Chapter

emotion:

A subjective feeling that includes arousal (heart pounding), cognitions (thoughts, values, and expectations), and expressions (frowns, smiles, and running).

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological needs:

hunger, thirst, and maintenance of internal state of the body

There are many suspected causes of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Some theories focus on physical causes, such as:

hypothalamic disorders, low levels of various neurotransmitters, and genetic or hormonal disorders.

The same biopsychosocial forces that explain hunger and eating also play a role in three serious eating disorders:

obesity, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa.

In the 1930s, the concepts of drive and drive reduction began to replace the what?

theory of instincts.

People who attribute their successes to personal ability and effort tend to do what?

work harder toward their goals than people who attribute their successes to luck

Symptoms of anorexia nervosa:

•Body weight below 85% of normal for one's height and age •Intense fear of becoming fat or gaining weight, even though underweight •Disturbance in one's body image or perceived weight •Self-evaluation unduly influenced by body weight •Denial of seriousness of abnormally low body weight •Absence of menstrual period in women •Purging behavior (vomiting or misuse of laxatives or diuretics)

William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1966) were the first to conduct laboratory studies on what happens to the human body during sexual activity:

They attached recording devices to male and female volunteers and monitored or filmed their physical responses as they moved from nonarousal to orgasm and back to nonarousal. They labeled the bodily changes during this series of events a sexual response cycle

Maslow's hierarchy of needs seems intuitively correct—

a starving person would first look for food, then love and friendship, and then self-esteem. -This prioritizing and the concept of self-actualization are important contributions to the study of motivation

According to drive-reduction theory (Hull, 1952), when biological needs (such as food, water, and oxygen) are unmet, what is created?

a state of tension (known as a drive) is created, and the organism is motivated to reduce it.

Although the overall pattern of sexual response is similar in both sexes, there is more variation in specific patterns among women:

a. Immediately after orgasm, men generally enter a refractory period, which lasts from several minutes up to a day. b. Female sexual responses generally follow one or more of three basic patterns. .

How the Brain affects eating: Several areas of the brain are involved in the regulation of hunger

a. This diagram shows a section of the human brain, including the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) and the lateral hypothalamus (LH), which are involved in the regulation of hunger. b.After the ventromedial area of the hypothalamus of the rat on the left was destroyed, its body weight tripled. A rat of normal weight is shown on the right for comparison.

In the earliest days of psychology, researchers like William McDougall (1908) proposed that humans had numerous what?

"instincts," such as repulsion, curiosity, and self-assertiveness.

In addition, the label instinct led to unscientific, circular explanations—

"men are aggressive because they are instinctively aggressive" or "women are maternal because they have a natural maternal instinct"

For Americans, controlling weight is a particularly difficult task. We are among the most sedentary people of all nations, and we've become accustomed to:

"supersized" cheeseburgers, "Big Gulp" drinks, and huge servings of dessert

Research in motivation attempts to answer such what questions?

"what," "how," and "why" questions.

Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the United States and other developed nations. Well over half of all adults in the United States meet the current criteria for clinical obesity:

(having a body weight 15% or more above the ideal for one's height and age). -Each year, billions of dollars are spent treating serious and life-threatening medical problems related to obesity, and consumers spend billions more on largely ineffective weight-loss products and services.

Studies on identical and fraternal twins and adopted siblings found that if one identical twin was gay:

, 48 to 65% of the time so was the second twin (Hyde, 2005; Långstrom et al., 2010; Moutinho, Pereira, & Jorge, 2011). The rate was 26 to 30% for fraternal twins and 6 to 11% for brothers and sisters who were adopted into one's family. Estimates of homosexuality in the general population run between 2 and 10%.

Different parts of your body communicate with your brain to trigger feelings of hunger:

-When blood glucose and other nutrients are low, the liver sends messages to the brain that increase hunger. -Fat cells throughout the body produce the hormone leptin, which provides the hypothalamus with information about the body's fat stores. Low leptin levels increase hunger. -Environmental cues send messages to the brain that increase saliva, digestive juices, and insulin. -When empty or full, the stomach and intestines send either "hungry" or "full" messages to the hypothalamus. -The pancreas releases insulin, a hormone necessary for cells to extract glucose from the blood. Normal secretion of insulin is associated with increased hunger.

Other researchers later added their favorite instincts, and by the 1920s, the list of recognized instincts had become impossibly long. One researcher found listings for over what # of human instincts?

