Chapters 1-14 COMM 1025

elements that ensure acceptance

- show the audience that new information is supported by prior beliefs - offer an incentive for acceptance - encourage favorable cognitive responses by involving receivers

Parts of Interpretation

- structure - stability - meaning

Ways to improve evaluation

- test information for adequacy and accuracy - separate inference and evaluation from description - acknowledge your biases and delay final evaluation

elements that enhance storage and retrieval

- use repetition within the message - personalize the message - tie information to appropriate triggers

three kind of source characteristics

-credibility -attractiveness - power

Characteristics of culture

-cultures are learned - cultures are shared - cultures are multifaceted - cultures are dynamic - cultures identities are overlapping

Characteristics of scholarly research

-question oriented -methodological -replicable -self-critical - cumulative and self-correcting - cyclical

Functions of media

-surveillance -correlation -cultural transmission -entertainment

intimate distance

0-18 inches, reserved for intimate interaction and very private conversations

Characteristics of traditional mass media messages

1) in major mass communication contexts, the source is a complex, profit-oriented organization rather than a single individual 2) receivers are anonymous, dispersed in time and space, and heterogeneous in their interests and background 3) communication occurs through indirect channels that require specialized encoding and decoding technologies

Two types of definitions of communications

1) Broad Communication is a process of acting on information 2) Narrow Nonverbal interaction is the unspoken, often unintentional behavior that accompanies verbal communication and helps us fully interpret the meaning.

organizing the body of the speech

1) Chronological Order. - arranges ideas according to a logical time sequence 2) Spatial Order. - arranges ideas according to physical location 3) Causal Order. - when the speaker's goal is to discuss the causes and effects of the problem 4) Problem-Solution Order. -for speeches that offer a solution 5) Topical Order - divides the speech into familiar subtopics 6) motivated sequence

Media influences receivers by

1) agenda setting 2) producing hegemonic messages 3) cultivating worldviews 4) affecting cognitive practices and expectation

characteristics of dyadic communication

1) directness - we are in direct contact with whomever we are talking to 2) personal -because it is direct it becomes personal too 3)immediate - the quality of feedback is potentially higher 4)spontaneous -ever outline and rehearse what they will say to each other however public speakers always do 5)informal -the role of speakers and listeners are informal

ways for negative relational maintenance behavior

1) jealousy induction 2) avoidance 3)spying 4)infidelity 5)destructive conflict 6)allowing control

language has four important characteristics

1) made up of symbols 2) it is a kind of knowledge 3) is it rule governed and productive 4) it affects the way we experience the world and it may change over time

Drawbacks of models

1) models are necessarily incomplete 2) there are many ways to model a single process 3) models make assumptions about processes

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy: correct order

1) physiological needs 2) safety needs 3) love and belongingness and self-esteem 4) self- actualizations (need to reach our full potential) 5) curiosity needs

ways for positive relational maintenance behavior

1) positivity 2)openness 3)assurance 4)networks 5)task sharing 6)conflict management 7)advice sharing/offering

conversation maxims

1) quantity maxim - contributions contain enough, but not too much information 2) quality maxim - speakers must be truthful but can't say absurd stuff 3) relevancy maxim - make sure their contributions are direct and pertinent 4) manner maxim - they should be direct and clear

Receivers resist influence by

1) selective processing 2) conducting oppositional readings 3) using media for individual gratification

Four filters we use to regulate attraction

1) sociological or incidental cues - the demographic or environmental factors that determine the probability of contact 2)pre-interaction cues -people use nonverbal impressions to determine whether they wish to interact with others 3)interaction cues -occur once we have made initial contact 4)cognitive cues -getting knowledge about the other person through communication

effective listening must do two essential things

1) store messages in memory 2) retrieve them at the appropriate time

disclosure response categories

1)advice 2) analyze your friend's problem 3)offer reassurance and support 4) ask questions 5)help your friend clarify his thinking by paraphrasing his statement

Conflict Styles

1)withdrawing 2) forcing 3) accommodating 4)compromising 5)problem solving

Five cannons of rhetoric

1. Invention 2. Style 3. Arrangement 4. Memory 5. Delivery

Characteristics of groups

1. interaction - groups are constructed through communication 2. interdependence - share common goals and a common fate 3. shared behavioral standards - each member takes on a role within the group 4. collective identity - "we" identity

steps in the standard agenda

1. problem identification 2. problem analysis 3. criteria selection 4. solution generation 5. solution evaluation and selection 6. solution implementation

public distance

12 feet or more, used for public performances, lectures, and the like

Modern Period

1600-1900. Public rhetoric was a major force in determining public policy. The written word became an important medium as books and newspapers became more available.

personal distance

18 inches to 4 feet, casual and friendly interactions

Contemporary Period

1900-present. Modern departments of communication were formed.

social distance

4-12 feet, impersonal business relationships

Medieval Period

400 AD - 1400 AD. In response to the rise of monolithic Christianity, rhetoric became secondary to theology. Major rhetorical acts were letter writing and preaching.

Classical Period

500 BC - 500 AD. Rise of Greek democracy, public communication became an important tool for problem solving.

Which of the following elements are part of Hymes ethnographic model?

A Act, interact, payoff, pattern. B Symbolic codes, cognitive customs, cultural traditions. C Sender/receiver, message, channel, encoding/decoding. D Ends, keys, instrumentalities, norms. Correct: D

Which of the following statements best describes linguistic productivity?

A All of the words within a language mirror reality. B People who speak different languages experience the world differently. C Language develops through direct imitation of the sentences of others. D Humans can process and generate entirely novel sentences. Correct: D

A study in which the critic looked at the way cultural products represent a culture's basic ideals and principles would be an example of _____.

A Burkean dramatistic analysis. B unobtrusive measurement. C social movement study. D social values criticism. Correct: D

Which of the following statements is true about chronically accessible constructs?

A Chronically accessible constructs are constructs that are seldom used and have only a minor effect on the way we interpret what we hear. B When we say that a personal construct is chronically accessible, we mean it is a construct a person uses frequently to judge a wide range of people. C Chronically accessible constructs seldom bias perception because they are within our awareness and easy to monitor. D Chronically accessible constructs are found in only about 10 percent of the population; they are very rare. Correct: B

Which is the best definition of how assimilation operates in serial transmission?

A Details are left out so the amount of information in the message is reduced. B Unfamiliar material is changed so that it makes sense to the sender. C Certain high points in a message are given special significance. D All of the above. Correct: B

___ is a simple language deliberately invented so that people new to an area can communicate with those who live in that area.

A Dialect. B Pidgin. C Lingua franca. D Argot. Correct: B

Which of the following is NOT a function of traditional mass media?

A Gathering and dissemination of information. B Analysis and evaluation of information. C Education and socialization of receivers. D None of the above. Correct: D

Which of the following is NOT a tenet of cultivation theory?

A Heavy TV viewers idealize the world and see it as safer than it really is. B Heavy TV viewing leads to perceptions of the world as a dangerous place. C TV encourages mainstreamed views. D TV acts on us by building up our views of the world, much in the way that stalagmites form slowly over time. Correct: A

Which of the following research questions takes a rules approach?

A How do successful couples organize or structure their behavior and how do they evolve or adapt themselves to change? B Is there a cause and effect relationship between credibility and persuasion? C What implicit norms do first year students follow as they acclimate to college? D All of the above. Correct: C

Which of the following survey questions is phrased in an acceptable way?

A How many ounces of cola beverage do you consume in a week? B When you cheat on tests, why do you do so? C Do you believe that the way women are portrayed on television as sex objects should be changed? D None of the above. Correct: D

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of organizations?

A Interdependence B Hierarchical structure. C Separation from the environment. D None of the above. Correct: C

Which of the following is a criticism of the social constructionist perspective?

