region Plastic can entangle organisms causing injury and death Certain types of plastic can break down into small particles and become ingested far in the future As plastics photodegrade into smaller pieces, it remains as plastic polymers leaching toxic chemicals into the upper water column The plastics can enter the food chain and through bioaccumulation, distribute the toxins throughout the food chain Marine plastics also facilitate the spread of invasive species that attach to floating plastic The large amount of debris makes it more difficult for animals to see their food sources

Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)

A major greenhouse and air pollutant Has increased by 15-20% since 1750 300x the impact on global warming than carbon dioxide Agriculture cropland contribute to 70% of the total nitrous oxide emissions Produced Naturally By: □ In the soil during the process of nitrification □ By denitrification □ Nitrite is further reduced to nitric oxide, molecular nitrogen, and nitrous oxide Also causes ozone depletion whereby nitrous oxide gives rise to nitric oxide on reaction with oxygen atoms: N₂O + O → 2NO and NO in turn reacts with ozone: NO + O → NO₂ + O₂ Most significant ozone-depleting substances

Turbidity

A measure of how light is scattered in the water column due to solids that do not dissolve but are small enough to be suspended in the water The higher the turbidity, the cloudier the water Turbidity keeps light from penetrating into the water and interferes with photosynthetic oxygen production and primary productivity Darkened water holds more heat, increasing the water temperature, which lovers the DO Suspended solids can clog fish gills and can smother larvae and fill in nesting sites These solids may come from soil erosion or channelization from dredging Increased water flow rates erode stream banks and allow the water to carry a heavier load of particles

Water Testing

A measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and to any human need or purpose Testing May Be Preformed To Evaluate ○ The ability of a surface water body to support aquatic life as an ecosystem ○ The characteristics of polluted water (domestic sewage or industrial waste) before treatment and after treatment ○ The characteristics of a water source before treatment for drinking water ○ The suitability of water for industrial uses, such as in a laboratory, in a manufacturing facility, or for equipment cooling

Reading Prong

A particularly uranium-rich geological formation, called Reading Prong, stretches from Pennsylvania through northwestern New Jersey into southern New York Granites are very old and contain lots of uranium Very high radon levels found Glacial debris from the last ice age tends to be very thick, which can prevent radon gas from escaping to the surface prior to its breakdown into another radioactive element

Street Canyon

A place where the street is flanked by buildings on both sides, creating a canyon-like environment Ex. - When streets separate dense blocks of structures like skyscrapers Have an impact on local conditions like temperature, wind, and air quality

Ammonia

A product of microbiological activity, ammonia, when found in natural water, is regarded as an indicator of pollution Ammonia is rapidly oxidized by certain bacteria in natural water systems into nitrite and nitrate - a process that requires dissolved oxygen Also a nutrient for algae and other forms of plant life and thus contributes to the overloading and pollution of natural water systems

Solids

A steady concentration of dissolved minerals is necessary to maintain osmotic balance Changes in concentration can lead to a weakening of the organism or even death High levels of total dissolved solids (TDS) can affect the water clarity and photosynthesis and lead to a decline in the quality and taste of drinking water Sources include road salts, urban runoff, farm chemicals, sewage treatment effluent, road building, and clear-cutting

Sick Building Syndrome

A term used to describe a combination of ailments associated with an individual's place of work or residence

Water Pollution: Assorted Chemicals

A variety of chemicals from industry and agriculture can cause water pollution Metals, solvents, oils, detergents, pesticides Can accumulate in fish, poisoning the people, animals, and birds On a square-foot basis, homeowners apply more chemicals to their lawn than farmers Road runoff and other non-spill sources impart an amount of oil to the oceans that is more than 5 times greater than the Exxon Valdez spill Discharge of oily wastes and oil-contaminated ballast water and wash water are all significant sources of marine pollution Drilling and extraction operations for oil and gas can also contaminate water Components of crude oil, called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), persist in the marine environment for years and are toxic to marine life at low concentrations Chronic exposure to PAHs can affect the development of marine organisms and affect reproductive cycles Studies show that 90% of prescription drugs pass through the body unaltered. Farmers that use growth hormones and antibiotics for cattle also have large quantities of these chemicals pass into the water Most wastewater treatment facilities are not equipped to filter out these personal care products, household products, or pharmaceuticals This causes these chemicals to pass directly into local waterways Studies On The Effects of These Chemicals Have Discovered 1. Fragrance molecules inside fish tissue 2. Ingredients from birth-control pills cause gender-bending hormonal effects in frogs and fish 3. The chemical nonylphenol, a remnant of detergent, disrupts fish reproduction and growth