10,000 human instincts (Bernard, 1924).

homeostasis:

A body's tendency to maintain a relatively stable state, such as a constant internal temperature.

achievement motivation:

A desire to excel, especially in competition with others.

motivation:

A set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior, usually toward a goal.

anorexia nervosa:

An eating disorder characterized by a severe loss of weight resulting from selfimposed starvation and an obsessive fear of obesity.

bulimia nervosa:

An eating disorder involving the consumption of large quantities of food (bingeing), followed by vomiting, extreme exercise, or laxative use (purging).

instincts:

Behavioral patterns that are unlearned, always expressed in the same way, and universal in a species.

Modeling theory :

Children raised by gay and lesbian parents usually end up adopting their parents' sexual orientation.

what also play important roles in eating disorders?

Cultural perceptions and stereotypes about weight and eating -For instance, Asian and African Americans report fewer eating and dieting disorders and greater body satisfaction than do European Americans -Similarly, Mexican students report less concern about their own weight and more acceptance of obese people than do other North American students

The Stomach: Hunger Behavior

Early hunger researchers believed that the stomach controls hunger, contracting to send hunger signals when it is empty. Today, we know that it's more complicated. As dieters who drink lots of water to keep their stomachs feeling full have been disappointed to discover, sensory input from an empty stomach is not essential for feeling hungry. In fact, humans and nonhuman animals without stomachs continue to experience hunger. However, there is a connection between the stomach and feeling hungry. Receptors in the stomach and intestines detect levels of nutrients, and specialized pressure receptors in the stomach walls signal feelings of emptiness or satiety (fullness or satiation). The stomach and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract also release chemical signals that play a role in hunger

Seduction theory:

Gays and lesbians were seduced as children by adults of their own sex.

"By default" theory:

Gays and lesbians were unable to attract partners of the other sex or have experienced unhappy heterosexual experiences.

Several traits distinguish people who have high achievement motivation: Competitiveness

High-achievement-oriented people are more attracted to careers and tasks that involve competition and an opportunity to excel.

Several traits distinguish people who have high achievement motivation: • Persistence

High-achievement-oriented people are more likely to persist at a task when it becomes difficult. In one study, 47% of high nAch individuals persisted on an "unsolvable task"until time was called, compared with only 2% of people with low nAch.

Several traits distinguish people who have high achievement motivation: • Preference for clear goals with competent feedback

Highachievement-oriented people tend to prefer tasks with a clear outcome and situations in which they can receive feedback on their performance. They also prefer criticism from a harsh but competent evaluator to criticism from one who is friendlier but less competent.

The Brain and Hunger Behavior:

In addition to its chemical signals, particular brain structures also influence hunger and eating. Let's look at the hypothalamus, which helps regulate eating, drinking, and body temperature. Early research suggested that one area of the hypothalamus, the lateral hypothalamus (LH), stimulates eating, while another area, the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), creates feelings of satiation, signaling the animal to stop eating. When the VMH area was destroyed in rats, researchers found that the rats overate to the point of extreme obesity (Figure 11.6). In contrast, when the LH area was destroyed, the animals starved to death if they were not force-fed. Later research, however, showed that the LH and VMH areas are not simple on-off switches for eating. For example, lesions (damage) to the VMH make animals picky eaters—they reject food that doesn't taste good. The lesions also increase insulin secretion, which may cause overeating (Challem et al., 2000). Today, researchers know that the hypothalamus plays an important role in hunger and eating, but it is not the brain's "eating center." In fact, hunger and eating, like virtually all behavior, are influenced by numerous neural circuits that run throughout the brain (Berthoud & Morrison, 2008; Malik, McGlone & Dagher, 2011; van der Laan et al., 2011).

Bio Chemistry and Hunger Behavior:

Like the stomach, the brain and other parts of the body produce numerous neurotransmitters, hormones, enzymes, and other chemicals that affect hunger and satiety (e.g., Arumugam et al., 2008; Cooper et al., 2011; Cummings, 2006; Wardlaw & Hampl, 2007). Research in this area is complex because of the large number of known (and unknown) bodily chemicals and the interactions among them. It's unlikely that any one chemical controls our hunger and eating. Other internal factors, such as thermogenesis (the heat generated in response to food ingestion), also play a role (Acheson et al., 2011; Ping-Delfos &Soares, 2011; Subramanian & Vollmer, 2002).

hierarchy of needs:

Maslow's theory of motivation that lower motives (such as physiological and safety needs) must be met before going on to higher needs (such as belonging and selfactualization). Carpenter, Siri. Visualizing Psychology, 3rd Edition (Page 288). Wiley Higher Ed. Kindle Edition.

sexual response cycle:

Masters and Johnson's description of the four-stage bodily response to sexual arousal, which consists of excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

extrinsic motivation:

Motivation based on obvious external rewards or threats of punishment.