A It implies that senders can transfer messages. B It places too much emphasis on the social self and not enough on the individual self. C It holds that both personality and culture are irrelevant. D It is too political. Correct: B

Which of the following statements is true of public communication as compared to other forms of communication?

A It is impossible for a speaker to adapt to the needs and experiences of a large audience. B The issues and topics addressed are usually focused outward, toward a community of listeners. C Organization and repetition are not very important in this form of communication. D None of the above. Correct: B

Which of the following statements is true of interpersonal communication?

A It is more immediate than other forms of communication and the quality of feedback is high. B It is the least spontaneous of all forms of communication. C It is usually carefully preplanned. D All of the above. Correct: A

Which is true of prejudice?

A It is usually formed from direct observation of members of out-groups. B Its purpose is to help people make accurate assessments about others. C It is a product of in-group interaction. D All of the above. Correct: C

Which is NOT a characteristic of scholarly research?

A It uses simple heuristics. B It is self-critical. C It is cyclical. D It is self-correcting. Correct: A

Which of the following ways of investigating communication in cults is an example of rhetorical criticism?

A Join a cult and observe cult members as they communicate. B Analyze the values in the cult leaders' speeches. C Send questionnaires to ex-members asking them to describe why they joined the cult and what they communicated about in the cult. D Take transcripts from cult members' diaries and perform these transcripts before an audience. Correct: B

__ is the study of time.

A Kinesics. B Proxemics. C Chronemics. D Paralanguage. Correct: C

Which of the following is a characteristic of language?

A Language is rule-governed. B Language is productive. C Language uses symbols. D ALL of the above are characteristics of language. Correct: D

Which of the following appeals focuses on the behavioral dimension of an audience's attitudes?

A Let me give you a brief and objective history of our intervention in the affairs of our neighbor to the South. B I ask you to vote to limit our involvement in this ill-advised intervention. C Currently, countless people are tortured and left to die, families are torn apart, and children starve to death. D None of the above. Correct: B

Which of the following appeals focuses on the affective dimension of an audience's attitudes?

A Let me give you a brief and objective history of our intervention in the affairs of our neighbor to the South. B I ask you to vote to limit our involvement in this ill-advised intervention. C Currently, countless people are tortured and left to die, families are torn apart, and children starve to death. D The probability of success is 50 percent. Let's consider factors that would make that risk worth taking. Correct: C

According to your textbook, which is true of cultures?

A Most cultural differences are due to innate predispositions. B Cultures are group understandings rather than individual understandings. C Cultures affect only a few aspects of our lives; most of what we do is a matter of individual choice. D Cultures are very stable and extremely resistant to change. Correct: B

Which statement does NOT characterize commonsense ways of knowing?

A People privilege their own experiences. B People tend to dismiss anything that contradicts what they've already decided is true. C People rely on simple heuristics. D People seldom accept the first reasonable explanation they come across. Correct: D

Which of the perspectives would be most likely to generate the following research question: In what ways do the situation comedies of the Golden Age of Television support the subservience of women?

A Psychological perspective. B Social constructivist perspective. C Pragmatic perspective. D Cultural studies perspective. Correct: D

What is NOT true about organizational grapevines?

A The grapevine satisfies personal needs not met by formal channels. B Rumors comprise only a small proportion of the information on the grapevine. C Most of the grapevine is made up of rumors. D The grapevine is richer in content than formal communication and allows for immediate feedback and clarification. Correct: C

Which of the following behaviors is dysfunctional?

A The use of paradoxical definitions. B The use of disconfirmations. C The use of negative relational maintenance strategies. D All of the above. Correct: D

Which is NOT a function of an introduction?

A To create a desire in the audience to listen to the speech. B To build credibility and establish positive ethos. C To let the audience know what the speech is about. D To call for action. Correct: D

Which is NOT a good way to close a speech?

A To introduce new information not discussed previously to give the audience something to think about as they leave. B To use a call to action. C To end with a summary of main points. D To give the audience a statement of what the speaker is prepared to do in regard to the proposal. Correct: A

It is not just professional scholars who form and test hypotheses; everyone engages in hypothesis testing.

A True B False Correct: A

Most new media are synchronous, whereas most old media are asynchronous.

A True B False Correct: B

Which of the following kinds of cues would be classed as paralanguage?

A Use of ums and ahs to fill pauses. B Standing close or far from another person. C Use of gesture and body movement. D None of the above. Correct: A

Which of the following ways of investigating political communication is an example of ethnographic research?

A Volunteer to work in the campaign of a senate candidate and observe his/her behavior. B View videotapes of campaign ads and identify the themes used at various stages of the campaign. C Interview a representative group of politicians, asking them to rate strategies used in the campaign. D Create two different ads, one that attacks a candidate's opponent and the other than gives positive information about the candidate; show the ads to randomly selected groups of viewers to see which is most effective. Correct: A

A schema is ___.

A a form of listening wherein people offer comfort and support to one another. B a kind of bias found in the thought processes of lazy processors. C an internal representation of an object, quality, or action. D people with exceptionally accurate perceptual abilities. Correct: C

A perception check is ___.

A a method teachers use to reward good listeners in the classroom. B any factor that gets in the way of good listening and decreases our ability to interpret correctly. C a response that allows you to state your interpretation and ask your partner whether that interpretation is correct. D a cognitive bias that makes us listen only to information we already agree with. Correct: C

Sue has given campus tours to prospective students for so long that she knows exactly what to do next. Her knowledge of the sequence of actions involved in giving a tour is an example of ___.

A a person prototype. B a personal construct. C a script. D None of the above. Correct: C

One of the characteristics that Sue always looks for in others is honesty. For Sue, honesty is an example of ___.

A a person prototype. B a personal construct. C a script. D cognitive complexity. Correct: B

A gatekeeper in an organization is ___.

A a person who communicates frequently with people outside the organization. B the person whose job it is to maintain security and make sure trade secrets do not leave the organization. C anyone who is in a position to pass on or discard information. D the person whose job it is to listen to workers at lower levels of the organization and pass their concerns directly to the top. Correct: C

The three modes of persuasion described by Aristotle were ___.

A agora, pedagaigos, and demosthenes. B ethos, logos, and pathos. C adaptation, analysis, and presentation. D compliance, noncompliance, and apathy. Correct: B

According to your textbook, nonverbal communication is made up of ___.

A all human behavior. B behavior other than words that is intended to convey a message. C any instance in which a stimulus other than words creates meaning in either a sender's or a receiver's mind. D None of the above. Correct: C

Linguistic relativity means that ___.

A all of the words within a language mirror reality. B people who speak different languages experience the world differently. C language develops through direct imitation of the sentences of others. D humans can process and generate entirely novel sentences. Correct: B

A telecocoon is ___.

A an episode of a TV show available on the internet. B a virtual space that keeps people connected even when they are not present in the same geographic space. C a computer virus that is embedded for a long period before it emerges. D a means of making sure data stored on one's computer is not lost. Correct: B

Genre is ___.

A another term for the superior-subordinate relationship. B one of the characteristics of good organizations. C A unique type of communication with its own rules of discourse. D communication that is abstract and impersonal. Correct: C

People who take a cultural studies perspective to communication ___

A are interested in exploring the individual psychology of communicators. B focus on the cultural background of communicators. C are interested in interaction rather than personality. D are interested in uncovering the hidden power relations that often exist in mediated texts. Correct: D

John threatens Mary's _____ when he criticizes or disagrees with her.

A autonomy. B expressiveness. C negative face. D positive face. Correct: D

When Perfecto suggests going to the shore and Isabelle counters by suggesting they go to Vegas for their vacation, their interaction pattern shows ___.

A complementarity. B competitive symmetry. C submissive symmetry. D confirmation. Correct: B

Abida tells Dana how bad she feels. Dana says, "Too bad. You know I just gave a speech on how to wax your skis." Dana is using a(n) ___ response?