Wet Deposition (Acid Rain)

Acid rain, fog, and snow The strength of the effects on the environment depends on how acidic the water is, the chemistry and buffering capacity of the soils involved, and the types of organisms such as fish, macroinvertebrates, trees, and other living things that rely on soil and water Causes acidification of lakes and streams Contributes to the damage of trees at high elevations and many sensitive forest soils through nitrogen saturation and by creating acidic conditions that are unhealthy for decomposers Acid shock Accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable statues and sculptures Acid rain leaches essential plant nutrients from the soil such as calcium, potassium, and magnesium Heavy metal ions that are contained within rocks may be leached out as well Acid deposition begins with sulfur dioxide being introduced into the atmosphere and then combining with water vapor to form sulfurous acid (SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₃) which then reacts with oxygen to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₃ + ½O₂ → H₂SO₄) Acid deposition due to nitrogen oxides begins with nitrogen monoxide which reacts with oxygen gas to produce nitrogen dioxide gas (NO + ½O₂ → NO₂) which then reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere to produce nitrous and nitric acids (2NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₂ + HNO₃)

Catalytic Converters

An exhaust emission control device that converts toxic chemicals in the exhaust of an internal-combustion engine into less noxious substances A catalyst stimulates a chemical reaction in which noxious by-products of combustion are converted into less toxic substances by way of catalyzed chemical reactions Three Way Converter: 1. Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: NOₓ → O₂ + N₂ 2. Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: CO + O₂ → CO₂ 3. Oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water: CₓH₂ₓ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O Although catalytic converters do remove hydrocarbons and other harmful emissions, they do not reduce the emission of carbon dioxide The EPA has stated that catalytic converters are a significant and growing cause of global warming, because of their release of nitrous oxide

Ozone (O₃)

An inorganic molecule Tropospheric ozone is a secondary air pollutant Ways Tropospheric Ozone Is Produced: 1. UV reacting with nitrogen oxides released by vehicles, which causes oxygen atoms to react with oxygen gas, resulting in ozone NO₂ + UV → NO + O O + O₂ → O₃ 2. When VOCs react with nitrogen oxides, producing peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), which are powerful respiratory and eye irritants that are present in photochemical smog NOₓ + VOCs → PANs + O₃ Tropospheric ozone is caused by power plants, motor vehicles, burning fossil fuels, and releasing VOCs Short-lived greenhouse gas that decays in the atmosphere much more quickly than carbon dioxide Because of its short-lived nature, tropospheric ozone does not have strong global effects, but instead is more influential in its effects on smaller, more localized areas Negatively affects plant life by stressing plants to the point of making them less vigorous which negatively impacts food webs and decreases crop yields

Radon

An invisible, radioactive gas that results form the radioactive decay of radium, which can be found in rock formations (granite containing uranium) beneath buildings or in certain building materials The most pervasive serious hazard for indoor air in the US and Europe Responsible for tens of thousands of deaths from lung cancer each year A heavy gas and thus tends to accumulate at the floor level Greatest for well-insulated homes Mitigation Methods: § Sealing concrete slab floors § Sealing basement foundations § Increasing indoor ventilation with outdoor air

Formaldehyde

An organic chemical (contains carbon) that is prevalent in the indoor environment It is a carcinogen that is linked to nasal and lung cancer

Carbon Dioxide

Aquatic vegetation depend upon carbon dioxide and bicarbonates in water for growth When the oxygen concentration falls, the carbon dioxide concentration increases and the pH increases High levels of carbon dioxide can make it difficult for fish to use the limited amount of oxygen present in the water and to discharge the carbon dioxide in their bloodstream Low carbon dioxide levels result in a decrease rate of photosynthesis

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Bacteria in water can consume oxygen as organic matter decays and results in eutrophic conditions, especially in the summer (the concentration of dissolved oxygen is inversely related to water temperature) DO levels that are too low indicate possible water pollution and show a potential for further pollution downstream because the ability of the stream to self-cleanse will be reduced