BiOlOgicAl: 2. Drive reduction

Motivation begins with biological need (a lack or deficiency) that elicits a drive toward behavior that will satisfy the original need and restore homeostasis.

intrinsic motivation:

Motivation resulting from personal enjoyment of a task or activity.

BiOlOgicAl: 1. instinct

Motivation results from innate, biological instincts, which are unlearned responses found in almost all members of a species.

Biological: 3. Optimal arousal

Organisms are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal.

Several traits distinguish people who have high achievement motivation: • Preference for moderately difficult tasks

People high in nAch (need for achievement) avoid tasks that are too easy because they offer little challenge or satisfaction. They also avoid extremely difficult tasks because the probability of success is too low.

Several traits distinguish people who have high achievement motivation: More accomplished

People who have high nAch scores do better than others on exams, earn better grades in school, and excel in their chosen professions. .

Several traits distinguish people who have high achievement motivation: • Responsibility

People with high nAch prefer being personally responsible for a project so that they can feel satisfied when the task is well done.

(4) Resolution:

Physiological responses gradually return to normal during the resolution phase. After one orgasm, most men enter a refractory phase, during which further excitement to orgasm is considered impossible. Many women (and some men), however, are capable of multiple orgasms in fairly rapid succession.

sexual orientation:

Primary erotic attraction toward members of the same sex (homosexual, gay or lesbian), both sexes (bisexual), or the other sex (heterosexual).

Poor parenting theory:

Sons become gay because of domineering mothers and weak fathers. Daughters become lesbians because of weak or absent mothers and having only fathers as their primary role model.

Psychosocial Factors and Hunger Behavior:

The internal motivations for hunger we've discussed (the stomach, biochemistry, the brain) are powerful. But psychosocial factors—for example, spying a dessert cart or a McDonald's billboard, or even simply noticing that it's almost lunchtime—can be equally important stimulus cues for hunger and eating. Another important psychosocial influence on when, what, where, and why we eat is cultural conditioning. North Americans, for example, tend to eat dinner at around 6 p.m., whereas people in Spain and South America tend to eat around 10 p.m. When it comes to what we eat, have you ever eaten rat, dog, or horse meat? If you are a typical North American, this might sound repulsive to you, yet most Hindus would feel a similar revulsion at the thought of eating meat from cows. In sum, there are numerous biological and psychosocial factors involved in the regulation of hunger and eating (Figure 11.7), and researchers are still struggling to discover and explain how all these processes work together.

Other theories emphasize psychosocial factors, such as:

a need for perfection, a perceived loss of control, being teased about body weight, destructive thought patterns, depression, dysfunctional families, distorted body image, and sexual abuse

According to optimal-arousal theory, organisms are motivated to do what?

achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal that maximizes their performance. -Either too much or too little arousal diminishes performance -The optimal amount of arousal may vary from person to person

In everyday usage, we describe emotions in terms of feeling states—we feel "thrilled" when our political candidate wins an election, "defeated" when our candidate loses, and "miserable" when our loved ones reject us. Obviously, what you and I mean by these terms, or what we individually experience with various emotions, can vary greatly?

among individuals.

More than 50% of women in Western industrialized countries show some signs of what?

an eating disorder, and approximately 2% meet the clinical criteria for anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa -These disorders are found at all socioeconomic levels. -A few men also develop eating disorders, although the incidence is rarer in men

According to cognitive theories, motivation is directly affected by what?

attributions, or how we interpret or think about our own and others' actions.

Many theories of motivation focus on inborn what?

biological processes that control behavior.

Psychologists define and study emotion according to three basic components—

biological, cognitive, and behavioral.