A confirming B tangential C impersonal D incongruous Correct: B

When criminals use secret words so that police can't understand what they mean, they are using ___.

A dialect. B pidgin. C lingua franca. D argot Correct: D

ing belongs to a _____ culture. Therefore, it is not necessary to spell out messages explicitly and she seldom says things she believes listeners already know.

A direct B high-context C expressive D formal Correct: B

Polarization is a cognitive bias by which we ____.

A dismiss information that doesn't fit a negative stereotype. B interpret everything a target group does as negative. C interpret others' negative behaviors as internal rather than external. D look for differences and ignore similarities. Correct: D

When Della tutors Nathan, she makes sure to use analogies that relate new material to familiar material that Nathan already understands. In doing so she is ___.

A enhancing interpretation by increasing comprehension. B increasing involuntary attention. C offering an incentive to increase acceptance of message content. D using repetition to increase retention. Correct: A

Ariana is from a culture where hugging, touching, laughing, and crying are commonplace. Her culture is:

A expressive B formal C monochronic D all of the above Correct: A

The kinesic code is made up of __.

A eye behavior. B gesture and body movement. C the use of space. D the use of time. Correct: B

During the interpretive step in the listening process, people do all of the following EXCEPT

A give stimuli structure, stability, and meaning. B use schemata to fill in missing details. C rely on mental guidelines such as personal prototypes and scripts. D see the world exactly as it is presented to them. Correct: D

According to a laws approach to research ___.

A humans choose to follow the lines of action given by their cultures; research should describe the norms and roles they follow. B human behavior is governed by invariant cause and effect relationships; research should discover these relationships. C research should describe patterns of behavior rather than looking for either social norms or causal relationships. D All of the above. Correct: B

A salesperson plays racquetball with the secretary of the head of research and afterwards they discuss the latest office rumors. This is an example of ___.

A informal channels of communication. B upward communication. C downward communication. D sexual harassment. Correct: A

The head of marketing sends a memo to the CEO of the company. This is an example of ___.

A informal channels of communication. B upward flow C downward flow D sexual harassment. Correct: B

Nonverbal communication is more useful than verbal communication in conveying which of the following kinds of information?

A initial impressions. B relational information. C emotional expression. D All of the above. Correct: D

When in the ______ stage, a couple shares attitudes and interests, synchronizes body rhythms, and exchanges intimacy trophies.

A intensifying B integrating C bonding D circumscribing Correct: B

A symbol differs from other kinds of signs in that ___.

A it is arbitrary and conventional. B it consists of a signified and a signifier whereas other signs do not. C there is a natural connection between a symbol and its meaning. D there is no difference between a symbol and other kinds of signs. Correct: A

The study of space and territory is called ___.

A kinesics. B proxemics. C chronemics. D paralanguage. Correct: B

Third places are ___.

A locations other than the home or workplace where people can congregate and interact socially. B physical locations where wired devices are prohibited in order to promote sociability. C locations within the workplace where individuals are encouraged to test out new video games. D locations within the home where individuals use mobile devices. Correct: A

According to linguistic determinism ___.

A natural signs are more powerful than conventional signs. B language determines thought. C people who use correct grammar get better jobs and are perceived as more honest than those who make grammatical errors. D the ability to understand and use language is innate. Correct: B

The dialectic that focuses on how members of dyads adapt to change is the _______ dialectic.

A novelty-predictability. B autonomy-togetherness. C expressive-protective. D dominance-submissive. Correct: A

"What would you do if you were suddenly to find yourself homeless? How would your life be changed? What would you do to survive? Most of us have never had to confront these questions, but many Americans have ..." This introduction is an example of the use of ____

A personal reference. B illustration. C close-ended question. D rhetorical question. Correct: D

When the speaker says, "I'm going to discuss with you five reasons why my opponent's plan is dangerous and ill-considered," the speaker is using a(n) ______.

A preview. B transition. C internal summary. D stock organizational pattern. Correct: A

The three functions of models are ___.

A primary, secondary, tertiary. B explanation, prediction, control. C psychological, sociological, philosophical. D encoding, decoding, transmitting. Correct: B

The perspective that places the most emphasis on behavioral patterns is ___.

A psychological perspective. B social constructionist perspective. C pragmatic perspective. D semiotic perspective. Correct: C

According to cognitive response theory ___.

A receivers accept messages not because of what a speaker says but because of their own responses to the speaker. B emotional material should be avoided during communication because it interferes with comprehension. C most people's responses to messages are intuitive, based more on feeling than on thought. D people cannot be taught listening skills. Correct: A

According to the pragmatic perspective we can improve communication by ___.

A recognizing that because we create reality by talking about it, we should take responsibility for our talk. B learning to see things from the receivers' point of view. C encoding messages as clearly as possible. D describing and understanding destructive patterns. Correct: D

According to the social constructionist perspective we can improve communication by ___.

A recognizing that we create reality by talking about it and taking responsibility for our talk. B learning to see things from the receivers' point of view. C encoding messages as clearly as possible. D describing and understanding destructive patterns. Correct: A

When we say that research must be replicable, we mean that_______.

A researchers must avoid repeating earlier studies. B methods must be so objective that the same results would occur if it were conducted again. C research must always include a comparison between a treatment and a control group. D research involves inventive ingenuity. Correct: B

The psychological perspective ___.

A sees communication as a shared cultural product. B focuses on individual communicators as they transmit and receive messages. C sees communication as a system of interlocking moves. D says that accurate communication is impossible. Correct: B

Media gatekeepers ___.

A select which messages receivers will be exposed to. B help individuals resist dominant ideologies. C use media for their own individual uses and gratifications. D have very little to do with determining message content. Correct: A

Generally hard rock fans do not tune in to radio stations with easy-listening formats and non-believers do not watch televangelists. This is an example of ___.

A selective exposure. B ideal norms. C gate-keeping. D All of the above. Correct: A

When the boss gets to the most important part of his instructions, his voice gets stronger and he stares directly at his employees. This is an example of ___.

A substituting. B complementing. C accenting. D regulating. Correct: C

When we characterize the media as watchdogs of a free society, we are referring to the ___ media function.

A surveillance. B correlation. C cultural transmission. D entertainment. Correct: A

Person prototypes are ___.

A the characteristics we habitually notice in others. B representations of sequences of action. C idealized representations of categories of people. D people we ignore and treat as "nonpersons." Correct: C

The gap between Americans' listening ability and their performance is due to ___.

A the low value Americans place on listening. B the fact that teachers often don't challenge students to listen carefully. C the fact that parents often discourage listening. D All of the above. Correct: D

Bitzer believes that in a perfect world there would be no rhetoric because ___.

A there would be no exigencies. B the public sphere would not exist. C there would be no differences of opinion. D public speaking would be banned. Correct: A

The term 'social capital' refers to ___.

A third places other than home or workplace where people meet one another. B the virtual locations that are most popular among teens. C the advantages that occur from participating in social networks. D the amount of disposable money teens have to spend on personal media devices. Correct: C

A speaker is describing the food of Japan. He or she begins by describing Tokyo cuisine, and then moves to the foods of Kyoto and Nara. He or she is using a ______ method of organizing a speech.

A topical. B spatial. C chronological. D motivated sequence. Correct: B

The research method that is an extension and refinement of the everyday impulse to evaluate and analyze the impact of messages is ____.

A triangulation. B conversational analysis. C rhetorical criticism. D survey research. Correct: C

According to the functional approach, leadership can be shared and it is important to know the functions that have to be fulfilled in the group.

A true B false Correct: A

During the adjourning phase, expression of positive feelings and congratulation often emerge.

A true B false Correct: A

One of the challenges of online groups is finding a way to develop trust.

A true B false Correct: A

The first step in the reflective thinking process is experiencing a felt difficulty or problem.