Photochemical Smog

Catalyzed by UV radiation, tends to be nitrogen-based, and is also called "brown smog" ○ 6AM-9AM As people drive to work, concentrations of nitrogen oxides and VOCs increase N₂ + O₂ → 2NO NO + VOCs → NO₂ NO₂ →(UV) NO + O ○ 9AM-11AM As traffic begins to decrease, nitrogen oxides and VOCs begin to react, forming nitrogen dioxide 2NO + O₂ → 2NO₂ ○ 11AM-4PM As the sunlight becomes more intense, nitrogen dioxide is broken down and the concentration of ozone increases NO₂ →(UV) NO + O O₂ + O → O₃ Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with water vapor to produce nitric acid and nitric oxide 3NO₂ + H₂O → 2HNO₃ + NO Nitrogen dioxide can also react with VOCs released by vehicles, refineries, gas stations, and so on to produce toxic PANs NO₂ + VOXs → PANs ○ 4PM-Sunset As the sun goes down, the production of ozone is halted Net result: NO + VOCs + O₂ + UV → O₃ + PANs

Salinity

Chloride is one of the major ions found in water and sewageIts presence in large amounts may be due to natural processes, like the passage of water through natural salt formations in the earth, or may be an indicator of pollution from seawater intrusion or industrial and domestic waste from de-icing processes Proper salinity levels are required to maintain osmotic pressure for living cells Decreased salinity also result in decreased DO and decreased viability of eggs and larvae An increased salinity concentration interferes with hatching, embryo development, and reproduction

Fecal Coliform

Coliforms are a form of bacteria that are found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals Their presence in water is a sign of untreated sewage in water Can get into the water from untreated sewage or from farms and runoff from feedlots

Tobacco Smoke

Contains almost 5,000 chemical compounds, including 60 carcinogens Responsible for 85% of lung cancers and also associated with mouth, larynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, kidney, bladder, and colon cancer Liked to leukemia, strokes, and heart attacks Cigarettes are smoked by about 20% of the population

Iron Mountain

Copper mine in California Closed since 1963 Historic mining activity fractured the mountain, exposing minerals in the mountain to surface water and rainwater When pyrite, a sulfide mineral, is exposed to moisture and oxygen, sulfuric acid forms This sulfuric acid runs through the mountain and leaches out copper, cadmium, zinc, and other heavy metals which flow out of the seeps and channel into the Sacramento River The pollution will continue for the next 3,000 years

National Environmental Policy Act (1970)

Created the EPA Also mandated the creation of Environmental Impact Statements

Clean Air Act (1963)

Designed to control air pollution on a national level Requires the EPA to develop and enforce regulations that protect the general public from exposure to airborne contaminants that are known to be hazardous to human health Other Things The Act Does § Required comprehensive federal and state regulations for both industrial and mobile sources of air pollution § Expanded federal enforcement authority § Addressed acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollution § Established new auto gas reformulation requirements § Served as the first major environmental law in the US to include a provision for citizen lawsuits

Water Pollution: Microbiological

Disease causing (pathogenic) microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, can result in swimmers getting sick and fish becoming contaminated Ex. - cholera, typhoid, shigella, polio, meningitis, and hepatitis Caused by raw sewage being dumped into water from overflow during heavy rains, leaking septic tanks, and other sources of sewage Beaches also have water pollution and many are closed due to bacterial buildup caused by sewage

Primary Pollutants

Emitted directly into the air

Phosphates

Essential nutrient for aquatic plants, but only in very low concentrations Excessive amounts of phosphorous build up easily, and small amounts can contaminate large areas, resulting in increased algae growth, which blocks sunlight, decreases DO, and increases decomposition rates Sources include fertilizers, sewage, and detergents

Noise Control Act (1972)

Established a national policy to promote an environment for all Americans free from noise that jeopardizes their health and welfare

Effects of Noise Pollution

Hearing loss Cardiovascular problems Accelerated heartbeat and high blood pressure Gastrointestinal problems A decrease in alertness and the ability to memorize, nervousness, and anxiety