We begin our study of motivation by examining several theories of motivation that fall into three general categories—

biological, psychological, and biopsychosocial

Although social pressures for thinness certainly contribute to eating disorders, anorexia nervosa has also been found in nonindustrialized areas like the Caribbean island of Curaçao (Ferguson, Winegard, & Winegard, 2011; Hoek et al., 2005). On that island, being overweight is socially acceptable, and the average woman is considerably heavier than the average woman in North America. However, some women there still have anorexia nervosa. This research suggests that what?

both culture and biology help explain eating disorders. -Regardless of the causes, it is important to recognize the symptoms of anorexia and bulimia (Table 11.1) and to seek therapy if the symptoms apply to you.

Occasionally, the person suffering from anorexia nervosa succumbs to the desire to eat and gorges on food, then vomits or takes laxatives. However, this type of bingeing and purging is more characteristic of what?

bulimia nervosa. -Individuals with this disorder also show impulsivity in other areas, sometimes engaging in excessive shopping, alcohol abuse, or petty shoplifting

However, we all know some people who can eat anything they want and still not add pounds. This may be a result of their ability to do what?

burn calories more effectively (thermogenesis), a higher metabolic rate, or other factors. -Adoption and twin studies indicate that genes also play a role. Heritability for obesity ranges between 30 and 70% (Andersson & Walley, 2011; Johnson, 2011; Lee et al., 2008). -Unfortunately, identifying the genes for obesity is difficult. Researchers have isolated over 2,000 genes that contribute to normal and abnormal weight

(1) The Excitement Phase:

can last for minutes or hours. Arousal is initiated through touching, fantasy, or erotic stimuli. Heart rate and respiration increase and increased blood flow to the genital region causes penile or clitoral erection, and vaginal lubrication in women.

Our need for stimulation (the arousal motive) suggests that behavior efficiency increases as we move from what?

deep sleep to increased alertness. However, once we pass the maximum level of arousal, our performance declines.

The vomiting associated with bulimia nervosa causes:

dental damage, severe damage to the throat and stomach, cardiac arrhythmias, metabolic deficiencies, and serious digestive disorders.

Achievement orientation appears to be largely learned in early childhood, primarily through interactions with parents (Figure 11.9). Highly motivated children tend to have parents who do what?

encourage independence and frequently reward successes

Research has shown that people who are given extrinsic rewards (money, praise, or other incentives) for an intrinsically satisfying activity, such as watching TV, playing cards, or even engaging in sex, often lose what?

enjoyment and interest and may decrease the time spent on the activity

Unlike drive-reduction theory, which states that internal factors push people in certain directions, incentive theory maintains that what?

external stimuli pull people toward desirable goals or away from undesirable ones. - most people eat because our hunger "pushes" us (drive-reduction theory). But the sight of apple pie or ice cream too often "pulls" us toward continued eating (incentive theory).

Drive Reduction Theory: When we are hungry or thirsty, the disruption of our normal state of equilibrium creates a drive that motivates us to search for what?

food or water. Once action is taken and the need is satisfied, homeostasis is restored and our motivation is also decreased.

What leads some people to be homosexual and others to be heterosexual? Unfortunately, the roots of sexual orientation are poorly understood. However, most studies suggest that what play the dominant role?

genetics and biology play the dominant role

Should parents reward children for getting good grades? Many psychologists are concerned about the widespread practice of what?

giving external, or extrinsic, rewards to motivate behavior

The key to understandingwhat motivates high-achieving individuals lies in what psychologist Henry Murray (1938) identified as a what?

high need for achievement (nAch), or achievement motivation.

Drive-reduction theory is based largely on the biological concept of what?

homeostasis, a term that literally means "standing still"

Research with rats and sheep hints that prenatal hormone levels may also affect fetal brain development and sexual orientation (Bagermihl, 1999; Roselli, Reddy, & Kaufman, 2011). However, the effects of what are unknown?

hormones on human sexual orientation are unknown. -Furthermore, no well-controlled study has ever found a difference in adult hormone levels between heterosexuals and gays and lesbians

If you receive a high grade in your psychology course, for example, you can interpret that grade how?

in several ways. You earned it because you really studied. You "lucked out." Or the textbook was exceptionally interesting and helpful (our preference!).

Among these biologically oriented theories are:

instinct, drive-reduction, and arousal theories.

However, in recent years, a branch of biology called sociobiology has revived the case for what?

instincts when strictly defined

Participation in sports and hobbies, like swimming or playing guitar, is usually what?

intrinsically motivated. Unfortunately, for many students and workers, going to school or going to work is primarily extrinsically motivated.