A true B false Correct: A

According to Jack Gibbs, if you want to establish a supportive climate, you should always have a hidden agenda.

A true B false Correct: B

Cell phone SMS messages are an example of ___.

A user-generated mass media. B analog media. C personal media. D affordance media. Correct: C

Aristotle

A Greek Philosopher, taught Alexander the Great, started a famous school called Lyceum, studied with Plato

Perspective

A coherent set of assumptions about the way a process operates.

Inference

A conclusion one can draw from the presented details. ex: "John is aggressive"

stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

Organization

A group of people who work together to achieve some specific purpose

lingua franca

A language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages

Bureaucracy

A large, complex organization composed of appointed officials good example of hierarchal organization

Network Analysis

A method of mapping informal communication patterns a tool for understanding networks

symmetrical pattern

A pattern in which both parties either take the one-up role (competitive symmetry) or the one-down role (submissive symmetry).

Hearing

A physiological process that occurs when sound waves are translated into electrical impulses and then processed ny the central nervous system

ceremonial in organizations

A system of several rites connected with a single occasion or event

hierarchy

A system that is divided into orders and ranks Organizations are hierarchical

Force Field Analysis

A technique for determining which forces drive a proposed change and which forces restrain it.

physical relaxation

A way to combat speech anxiety through muscle relaxation

Pathos

A way to sway the audience through the ability to arouse emotions

Ethos

A way to sway the audience through the beliefs or character of a group

Logos

A way to sway the audience through the wording and logic of the message

When people who study communication focus their attention on spoken symbolic interaction, their primary interest is in which of the following?

A) The unintentional behaviors that accompany speaking. B) The way people use words to create common meaning. C) The unspoken body language that people use. D) All of the ways organisms (including non-human organisms) create meaning. Correct: B

People who see definitions as constructions rather than discoveries believe ___.

A) several different definitions may be equally valid. B) the test of a good definition is its absolute truth. C) a good definition accurately records and describes something that already exists. D) there is only one valid definition for each phenomenon. Correct: A

Physical setting, medium, and occasion in public speaking

All the factors that make up the speech-- its purpose, organization, language style, use of supporting materialism and the like-- depend on the nature of the occassion

object language

All the intentional and non-intentional displays of material things that give us information about an individual.

Interdependence

All the members within an organization are connected to one another Best characteristic that defines an organization

Model

An abstract representation of a process, a description of its structure or function

Description

An actual observation of a state of affairs, made with a minimum of distortion ex: "John is making direct eye contact with me"

authoritative argument

An argument that depends on the authority and credibility of a source.

Motivational Argument

An argument that is based on the emotional needs of an audience

tangential response

An individual briefly acknowledges the topic but then goes on to discuss his or her interests.

pathos

Appeal to emotion

Toulmin Model

Arguments include the following parts: data: information that leads a speaker to make a claim claim: what the speaker argues warrant: reasoning in support of the claim backing: evidence for the warrant qualifier: description of the strength of the claim rebuttal: exceptions to the claim

Improving evaluations

As effective listeners, we need to separate descriptions of fact from inferences and evaluations It is human nature to jump to conclusions- to accept blindly what we want to hear and to reject without thinking what we don't want to hear.

public scrutiny test

Asking yourself: 1. Am I personally proud of this action? 2. Am I comfortable with this decision? 3. Would I feel uncomfortable or embarrassed if this decision were known to my colleagues, friends, spouse, or children?

Laws approach in communications

Associated with physiological perspective Communication scientists who take this approach describe cause-and-effect laws that connect communication variables

Systems approach in communications

Associated with pragmatic perspective Systems researchers are concerned with describing inter depended patterns of behavior rather than individual behavior

Rules approach in communications

Associated with social constructionist perspective Rules researchers believe that human behavior isn to so much caused as chose: to accomplish their goals, people choose certain lines of action and follow certain rules laid down by their cultures.

limited effects model

Audiences are active processors who are quite capable of defending themselves against media influence.

Structures in the minds of audience members

Beliefs Attitudes Values

culture

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people. cultural includes a group's collective answer to the fundamental questions "who are we? what is our place in the world? and how are we to live our lives?"

Pragmatic perspective

Communication consists of a system of interlocking, interdependent "moves," which become patterned over time.

hegemonic messages

Critical theorists argue that the media reflect and reproduce only those ideas, meanings, and values that uphold the interests of the power elite and that they silence opposing views

power distance

Degree to which societies accept the idea that inequalities in the power and well-being of their citizens are due to differences in individuals' physical and intellectual capabilities and heritage

Delivery (cannon of rhetoric)

Delivery was considered necessary for success because if the speaker did not use pleasing voice and graceful gestures, the effect of the speech would be undermined.

Arrangement (cannon of rhetoric)

Described ways to order ideas effectively.

loose coupling

Each unit acts in a relatively independent fashion, and an even that influences one unit may have only indirect effects on others

Psychological Perspective

Focuses on what happens "inside the heads" of communicators as they transmit and receive messages Two (or more) individuals exchange meanings through the transmission and reception of communication stimuli.

Sophists

Greek teachers of philosophy, reasoning, and public speaking

Cultivation Theory

How long-term television viewing affects viewers' beliefs about social reality ways in which individuals come to accept the televised world as an accurate reflection of the real world

Judging information

If a message supports current beliefs, attitudes, and values, we tend to find it compelling. If it enhances our sense of self-worth, we may accept it without question. Yet it is in exactly these situation that we should be wary.

Memory (cannon of rhetoric)

In an oral society, memory, the ability to hold content, style, and arrangement in one's mind.

opinion leaders

Individuals who are at the center of things; they are the first people others go to for information

Style (cannon of rhetoric)

It described the process of selecting the proper words to convey a message.

Language is a kind of knowledge

Language is a body of knowledge stored in our brains. It can never be examined directly but must be inferred from speech. Speech is the external, physical side of language, and language is the internal mental side of speech.

language is rule-governed and productive

Language is governed by grammatical. punctuation and phonetic rules that help us to understand one another.

Effects of Serial Transmission

Leveling: details are left out as the amount of information in the message is reduced. The message grows shorter Sharpening: Certain high points are given special significance and elaboration Assimilation: memory of the message is affected by the sender's frame of reference. Unfamiliar material is changed so that it makes sense to the sender

Semantics

Meaning of words and sentences

lean media

Media that are least capable of facilitating understanding among communicators

Mindful processing

Mental processing that occurs when we are alert and paying close attention. opposite of mindless processing

equivocal communication

Messages that are ambiguous, uncertain, and open to more than one equally valid interpretation.

Formal channels of communication

Occurs when information flows through a structured chain of command officially recognized by the organization example: If a worker hands in a report to his manager, who then sends it on to an immediate supervisor, information flows through formal channels

Scientific Method

One could understand a phenomenon only by reducing it to its most basic elements or variables, manipulating these variables in a controlled situation, and observing the results.

What makes organizational communication so important?

One of the things that make organizational communication so important is the very nature of the organization depends on the way members communicate.

intimacy trophies

Outward signs that indicate an intimate relationship.