Water Pollution: Thermal Sources

Heat that is produced by industry and power plants and discharged into waterways reduces the water's ability to hold oxygen and kills organisms that cannot tolerate heat and low oxygen levels Global warming is also imparting additional heat to water Marine species that are most affected include plankton, which are the base of many marine food chains

Temperature

Higher water temperatures lower the amount of dissolved oxygen: (1.) gases are less soluble in warmer water; and (2.) warmer water increases the metabolic rate of aquatic organisms, which increases the consumption of food and lowers the concentration of dissolved oxygen Higher temperatures also increase an organism's sensitivity to toxic wastes and diseases Most thermal pollution comes from large power plants that use large amounts of water for cooling purposes Logging increases soil erosion and water turbidity, which in turn, raises water temperatures

Dry Deposition

In areas where the weather is dry, acidic chemicals in the air may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall to the ground, sticking to the ground, buildings, homes, cars, and trees Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from these surfaces by rainstorms, leading to increased acidic runoff About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition

Carbon Monoxide

Lethal in closed environments Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal indoor air poisoning in many countries because it easily combines with hemoglobin to block the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity In developing countries, people rely on coal and biomass in the form of wood, dung, and crop residues for domestic energy These materials are typically burned in simple stoves with very incomplete combustion, which cause people to be exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide The constant exposure can cause chronic pulmonary disease and acute respiratory infections in childhood Low birth weight, increased infant mortality, tuberculosis, and lung cancer

pH

Many aquatic life-forms are very sensitive to the pH levels of water Changes in water pH can result in increased mortality of eggs and juveniles, decalcification of bone, and physiological stress Pollution tends to make water acidic and increases the solubility of heavy metals Most bodies of water have the highest biological diversity when the pH is near 7 Natural waters will range from 5.0-8.5 Fresh rainwater will be 5.5-6.0 Carbon dioxide lowers pHA pH that is too high is undesirable since the concentration of free ammonia increases with rising pH

Water Pollution: Noise

Many marine animals (sea turtles and fish) use sound to communicate, navigate and hunt Because of oceanic water noise pollution caused by commercial shipping, military sonar, and recreational boating, some species have a harder time hunting, detecting predators, or navigating properly

Minamata Disease

Many mercury-containing compounds were dumped into Minamata Bay, Japan The mercury collected in fish and caused people to have blurred vison, hearing loss, loss of muscle coordination, and reproductive disorders

Alkalinity

Measures the sum of bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions in the water that elevate the pH Represents the ability to resist change in the pH (buffering capacity) which can increase egg and fry survival rates and is a characteristic of water sources

Total Hardness

Measures the total concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the water Increased concentration can increase the solubility of heavy metal ions in the water and affect the water's buffering capacity

Suspended Particulate Matter (PMₓ)

Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the atmosphere The ₓ refers to the size of the particles Naturally Occurring PMₓ: Volcanos Dust storms Forest and grassland fires Sea spray Anthropogenic PMₓ: Burning of fossil fuels - power plants Vehicle exhaust Incineration of wastes Soil erosion - desertification, deforestation The smaller and lighter the particle is, the longer it will stay in the air Particles greater than 10 micrometers tend to settle to the ground in hours, whereas particles smaller than 1 micrometer can stay in the atmosphere for weeks and are removed by precipitation § Makes lakes and streams more acidic § Changes the nutrient balance in coastal waters and large river basins § Depletes the nutrients in soil § Damages sensitive forests and farm crops § Affects the diversity of ecosystems § Increases the health issues with humans and animals including asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, birth defects, and premature death. Causes about 3 million deaths per year

Sulfur Oxides (SOₓ)

Most common is sulfur dioxide A colorless gas with a penetrating, choking odor, and it readily dissolves in water to form an acidic solution The main emission source of sulfur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels used by power stations, oil refineries, and large industrial plants Motor vehicles, tar sand extraction, ore processing, active volcanos, marshes, and hot springs all release sulfur dioxide Toxic to a variety of plants and reduces crop yields Sulfur dioxide can combine with air moisture to cause gradual damage to some buildings by forming an acid solution Irritates the throat and lungs, and damages the respiratory system

Nitrate

Most excessive amounts of nitrates come from human-based activities (runoff from fertilized land, animal waste from feedlots, and treated municipal waste effluent) Primary cause of dead zones in the Gulf of Mexico, the Chesapeake Bay, and the Long Island Sound Nitrates also get reduced to nitrites, which can be harmful to humans and fish