(3) Orgasm Phase:

involves a highly intense and pleasurable release of tension. In women, muscles around the vagina squeeze the vaginal walls in and out and the uterus pulsates. Muscles at the base of the penis contract in the man, causing ejaculation, the discharge of seminal fluid.

Obviously, there is strong motivation to engage in sexual behavior:

it's essential for the survival of our species, and it's also pleasurable.

But sexuality includes much more than reproduction. For most humans (and some other animals), a sexual relationship fulfills:

many needs, including the need for connection, intimacy, pleasure, and the release of sexual tension.

Behavior results from many what? Here, we will focus on three basic motives:

motives. -hunger, achievement, and sexuality.

Research in psychology generally emphasizes either biological or psychosocial factors (nature or nurture). But in the final analysis, biopsychosocial factors almost always provide the best explanation. Theories of motivation are no exception. One researcher who recognized this was Abraham Maslow (1954, 1970, 1999). Maslow believed that we all have numerous what?

needs that compete for fulfillment but that some needs are more important than others. For example, your need for food and shelter is generally more important than college grades.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs prioritizes what?

needs, with survival needs at the bottom (needs that must be met before others) and social, spiritual needs at the top

Anorexia nervosa is characterized by an what?

overwhelming fear of becoming obese, a distorted body image, a need for control, and the use of dangerous weight-loss measures. -The resulting extreme malnutrition often leads to emaciation, osteoporosis, bone fractures, interruption of menstruation, and loss of brain tissue. -A significant percentage of individuals with anorexia nervosa ultimately die of the disorder .

They're concerned that providing such extrinsic motivation will seriously affect the individual's what?

personal, intrinsic motivation.

(2) Plateau:

physiological and sexual arousal continue at heightened levels. In men, the penis becomes more engorged and erect while in the woman, the vagina expands. As arousal reaches its peak, both sexes may experience a feeling that orgasm is imminent and inevitable.

But critics argue that parts of Maslow's theory are what?

poorly researched and biased toward Western individualism. -Furthermore, his theory presupposes a homogeneous life experience and people sometimes seek to satisfy higher-level needs even when their lower-level needs have not been met

Emotions play an important role in our lives. They color our dreams, memories, and perceptions (Kalat & Shiota, 2012). When they are disordered, they contribute significantly to what?

psychological problems.

Instinct and drive-reduction theories explain some motivations, but why do we continue to eat after our biological need is completely satisfied? Or why does someone work overtime when his or her salary is sufficient to meet all basic biological needs? These questions are better answered by what?

psychosocial theories that emphasize incentives and cognition.

Scientific research has disproved several widespread myths and misconceptions about homosexuality (Bergstrom-Lynch, 2008; Boysen & Vogel, 2007; Drucker, 2010; LeVay, 2003, 2011) (see Myth Busters). Although mental health authorities long ago discontinued labeling homosexuality as a mental illness, it continues to be a divisive societal issue. Gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgendered people often confront what?

sexual prejudice, and many endure verbal and physical attacks; disrupted family and peer relationships; and high rates of anxiety, depression, and suicide -Sexual prejudice is a socially reinforced phenomenon, not an individual pathology

We've also learned that we should eat what?

three meals a day (whether we're hungry or not); that "tasty" food requires lots of salt, sugar, and fat; and that food is an essential part of all social gatherings

Esteem needs:

to achieve, be competent, gain approval, and excel

Belonging and love needs:

to affiliate with others, be accepted, and give and receive affection

Safety needs:

to feel secure and safe, to seek pleasure and avoid pain

Selfactualization needs:

to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential

Of course, an important part of people's sexuality is the question of what?

to whom they are sexually attracted.

Expectancies:

what we believe or assume will happen, are also important to motivation (Reinhard & Dickhäuser, 2011; Schunk, 2008) (Figure 11.4). If you anticipate that you will receive a promotion at work, you're more likely to work overtime for no pay than if you expect no promotion.

Symptoms of bulimia nervosa:

•Normal or above-normal weight •Recurring binge eating •Eating an amount of food that is much larger than most people would consume •Feeling a lack of control over eating •Purging behavior (vomiting or misuse of laxatives or diuretics) •Excessive exercise to prevent weight gain •Fasting to prevent weight gain •Self-evaluation unduly influenced by body weight