Modes of discourse in organizations

Part of fitting into an organization is knowing what you can and can't say in certain situations and choosing the correct genre to convey your message

vocal segregates

Pauses and fillers such as "um" and "uh."

powerful effects model

Receivers are relatively passive; they accept media messages at face value and unconsciously allow media sources to tell them what to think.

obstinate audience theory

Receivers were viewed as creative consumers who sought out media messages according to their own needs and interpreted messages their own ways

first-level effects of technology

Refers to what the technology is designed to do example: the first-level effect of email is that it allows us to communicate cheaply and immediately

Scripts

Representations of sequences of action. They tell us what to do in a given situation. well-learned scripts give us the confidence that comes from knowing what to say or do next. They can lull us into mindlessness and repressive routines.

rich media

Rich media use a variety of channels to carry information whereas lean media use fewer channels

Rites and ceremonials

Rites play an important role in the create and maintenance of strong organizational cultures

What to look for when observing communication

S- situations (setting and scene of interaction) P- participants (who speaks, who is addressed) E- ends (goals and outcomes of interaction) A- act sequences (content, means of expression) K- keys (tone or spirit of interaction) I- instrumentalities (channels, or media of interaction) N- norms (rules regulating interaction) G- genres (type of communication enacted)

Social constructionist perspective

Sees communication as a process whereby people, using the tools provided by their culture, create collective representations of reality. Emphasizes the relationship between communication and culture

Plato

Student of Socrates

tight coupling

Subunits within an organization that are closely connected and highly interdependent

horizontal flow in formal organizational structure

Takes place when communications occurs between people at the same level example: when an investigator discusses an automobile break-in with a parking attendant and a patrol officer

Common Tasks in Communication Inquiry

Task 1: formulate a research question Task 2: Choose a research method Task 3: Design a sampling strategy Task 4: Gather and analyze data Task 5: Interpret data and share results

structurational approach

The belief that there is a reciprocal relationship between organizational structures and organizational communication.

Responsiveness

The degree to which people react emotionally when they are in social situations

Formal Organizational Structure

The emphasis is on organizational positions and formal power. Provides a framework for defining managerial authority, responsibility, and accountability

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

receiver-based communication

The idea that communication takes place, not when the sender delivers a message, but when the receiver assigns meaning to a message.

breadth

The issue in communications of determine the definition of communications.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Invention (cannon of rhetoric)

The process of deciding on the subject matter of one's speech and of discovering information and argument that would lead to sound conclusions.

relational development stages

The stages in becoming intimate; they include initiating, experimenting, intensifying, integrating, and bonding.

hype stages

The stages in the adoption of new media, from the point when one first hears about the media product to the point when it redefines its purpose and finds an audience.

relational dissolution stages

The stages of breaking up a relationship. They include differentiating, circumscribing, stagnating, avoiding and terminating.

Non-verbal communication

The unspoken, often unintentional behavior that accompanies verbal communication and helps us fully interpret its meaning.

Predictive function (of a model)

The way a model allows us to answer questions about what is likely to occur in the future.

Explanatory function (of a model)

The way a model describes and explains the nature and characteristics of a process.

Control function (of a model)

The way a model shows us how to control a process.

cognitive response theorists

Theorists who argue that people accept messages not on the basis of what a speaker says but on the basis of their own internal responses to the message. also known as persuasion theorists

Ombudsman in an organization

This person's job is to listen to workers at lower levels of the organization and pass their concerns directly to the top

Cultural studies perspective

Uncovering hidden power relations embedded in everyday interactions

Symbols in communication

We can convey meaning nonverbally through facial expressions, body movements, and physical appearance.

Language is symbolic

We hear something and think of different things depending on our own experiences

mindless or automatic processing

We process mindlessly when we rely on old routines and mental habits to give us information about the world

Using cognitive schemata

We use shared social understandings, past experiences, and our knowledge about the world to help us interpret what we see or hear

why is public speaking important?

We: 1) discover facts 2) test ideas 3) persuade others 4) shape knowledge 5) build community

Why communicate in organizations?

When communication succeeds, the organization is likely to be effective and efficient and workers satisfied and committed. When it fails, both the organization and its individual members suffer.

When is communication most successful?

When individuals are "of the same mind"-- when the meanings they assign to messages are similar or identical

informal channels of communication

When information takes a more personal and less structured path example: When a sales representative meets the head of personnel's secretary in the lunchroom and discusses rumors about cutbacks, the worker is taking advantage of informal channels

Transactive Memory System

When the organization has a systematic way to remember and identify who possesses expert knowledge, that is, when it possesses an effective transitive memory system, it is no longer necessary for everyone to know everything

Communicating in the public sphere

When we communicate as members of a large community and our topic is of concern to many, then we are operating in the public sphere

interpersonal self-fulfilling prophecy

When we make an assumption and then act as though it were true with the result that it becomes true; for example, if I assume you do not like me I may be cold and distant which will make you dislike me.

arguments from cause

Whenever a speaker tries to establish why something happened

Group

a collection of individuals, who, as a result of interacting with one another over time, become interdependent, developing shared patterns of behavior and a collective identity

supportive climate

a communication situation in which a person feels he can speak freely without risk of harm

defensive climate

a communication situation in which a person feels threatened and thus results in the group being unproductive

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

position

a concrete solution to a problem

interrupting response

a disconfirming response in which one communicator interrupts another

irrelevant response

a disconfirming response in which one communicator's comments has no relationship to the previous speaker's ideas

impersonal response

a disconfirming response that is superficial or trite

problem

a discrepancy between a present state of affairs and a desired state of affairs

fallacy

a false or mistaken idea

Metaphor

a figure of speech containing an implied comparison

ethnographic research

a form of observational research that involves sending trained observers to watch and interact with consumers in their "natural environments"

Interview

a form of two-way communication having a predetermined and serious purpose in which participants ask and answer questions

outline in public speech

a kind of blueprint that shows the basic ideas in your speech

Perception check

a message that reflects your understanding of the meaning of another person's behavior

Microcelebrity

a mind set and a collection of self-presentation practices endemic in social media, in which users strategically formulate a profile, reach out to followers, and reveal personal information to increase attention and thus improve their online status

neologism

a new word that is in the process of entering the language but has not yet been widely accepted

substituing

a nonverbal message is used instead of a verbal message

double bind

a particularly strong and enduring paradoxical communication wherein the receiver is simultaneously given two opposing messages but is prohibited from resolving them ex: when a parent says to a child, "come give me a hug," but pulls back in disgust when the child approaches

hidden agenda

a personal goal that lies below the surface and that can get in the way of group performance

Creoles

a pidgin that becomes permanent

reflective thinking

a problem-solving process based on the scientific method

assumption of similarity

a refusal to see true differences where they exist goes hand in hand with prejudice

short-term orientation

a respect for the past and present are blended is the past, present, or future more important?

fitting response argued by bitzer

a response that meets the demands of exigence, takes into account the audience, and is sensitive to constraints

action zone

a roughly triangular area beginning with the seats immediately in front of the teacher and diminishing as it approaches the back of the room

language

a rule-governed symbol system that allows its users to generate meaning and, in the process, to define reality

intercultural identity

a sense of belonging to an original and a new culture at the same time

sign (in language)

a sign is the vehicle for this expression

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently more error prone

Rhetorical Criticism

a system way of describing, analyzing, and evaluation a given act of communication

Brainstorming

a technique in which members are encouraged to generate as many ideas as they can, as quickly as possible

situational approach to leadership

a view of leadership as an interactive process in which a leader gauges how to lead based on such factors as the quality of the relationships among group members, the power of the leader, the nature of the task, and the maturity of the group

telecocoons

a virtual space that keeps people connected even when they are not present in the same geographic space.

linguistic productivity

ability to understand and create unusual sentences

Evaluation

adding a positive or negative judgment to an inference and description ex: "John has a rotten attitude."