Heavy Metals (Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Selenium)

Mostly comes from miningWhen the pH in water falls, metal solubility increases, and the metal particles become more mobileMetals cam become "locked up" in bottom sediments, where they remain for many years Metals are non-biodegradable and can cause decreased reproductive ratesIncreased selenium concentrations have been shown to cause increased birth defects

Water Pollution: Nitrates (NO₃-)

Nitrates are water soluble Found in fertilizers and can remain on fields and accumulate and leach into groundwater or end up in surface runoff Can cause algal blooms, resulting in decreased dissolved oxygen levels Contaminate drinking water supplies by reducing the effectiveness of hemoglobin, and they contribute to acid rain by forming nitrous and nitric acid The bacterial decomposition of nitrogen-based fertilizers produces nitrous oxide (N₂O), which contributes to global warming and the depletion of stratospheric ozone

Nitrite

Occur in water as an intermediate product in the biological breakdown of organic nitrogen being produced either through the oxidation of ammonia or the reduction of nitrate The presence of large quantities of nitrite indicate water pollution

Heat Islands

Occurs in metropolitan areas that are significantly warmer than their surroundings Since warmer air can hold more water vapor, rainfall can be 30% greater downwind of cities compared to upwind areas Higher temperatures are more pronounced at night Since the demand for air conditioning rises during the summer months, problems associated with energy availability and pricing become compounded Street canyon High levels of pollution in urban areas can also create a local greenhouse effect Can directly influence the health and welfare of residents who cannot afford air conditioning Produce secondary effects on local meteorology, including altering local wind patterns, the development of clouds and fog, the number of lightening trikes, and the rate of precipitation Can be reduced by using white or reflective building materials and increasing the amount of landscaping and parks

Temperature Inversions

Occurs when the air increases with the height above the ground, as opposed to the normal decrease in temperature with height Can lead to pollution like smog being trapped close to the ground which can have adverse effects on health (asthma, emphysema, lung cancer) Occur at night when solar heating ceases and the surface cools, which then cools the atmosphere immediately above it A war mass than moving over a colder one keeps the cooler air mass trapped below, and the air becomes still which then results in dust and pollutants being trapped Ex. - Antarctica

Non-Point Source Pollution

Occurs when the contaminant comes from a source that is not easily identifiable or from a number of sources spread over a large, widespread area Ex. - excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides May small diffuse sources from many different locations Individual contributions are smaller, but cumulative effects may be significant Difficult to monitor; many stations required Difficult to locate and fine offenders

Point Source Pollution

Occurs when the contaminant comes from an obvious source Discharge is usually controlled by a permit Relatively easy to control since the type of contaminant and location are known Fairly easy to monitor above and below the discharge point The industry can be fined if it does not obey the terms of the permit

Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone

Off the coast of Louisiana and Texas Largest hypoxic zone in the US The hypoxic zone forms every summer and is a result of excess nutrients from the Mississippi River and seasonal stratification of waters in the Gulf The nutrient laden freshwater is less dense and remains above the more dense saline Gulf water This stratification prevents the mixing of oxygen-rich surface water with oxygen-poor water on the bottom of the Gulf Without mixing, oxygen in the bottom water is limited and the hypoxic condition continues

Oil Spills

Oil is spilled when transferring oil to vessels, when transporting, when pipelines break, and when drilling for oil Effects of Oil Spills § The oil penetrates the feathers of seabirds, reducing the feathers' insulating ability and making the birds more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water § It impairs seabirds' flight and thus their abilities to forage and escape from predators § As the seabirds attempt to preen, they typically ingest oil that covers their feathers, causing kidney and liver damage. This quickly results in dehydration § Since oil floats on top of water, less sunlight penetrates into the water, limiting photosynthesis of marine plants and phytoplankton and affecting the food web in ecosystems

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure (easily evaporate) at ordinary room temperature Their high vapor pressure results from a low boiling point, which causes large numbers of molecules to evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or soil form of the compound and enter the surrounding air Have long-term health effects Health Effects: § Eye, nose, and throat irritation § Headaches, loss of coordination, and nausea § Damage to the liver, kidney, and central nervous system § Cancer

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation Many POPs are currently or were used as pesticides, solvents, pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals Dioxins are typically emitted from the burning of hospital waste, municipal waste, and hazardous waste, along with automobile emissions and burning coal and wood Exert their negative effects on the environment through two process: (1.) long-range transport, which allows them to travel far from their source, and (2.) bioaccumulation, which concentrates these chemical compounds to dangerous levels Studies of indoor dust and air have implicated indoor environments as a major source for human exposure to POPs via inhalation and ingestion

Indicator Species

Organisms whose presence, absence, or abundance reflect a specific environmental condition Can signal a change in the biological condition of a particular ecosystem, and thus they may be used to diagnose the health of an ecosystem Examples of Indicator Species ○ Stoneflies (indicate high oxygen water) ○ Mosses (indicate acidic soil) ○ Lichens (indicate air pollution) ○ Mollusks (indicate water pollution) ○ Tubifex (sludge) worms (indicate undrinkable, stagnant, oxygen-poor water)

Smog in China

Particulate matter has reduced life expectancy by 6 years in the north of China as a result of heart diseases Air pollution increases during the winter because more coal is burned to keep warm Very large amount of air pollution from industrial sources China's Cabinet Announced □ China would implement a serious of measures to switch to renewable energy □ Pricing mechanisms would be sued to favor cleaner alternatives □ Financial incentives would be offered to encourage green energy companies □ The government would place tougher controls over emissions and introduce better support for developing clean technologies □ A $2 billion fund would be established to help companies meet new environmental standards In 2016, there was some improvements Over half a million cars that did not meet emission standards were denied registration The last large coal-fired power plant in Beijing was shut down and replaced by a natural gas power plant

Measurement Units

Parts per million (ppm)

Water Pollution: Air Pollution

Pollutants fall out of the air and into the water Can cause mercury contamination in fish and the acidification and eutrophication of lakes The oceans have absorbed enough carbon dioxide to have already caused a slight decrease in ocean acidification This may be causing the carbonate structures of corals, algae, and marine plankton to dissolve

Pollution Prevention Act

Requires industries to reduce pollution at its source Reduction can be in terms of volume and toxicity

Secondary Pollutants

Result from the reaction of primary pollutants in the atmosphere forming a new pollutant Ex. - sulfur trioxide, sulfuric acid, ozone

Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)

Secondary pollutants Since they break apart slowly in the atmosphere, they are able to move far away from their urban and industrial origin Can cause respiratory problems, impair immune systems, cause eye irritation, and reduce crop yields by damaging plant tissues and inhibiting photosynthesis

Oil Spill Prevention And Liability Act (1990)

Strengthened the EPA's ability to prevent and respond to catastrophic oil spills

Urban Runoff

Surface runoff of rainwater created by urbanization Impervious surfaces (roads, rooftops, parking lots, sidewalks) carry polluted storm water to storm drains instead of allowing water to percolate through soil. This causes a lowering of the water table (because groundwater recharge is lessened) and flooding since the amount of water that remains on the surface is greater

Industrial Smog

Tends to be sulfur-based and is also called "gray smog" Steps: 1. Carbon in coal or oil is burned in oxygen gas to produce carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide gas 2. Unburned carbon ends up as soot or particulate matter (PM) 3. Sulfur in oil and coal reacts with oxygen gas to produce sulfur dioxide 4. Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen gas to produce sulfur trioxide 5. Sulfur trioxide reacts with water vapor in the air to form sulfuric acid 6. Sulfuric acid reacts with atmospheric ammonia to form brown, soil ammonium sulfate

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The BOD test gives an approximation of the level of biodegradable waste in water Examples of waste can be vegetation, animal wastes, and sewage A high BOD indicates a lower dissolved oxygen content High BOD usually has a higher bacteria count

World Trade Center (9/11)

The air was measured for dioxins and found to be the highest concentration of dioxins ever reported in history after the attacks More than 37,000 first responders and survivors have been declared sick due to exposure, and more than 1,100 have died