The structure of argument: Toulmin Model

an approach to analyzing and constructing arguments

argument in public speaking

an explanation of his or her reasoning

social identity

an identity based on group membership

looking-glass self

an image of yourself based on what you believe others think of you

False memory

an inaccurate memory that feels as real as an accurate memory

public speech

an organized, purposeful, continuous presentation delivered in the presence of a relatively large group of receivers

second-level effect

an unforeseen side effect of technology the second-level effects of email may be to make face-to-face encounters rarer, create a digital divide between those with access to computers and those without, and encourage flaming

rhetorical act

any act of communication that influences the belief or behavior of an audience

Masculinity/Femininity

are men and women essentially different from one another?

home territories

areas owned and controlled by individuals

Four-way test

asking yourself: 1. Is it the truth? 2. Is it fair to all concerned? 3. Will it build goodwill and better friendships? 4. Will it be beneficial to all concerned?

mutability premise

assumes that human behavior is shaping by environmental facts and that the way to improve humans is to improve their physical and psychological circumstances

five steps of motivated sequence

attention step - occurs in the intro, the speaker's goal is too focus audience members on the message and to give them a reason to listen need step - speaker shows the audience members that a present state of affairs is undesirable satisfaction step - the speaker offers a plan to meet the need visualization step - the speaker describes concretely what will happen if the solution is adopted action step - the speaker asks the audience to implement the proposal outlined in the satisfaction step

compliance with the audience

audience members respond favorable to sources who can met audience needs or offer material incentives i.e. power example: audience members experiencing compliance say to themselves "it is in my own best interest to agree with the source" occurs whenever the source is perceived as possessing power

perfectibility premise

based on the old Puritan idea that humans are born in sin but are capable of achieving goodness through effort and control

identification with the audience

based on the presence of a perceived relationship (either real or imaginary) between source and receiver i.e. attractiveness example: when audience members think "by agree with the source, i will be more like him or her; we will have something in common" occurs when the source possesses attractiveness

how culture affects worldviews

basic notions of human nature, including the extent to which the individual self is valued

adaptors (kinesics)

behaviors that people use to adapt to stresses and to satisfy personal needs

Culture and Role Identities

being a good communicator means, in part, understanding role distinctions and adapting one's communication accordingly

affect displays (kinesics)

body movements that convey emotional states

mosaic logic in television

bombarding us with changing bits of information that we must cognitively reassemble

bridging capital

bridges to connect people who are different and who can offer each other new ideas and experiences

draw-back-to-leap model

brief periods of culture shock may be a necessary precondition for adaptive change, as individuals strive to regain their inner balance by adapting to the demands and opportunities of their new life circumstances i.e. culture shock can be good thing

intercultural interaction

by developing an openness to new ideas and a willingness to listen and to observe, we can surmount the difficulties inherent in intercultural interacton

ways to close a public speech

challenge or appeal - a direct request for action summary - a restatement of main ideas quotation - a relevant quotation from a respected source illustration - an extended example added inducement - a final reason for believing or acting personal intention - a statement of what the park is prepared to do

vocal qualities

characteristics of the voice, such as pitch, tone, and intonation patterns

personal constructs

characteristics that we notice on a daily basis about others They are the specific descriptors we use to answer the question "what is he like?" Part of the mental apparatus of the observer, they appear to be characteristics of the observed.

questionnaire during survey research

cheap and have the advantage of being anonymous, but there is no way to control for distractions response rate is often low

Microaggressions

commonplace phrases that offend others by implying negative stereotypes or showing a lack of understanding of others' experiences

asychronous communication

communication in which messages are sent and received at different times ex: text messages

performance studies

communication scholars focus on a wide range of performances our everyday performances allow us to explore and work through feelings and have ideas we may not even know we have

upward communication

communication that flows from lower to higher levels in an organization example: progress reports, warnings of job related problems, and suggestions or feedback about organizational policies

intercultural communication

communication that occurs in interactions between people who are culturally different

synchronous communication

communication that occurs in real time, old media communication ex: face to face chats

nonverbal communication

communication without the use of words.

Substantive Argument

connects data and claim through logic and reasoning

Cultural Patterns

consist of the cultural norms we share with others

discourse

conversation

Values

convictions about what ought to occur or about what is or is not desirable and right

secret tests

covert actions designed to reveal information about a partner's involvement in a relationship

low-context culture

cultures that find meaning in the words rather than in the shared context in which communication occurs

examples of partial list of cultural universals

dancing, education, gossip, law, marriage, etc.

retroactive inhibition

decreased ability to recall previously learned information, caused by learning of new information ex: before a test you should study only the subject you will be tested on, get a good night's sleep, review, and take the test

Affordances

define the way a technology is used as well as its benefits and challenges

negative face

desire to be autonomous and free from others threatened when others impose on our autonomy

positive face

desire to be liked and admired by others threatened when people disagree with us

Schematic default options

details that are supplied when actual info is missing example: car crash happens. later someone asks you whether glass from broken headlights were on the ground. You answer, "sure." Your schema for a car accident contains this detail, one that exists in your mind rather than in an actual situation.

cultural display rules

dictate when and how particular emotions are to be expressed

symbol

differs from sign in that it is arbitrary and conventional

New media

digital information technologies and platforms, including networked computing and mobile telecommunication

one-up role

dominant role in a relationship

attitudes

evaluative mental structures that predispose us to act in certain ways example: studying is important and worthwhile or studying is a waste of time

selective attention

even when we choose to process a message, we may listen only to parts of the message

sender-based communication

ex: John comes across Brianne, who is unaware she is being watched. Brianne frowns and looks annoyed. John draws a conclusion about her mood. Brianne is the one who is the source of info through her behavior

Power and Influence

exercised whenever an individual controls a valued resource

Rhetorical situations

exigence (or problem): speakers decide to speak because they feel that something is wrong and hope, by speaking about it, to make it right audience: people who can change the problem, either by altering their beliefs and attitudes or by taking direct action constraints: factors that control and shape the nature of the communication

ideal norms

expectations of what people should do under perfect conditions example: a program such as miss America pageant embodies the values of youth, famine beauty, and the love of our country

operational definition

explains how a term will be measured in the study example: credibility might be operationally defined as "the candidate's mean score on a ten-point rating scale of trustworthiness and expertness"

conceptual definition

explains the meaning of a tern in a general, abstract way example: credibility might be conceptually defined as "the extent to which a candidate is seen by an audience as worthy of belief"

facial displays

facial expressions that are an important source of information in nonverbal communication

speech anxiety

fear of speaking before an audience

expressive-protective dialectic

finding a balance between the need to share personal information and the need to maintain privacy

Individualism/Collectivism

focus on achievement and freedom vs. families or groups

Uses and gratification research

focuses on the needs that motivate media consumers. This research argues that receivers are active and goal directed.

cooperative principle

for talk to work, communicators must be willing to cooperate with one another

mass communication

form of communication through which institutional sources address large, diverse audiences whose members are physically separated from one another

autonomy-togetherness dialectic

friends and couples decide how interdependent they want to be

maintenance or social dimension

groups must devote some of their efforts to creating a positive group climate

Triads

groups of three

biological time orientation

how people feel and react physically to time and the effects of time on physical well-being

Personal Media

how the cell phones and social networking sites that we access every day allows us to expand and maintain personal connections

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy

humans have five basic needs in life

person prototypes

idealized representations of a certain kind of person Forming images of cowboys, beauty queen, politician you are using person prototypes

Morpheme

in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning

liking

indicated through facial expression, eye contact, proximity, and the like

nominal group technique

individuals generate solution ideas of their own and then meet to clarify these ideas

relational breadth

individuals progressively share more aspects of themselves and communicate about more topics

group socialization

individuals try to influence the group to meet their needs, whereas the group as a whole seeks to influence individuals to do what is best for it

isolates

individuals who have very few connections with coworkers; they are "out of the loop" when it comes to information

Grapevine Communication

informal communication system through which messages are passed in an organization, especially rumors and myths

feedback

information that helps individuals to control and adjust their behavior

dyadic communication

interchangeable with interpersonal communication

interview during survey research

interview allow the research to control what goes on during the survey and to clarify ambiguous questions

Pidgins

invented language so that non-natives can communicate with those live in the area

manuscript speaking (type of delivery)

involved very careful composition in your delivery

knowledge network

it is a collection of people but known as knowledge networks and the media they use

The audience-speaker relationship

it is a truism in the field of rhetoric that speakers must understand and adapt their message to audiences

emblems (kinesics)

kinesics (body movement) that have a specific meaning in a culture example: shaking your finger back and forth can mean no

illustrators (kinesics)

kinesics that clarifies or emphasizes part of a message

argumentational history

knowledge about how an issue has been treated in the past, and it is an essential aspect of the context of a speech

linguistic determinism

language determines the way we think

ambiguous language

language having more than one possible meaning

functional approach to leadership

leadership can be shared, and what is important in understanding leadership is knowing the functions that must be fulfilled in the group

personal display rules

learned through individual experience and are often, but not always, shared with family members

linguistic knowledge

lets us understand sentences we have never heard before

third places

locations other than the home or workplace where people can congregate and interact socially.

performative aspects of language

many of the observed differences in male/female cases can be explained as social performances rather than innate characteristics

Gatekeepers in the Media System

media gatekeepers select the issues they feel are most worthy of coverage and give those issues wide attention

Hegemonic

media messages keep powerless groups from making their ideas known

user-generated mass media

media platform that allows us to broadcast messages to mass audiences

Rapport Talk vs. Report Talk

men and women communicate differently rapport talk: focuses on relational meaning report talk: focuses on content

message filtering

messages change as they pass from person to person serious problem in formal communication

survey research

most direct and straightforward way to learn about other people is to ask them questions putting a survey out to do research

cognitive biases used to maintain prejudices

negative - interpreting everything the target group does negative interpretation - interpreting something the group does that can be negative discounting - dismissing ifnoratiko that doesn't fit a negative stereotype fundamental - interpreting another's negative behavior as internal rather than external attribution bias - attributing one person's actions to the group exaggeration - making negative aspects of out-group behavior seem more extreme polarization - looking for differences and ignoring similarities

Regulators

nonverbal behaviors that act as "traffic signals" during interaction examples: head nods, eye and hand movement

Accenting

nonverbal behaviors that emphasize part of a verbal message example: emphasis on certain parts of the sentence

interaction management

nonverbal cues used to manage the impressions and regulate interactions of communicators in a variety of relationships and situations

Internalization with the audience

occurs when audience members incorporate message content into their belief systems i.e. credibility example: when audience members think "yes, i agree; that argument makes sense to me and fits in with what i believe

social loafing

occurs when members get lost in the crowd and don't fulfill their work potential

impervious response

occurs when one partner ignores the other

context collapse

occurs when people are forced to grapple simultaneously with otherwise unrelated social contexts that are rooted in different norms and seemingly demand different social responses

downward flow in formal organizational structure

occurs when someone near the top of the organization sends a message to someone near the bottom example: when the associate director of campus safety sends a memo to the escort service supervisor the game "telephone" is a great example

impromptu speaking (type of a delivery)

occurs when the speaker is suddenly confronted with a rhetorical situation and is able on, in the spur of the moment, to organize a message

free riding problem

occurs when those who enjoy the benefits of a good or service without paying the costs occurs during disjunctive tasks

Self-Disclosure in Relationships

occurs when we reveal information to others that they are unlikely to discover on their own: when we voluntarily open up to them

Conflict

occurs whenever two people have imcompatible goals

status

often conveyed through posture and gesture, though touch and proximity, and by the objects we display

complementary pattern

one partner takes the one-up position and the other takes the one-down

spiral

one partner's behavior intensifies that of the other

Public communication

one-to-many form of communication wherein a single speaker addresses a large audience

life script

our professional or personal identity

body territories

our rights to touch and view one another's bodies are strongly restricted

stock organizational patterns

patters that can be used in the organization of a public speech

active listening

paying close attention to what someone is saying and communicating

participation equalization effect

people communicating electronically participate more equally, presumably because the status cues that would normally make reticent members inhibited are not present

cultural time orientation

people from different cultures think differently about the value and uses of time

linguistic relativity

people from different language communities perceive the world differently

high-context culture

people rely heavily on situational cues for meaning when communicating with others

Spiral of silence theory

people who think their ideas are popular tend to express them and those who see themselves in the minority remain silenct

nonpersons

people whose occupations cause them to violate the personal space of others

immediate language

personalized language, and it can be very effective in persuasive situations

Characteristics of public communication

public speaking is usually prompted by an important event or issue

rites in organizations

publicly performed, "relatively elaborate, dramatic, planned sets of activities that consolidate various forms of cultural expressions into one event"

ways to open a public speech

reference to topic - a direct statement of subject reference to occasion - a reference to the reason for the speech personal reference or greeting - an din cation of one's relation to the topic or audience rhetorical question - a question the speaker wants the audience to consider starling statement - a shocking statement of fact or opinion quotation - a relevant quote from a respected source humorous anecdote - a joke or story related to topic illustration - an extended example which makes topic vivid and concrete

logos

refers to logical reasoning

selective exposure

refers to people's tendency to avoid certain messages and to seek out others

ethos

refers to the impression the audience forms of the speaker's character

Disconfirmation

rejecting messages that leave recipients with a diminished sense of self-respect

selective retention

remembering only a small portion of any message

over role in ethnographic research

researcher enters the field as a scientist, and people know full well that they are being observed

covert role in ethnographic research

researcher goes "undercover" by becoming a member of the group being studied

Paraphrasing

rewriting or restating another person's ideas or thoughts into your own words one of the most important ways to active listen is to paraphrase

relationship

role obligations that we feel towards one another

professional display rules

rules for facial expressional based on career considerations

pragmatics of language

rules for using language in different contexts

arguments from generalization

seek to establish a general conclusion on the basis of data taken from a small sample of cases

arguments from analogy

seek to establish that two situations, X and Y, are alike

arguments from sign

seeks to predict one condition by pointing to another condition associated with it

standard agenda

six-step guide to solving problems that derives directly from Dewey's theories about reflective thinking

mediated interaction

social interaction in which technological devices come between the participants, unlike in face-to-face interaction

interaction territories

socially marked territories

Gatekeepers in an organization

someone who is in a position to pass on or discard information

prejudice

special kind of stereotype, a negative social attitude held by members of one group toward members of another group

vocalization

special sounds that convey meaning, such as groans, cries, moans, giggles, and yawns

natural language

spoken language

bonding capital

strengthening the bonds between similar people who may then offer each other support and encouragement

one-down role

submissive role in a relationship

idiosyncrasy credit

symbolic currency earned through conformity

public discussion formats

symposium, the forum, the panel of discussion, the buzz group and the role playing group

Cognitive Biases

systematic errors in thinking

audience adaptation

taking into account the beliefs and life experiences of audience members and use that information in constructing a message

trouble talk

talking about emotional and relationship problems

disjunctive tasks

tasks in which one person does a job and no one else has to

rhetoricians

teachers of communication

structural diversity

teams with members from different units within the organization and with different training and knowledge example: rather than composing a team entirely of employees from the research and development division at a single location, organizations who are creating new products may include employees from their marketing, sales, and human factors division as well.