Water Quality

The chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water

Asbestos

The construction, ship-building, and manufacturing industries used asbestos-containing products whenever possible Inexpensive, durable, flexible, insulator, and fireproof material Used in automobile gaskets, brake linings, bakeware, ceiling and floor tiles, cigarette filters, drywall, fireproofing materials, insulation, plastics, roof shingles, and vinyl products Can lead to lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis The symptoms usually do not appear until 20-30 years after the first exposure The EPA has regulated under the Clean Air act and it has been forbidden in many applications by the Toxic Substances Control Act

Water Pollution

The contamination of water bodies Occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds

Thermal Pollution

The degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature

Air Pollution Control Act (1955)

The nation's first piece of legislation regarding air pollution Identified air pollution as a national problem and announced that research and additional steps to improve the situation needed to be taken

Water Pollution: Cultural Eutrophication

The process whereby human activities increases the amount of nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) entering surface waters Human Activities That Contribute to Cultural Eutrophication § Fertilizers and pesticides form residential and agricultural runoff § Discharge from water treatment facilities that do not have the capacity to handle nutrient biodegradable waste discharge § Use of household products that contain phosphates (detergents) § Sewer and drainage overflows that can occur when the rainfall amount exceeds the wastewater treatment capacity

Water Pollution: Biodegradable Wastes

The release of biodegradable wastes into waters is a major component of cultural eutrophication These wastes are used by bacteria and other microorganisms and can cause oxygen depletion in water, resulting in an increase in anaerobic bacteria that produce ammonia, amines, sulfides, and methane The result is dead zones which occur in the bottom water near inhabited coastlines, where aquatic life Is most concentrated Major dead zones include the northern Gulf of Mexico surrounding the outfall of the Mississippi River, areas of the Chesapeake Bay, and the costal regions of the Pacific Northwest

Noise Pollution

Unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment Mostly from transportation sources Noise regulation began in 1972 with the Federal Noise Control Act

Lead (Pb)

Used in building construction, lead-acid batteries for vehicles, bullets and shot, fish weighs, solder, and shields for radiation Tetraethyl lead (a gas additive) was phased out in the US in 1975 to meet tighter emissions regulations in an effort to reduce toxic pollution Lead can be found in lead-based paint chips, mining, smelters, and municipal waste incineration US banned lead-based paint in 1977 Symptoms include failure of the blood to make hemoglobin which results in anemia (low red blood cell count), endocrine disruptors, mental retardation and disabilities, hypertension, miscarriages, premature births, and death

Absorption

When one substance enters completely into another Ex. - paper towels used to soak up spilled oil

Adsorption

When one substance just hangs onto the outside of another Ex. - contaminants that stick to the surface of granular or powdered charcoal

Tropospheric Ozone Can

§ Harm lung functions and irritate the respiratory system § Cause asthma and bronchitis § Suppress the immune system § Result in heart attacks and other cardiopulmonary problems

Particulate Matter Can Be Reduced By

§ Limiting the use of household and personal products § Conserving energy to reduce demands on power plants § Not burning leaves and other yard waste § Not using wood in fireplaces and changing building codes to outlaw future construction of wood-burning fireplaces § Increasing air quality standards for emissions of particulate matter from smokestacks § Using public transportation whenever possible § Increasing automobile emission standards § Taking steps to reduce the incidence of wildfires

Steps for Controlling Cultural Eutrophication

§ Planting vegetation along streambeds, which slows erosion and absorbs some of the excess nutrients § Constructing wastewater lagoons and retention ponds near agricultural areas § Controlling the application and time of applying fertilizer § Controlling runoff from feedlots § Updating building codes to utilize permeable pavement to absorb the excess runoff § Using monetary and tax incentives to convert existing watering systems to drip irrigation and to replace landscaping with native vegetation that is less water-demanding § Upgrading existing water treatment plants to better control nitrate and phosphate pollution through tertiary standards and other advanced technologies

Methods To Reduce PANs

§ Reducing smokestack emissions through baghouse filters, cyclone precipitators, scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators § Reducing the reliance on fossil fuels, especially oil and coal § Reducing the incineration of municipal and industrial wastes § Limiting wood-burning fireplaces and stoves in new home construction

Methods To Reduce Carbon Monoxide Pollution

§ Requiring catalytic converters on all cars worldwide; however, this only converts carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide § Building more public transportation infrastructure § Switching to renewable energy sources