Mainstreaming (Cultivation Theory)

television viewing creates widely shared, middle of the road viewpoints that tend to support the status quo

demographic analysis of audience

tells you about the groups to which audience members belong to

novelty-predictability dialectic

tension between a desire to try new things and a desire for things to stay the same

public territories

territories we share with others

cognitive complexity

the ability to understand a given situation in multiple ways The cognitively complex person is willing to combine seemingly contradictory characteristics in creative ways the person who locks cognitive complexity tends to use one or two simple constructs, ignoring contradictory information.

social capital

the advantages that occur from participating in social networks.

correlation as function of media

the analysis and evaluation of information

culture shock

the anxiety that results from losing all of our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse

hidden profile research

the area of research that focuses on how and why members fail to share information that only they may know

relational maintenance strategies

the behaviors people use to keep their relationships at a desired level

effort optimism

the belief that hard work will pay off

rationality premise

the belief that most people are capable of dissevering the truth through logical analysis

ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own culture or group is superior to all others and the tendency to judge all cultures by one's own criteria

"The medium is the message" (Marshall McLuhan)

the beliefs that the channel through which a message is transmitted is as important as the message itself and the channel, in fact, often determines which messages will be transmitted and which will be ignored

personal space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

convergence

the coming together of computing, telecommunications, and media in a digital environment

uncertainty avoidance

the degree to which societies are willing to tolerate uncertainty and risk example: following strict codes vs. not following strict codes

Searchability

the ease with which content can be found low in a home movie that only family members know about high in youtube video

cultural transmission as function of media

the education and socialization of receivers

interpersonal communication

the exchange of thoughts, feelings, and beliefs between two or more people

Web 2.0

the explosion of creative and collaborative activity that has occurred as a result of technical breakthroughs

spreadability

the extent to which a message is likely to be repeated or circulated beyond its original audience low in conversations with friends high in a text message with friends

persistance

the extent to which a message remains available over time. low in face-to-face spoken interaction high in written letter or contract

cultural distance

the extent to which two cultures differ, affects ease of communication

signifier

the form in which the idea is expressed

surveillance as function of media

the gathering and disseminating of information

speech acts

the goal a speaker intends to accomplish through speech

Shallowing Hypothesis

the idea that computer use affects our ability to engage in reflective thinking

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

the idea that different languages create different ways of thinking

group synergy

the idea that groups are often more effective than the best individuals within them

magic bullet or hypodermic needle approach

the idea that messages delivered through the mass media persuade all people powerfully and directly (as if they were hit by a bullet or injected by a needle) without the people having any control over the way they react

Signified

the meaning we associate with the sign

agenda setting function

the media "sets an agenda" for what we think about

Territoriality

the need to create boundaries, to control areas of space and make them ours

Interpersonal Needs

the needs for inclusion, control, and affection

regulating

the nonverbal message manages and controls verbal behavior example: looking at one's watch to let the speaker know its time to go

repeating

the nonverbal message repeats the verbal message example: ill give u 3 minutes while holding up 3 fingers

contradicting

the nonverbal message undermines the verbal message, often causing confusion and uncertainty

complementing

the nonverbal messages modifies the verbal message, letting the receiver know how to take it

visibility

the number of people who have access to message low in phone conversations high in comment posted on social media

Beliefs

the opinions that individuals hold about the world and about their place in it

group cohesiveness

the output of maintenance or social dimension

productivity

the output of task dimension

interest

the overall goal you want to achieve when tackling a problem

face

the person we try to be when we are with other people

entertainment as function of media

the presentation of escapist material that provides enjoyment and gratification

Thesis

the primary position taken by a writer or speaker

Digitization

the process in which media are made into computer-readable form

selective perception

the process of assigning meaning to messages in selective ways

Listening

the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages A social cognitive process

Attention

the process of selectively focusing on certain events in the environment

Reappropriation

the process of taking existing words and redefining them

additive tasks

the productivity of the group is determined by adding up the efforts of each member

Abstraction

the quality of dealing with ideas rather than events

Organizational culture

the set of values, ideas, attitudes, and norms of behavior that is learned and shared among the members of an organization

Phonemes

the significant sound distinctions in a given language

episode

the situation we find ourselves in during a given interaction

extemporaneous speaking (type of delivery)

the speaker has researched and outlined the message but has not memorized the exact wording

Jargon

the special or technical words used by members of professions ex: doctors, lawyers

kinesics

the study of body language

rhetoric

the study of communications

Rhetoric

the study of communications the art of designing public messages that can change the way in which audiences think and feel about public issues

Proxemics

the study of how we use space and what space means to us

Phonology

the study of speech sounds in language

Haptics

the study of the communicative function of touch

syntactics

the study of the sentence structure of a language

Chronemics

the study of time as it affects human behavior

Hyperpersonal Theory (Walther)

the theory on why online interpersonal relationships develop quickly and are often more intimate than face to face relationships

mean world hypothesis (cultivation theory)

the view that the world is much more dangerous place than it actually is

female register

the way females talk and phrase questions in their speech

spoken symbolic interaction

the way people use symbols (primarily words) to create common meaning and to share that meaning with one another.

spacial arrangement

the way walls and furniture are arranged within structures affects the amount, flow, and kind of interaction in them

psychological time orientation

the way you habitually think about and experience time

audience/producer in the new era

the world of mass communication is no longer divided between professional producers and passive consumers. Today it is possible to for people to fulfill a new role: that of audience/producer by doing things such as blogging and and youtubing

trait approach to leadership

theorists believe that they key to leadership lies in the personal characteristics of leaders (their traits)

styles approach to leadership

theorists believe that what is important is not the personality of the leader but rather how he acts

relational depth

they let their partners get closer to their core identities

linear logic in print media

they transmit information in an orderly sequence, word after word, idea after idea

Old media

traditional one-to-many forms of mediated communication such as TV, radio, newspaper, and books

cultural universals

traits that are part of every known culture ex: people eat

Serial Transmission

transmission of a message in a one-way direction from one person to the next

new media

transmission of digital bits rather than physical atoms

pre-suppositionless research with ethnographers

trying to take one's own norms and values out of the research you are doing

Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM)

understanding how individuals use context to assign pragmatic meaning

incongruous response

verbal and nonverbal responses conflict with each other

Paralanguage

vocalic behaviors that communicate meaning along with verbal behavior

lazy processors

we make up our minds about a speaker not by listening carefully to what he or she has to say but rather by looking at surface details

experimental research

we manipulate what we think might be the cause and wait to see the effect of this manipulation

Gunnysacking

we store up all our grievances and carry them around until the burden gets too heavy and we explode in anger

Filtering Theory of Attraction

we use a series of filters to judge how close to others we want to become

Groupthink

when a group gets too confident and begins to make poor decisions

Dialects

when a subgroup uses a different vocabulary grammar, or pronunciation from others who speak that language

Audience attitudes and change

when audience members come to hear a speech, they bring prior beliefs, attitudes, values, and life experiences with them

paradoxes

when couples fall into the habit of sending one another contradictory messages

Crowding

when one's personal space needs are violated

incoherent response

when someone seems embarrassed and tongue-tied

Communicating in the private sphere

when we communicate solely with our own interests in mind, we are communicating in the private sphere

hall of mirrors effect

women and men have small differences in the way they talk

Taboo

words that are unacceptable in polite society

argot

words whose meanings have been changed so outsiders can't understand them

task dimension

work performed by the group

telecommunicating

working from home while staying connected to the office through communications technology

systematic desensitization

you learn to substitute deep relaxation for fear responses

cognitive restructuring

you substitute adapting thinking in place for negative thinking ex: instead of "ill look like an idiot up there" you say "i know more than most people know about this topic"

Web 3.0

your browser will learn what you are interested in and do the work for you

Ways to improve attention

- avoid distractions - be aware of your purpose for listening - notice contextual cues - keep a positive attitude; don't assume that you'll be bored

Ways to improve storage and retrieval

- decide what information needs to be stored - rehearse and review material - use mnemonic devices or special memory aids

Elements that capture attention

- increase voluntary attention by giving receivers a reason to listen - increase involuntary attention by including vivid and compelling message elements

five dimensions that describe cultural difference

- power distance - uncertainty avoidance - masculinity/femininity - long term/short term orientation - individualism/collectivism

Ways to improve responding

- realize you cannot not communicate - see things from sender's perspective - respond to what is not said as well as what is

Ways to improve interpretation

- recognize the complexity of perception - prepare ahead of time by knowing about the topic - use extra time to summarize and rehearse - when appropriate, use perception checks

elements that guide interpretation

- relate new information to old - adapt content to audience's learning level - use a clear-cut organizational pattern - ask for feedback

Popular Research Methods

- rhetorical criticism - content analysis - conversation analysis - ethnography - unobtrusive methods -survey research - experimental research -performance research -mixed methods