Methods For Cleaning Up Oil Spills

§ The use of microorganisms to break down the oil § Chemical agents, such as dispersants, sorbents, and detergents, that act to disperse the oil, absorb it, or cause it to clump into gel-like agglomerations that sink § Controlled burning and booming, skimming, and vacuuming the oil from the surface

Steps To Reduce Sulfur Dioxide

§ Using only low-sulfur coal § "Washing" the coal - by mixing coal with water, impurities with different densities are able to be separated and removed § Fluidized gas combustions (crushed limestone is added to crushed coal to produce calcium sulfite, calcium sulfate, or gypsum) § Using scrubbers in smokestacks

Effects of Acid Deposition

• Increased solubility of toxic metals, including methyl mercury, lead, and cadmium • Increased leaching of soil nutrients • Reduced buffering capacity of the soil • An increase in fish kills due to the increased acidity of the water and the increase in the levels of toxins released into the water • Changes in vegetation because of changes in the soil pH and in the soil ecosystems. Results in changes in the food web • Changes in animal life due to changes in the amount and types of vegetation available • Acid shock, which results from the rapid melting of the snow pack that contains dry acidic particles and which results in acid concentrations in lakes and streams that are up to 10x higher than acidic rainfall

Remediation Steps Include for Urban Runoff

○ Building constructed wetlands to naturally filter water before it is released into water ○ Building water retention-infiltration basins - shallow artificial ponds that are designed to infiltrate storm water through permeable soils in the groundwater aquifer ○ Planning and constructing more open green spaces and parks within urban communities to increase natural infiltration ○ Frequently sing street sweeping vacuums that can reduce the trash and other debris and pollutants that end up in runoff

Techniques to Reduce Industrial Noise

○ Create new technologies in industrial equipment ○ Install noise barriers in the workplace

Techniques to Reduce Roadway Noise

○ Create noise barriers ○ Place limitations on vehicle speeds ○ Introduce newer roadway surface technology ○ Limit times for heavy-duty vehicles ○ Create computer-controlled traffic flow devices that reduce braking and acceleration, and implement changes in tire designs

Techniques to Reduce Aircraft Noise

○ Develop quieter jet engines ○ Reschedule takeoff and landing times

Paved Surfaces Tend To

○ Fragment habitats ○ Increase groundwater depletion as water does not infiltrate into the soil to recharge aquifers ○ Reduce biodiversity and seriously impact food webs in the area since there is less vegetation available for primary consumers ○ Create microclimates due to the high heat capacity of asphalt, which causes heat to be more easily captured and stored longer than it would in normal landscape

Urban Runoff Results In

○ Runoff containing gas, motor oil, heavy metals, trash, fertilizers, and pesticides ○ Increased erosion and resulting sedimentation in the runoff with the sediments settling to the bottom of the water bodies and reservoirs, directly affecting the water quality and storage capacity ○ An increase in the risk of infections and diseases through contaminated water supplies ○ An increase in algae growth due to increased nutrients in the runoff ○ The increased temperature of the water in streams and waterways - this significantly impacts fish and wildlife as heat is transferred from urban sources (asphalt, buildings, etc.)

Water Pollution: Mining

○ The mining process exposes heavy metals and sulfur compounds that were previously locked away in the Earth. Rainwater leaches these compounds out of the exposed earth, resulting in acid mine drainage and heavy-metal pollution that can continue long after the mining operations have ceased ○ The rainwater falling on piles of tailings transfers pollution to freshwater supplies ○ In the case of gold mining, cyanide is intentionally poured onto piles of mined rock to extract the gold from the ore chemically. Some of the cyanide ultimately finds its way into nearby water. Additionally, huge pools of mining waste slurry are often stored behind contaminant dams that often leak or infiltrate groundwater supplies ○ Mining companies in developing countries often dump mining wastes directly into water as a disposal method

Reasons For Higher Urban Temperatures

○ There is more black asphalt and other building surfaces that absorb heat and reduce the reflectivity of sunlight ○ Additional impervious materials in urban areas reduce the natural cooling effect provided by the evaporation of water from soil and leaves and the shading provided by trees ○ Additional heat is produced by burning the fuels necessary for air conditioning, transportation, lighting, etc. ○ Buildings interfere with the outgoing thermal radiation emitted by Earth's surface ○ There is a lack of vegetation and standing water