(Chemistry H) Benchmarks & Finals: Quarter 3 Benchmark
"Inter" → __________ "Intra" → __________
"Inter" → *Across* "Intra" → *Between*
S & P Block Elements
"Main group elements" Representative elements show clear trends Groups 1-2, 13-18
Which sublevel is associated with a higher amount of energy, 4s or 3d?
3d. In Aufbau's diagonal rule, 3d comes after 4s
How many significant figures & round to 2 significant figures: 8201
4 8200
How many significant figures & round to 2 significant figures: 900.0
4 9.0 x 10^2
How many significant figures & round to 2 significant figures: 2.100
4 2.1
Quantum Numbers: Electron Spin Quantum Number
Indicates the spin of the electron (clockwise or counterclockwise) Values of m'sub s = 1/2, -1/2 (depiction are the arrows)
Rare Earth Metals
Inner transition metals Top group is Lanthanides (+3 oxidation state) Bottom series is Actinides (very dense, radioactive) All very chemically similar Used in lamps & lasers Tarnish readily in air
Extensive vs Intensive
Intensive: does not depend amount or size sample Extensive: depends on amount or size of sample
Interference
Interaction of 2 waves Waves can interact to combine with each other, resulting into 1 composite form Reinforcing interaction = constructive interference Cancelling interaction = destructive interference Ex: light produces an interference pattern when paired through a double slit Ex: Crest & crest combine Ex: Crest & trough cancel out
Ionic Compounds: Metals
Ionic compounds result when metals react with nonmetals Metals LOSE electrons to match the number of valence electrons of their nearest noble gas Cations (positive ions) form when the number of electrons are less than the number of protons Group 1 Metals → ion ^1+ Group 2 Metals → ion ^2+ Group 13 Metals → ion ^3+ Examples: NaCl, CaCl2, K2O (cation is first)
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic, covalent, metallic
What does bonding achieve?
It lowers the potential energy of atoms, stabilizing them & giving them electron configurations similar to that of a noble gas (-)Potential energy = (+)stability Gives each atom an electron configuration similar to noble gases (Group 18: He, Ne, Ar)
Half-Life
The time for half of a radioactive nuclei in a given sample to undergo decay After 1 half life = 1/2 of original sample left Determines how unstable it is Helps find its age
Line-Emission Spectrum
The specific wavelengths of visible light produced when shining a light through a prism (violet, indigo, blue, green, red)
Formula/Relationship: Frequency & Wavelength
c = λν Speed of light 3.00 x 10^8 m/s = Wavelength x Frequency
Alpha Decay
Radioactive decay by emission of an alpha particle Mass Number - 4 Atomic Number - 2
Forces That Act on an Atom: Nuclear Force
"Strong Force" Keeps protons & neutrons bound in the nucleus Gets stronger as nucleons get closer Keeps nucleus of atoms together if protons have an electromagnetic repulsion
Convert: .00093 g/mL = g/L
(.00093g / 1mL) x (1000mL x 1L) .93 g/L
Dmitri Mendeleev
(1869) Created the first widely accepted version of the periodic table that had about 63 elements Grouped elements by increasing atomic mass & aligned them by similar chemical & physical properties with spaces in between uncommon ones Left blank spaces to add new elements After the discovery of Scandium (Sc), Gallium (Ga) & Germanium (Ge), it was noticed that Mendeleev's predictions are very close to their actual value & his table became generally accepted
Henry Moseley
(1913) By working with X-rays, he determined the actual nuclear charge (atomic number) of the elements Rearranged the elements in order of increasing atomic number (1887-1915) Died in WWI, 27 years old
Glenn T. Seaborg
(1944) After co-discovering 10 new elements, he moved 14 elements out of the main body of the periodic table to their current location below the Lanthanide series. This became the Actinide Series Got a Nobel Prize even though people didn't want him to change the table & is the only person alive to have an element named after him while still alive (Seaborgium, 106)
Convert: 23.4 dm = ? mm
(23.4dm / 1) x (100 mm / 1 dm) 2340 mm
Convert: 30 days = ? min
(30days / 1) x (24 hrs / 1 day) x (60min / 1hr) 43200 min
Precision & Scientific Notation: (6.0 x 10^-4) (7.345 x 10^8) / (5.23 x 10^6)
(44.07 x 10^4) / 5.23 x 10^6
Convert: 45 L = ? dm^3
(45L / 1) x (1dm^3 / 1L) 0.45 dm^3
Convert: 8.4 ft = ? mm (1in = 2.54cm)
(8.4ft / 1) x (12in / 1 ft) x (2.54cm / 1 in) x (10mm / 1cm) 2560.3 mm
Orbits
(Like planets) allowed paths in which the electron can circle the atom (2D Bohr Model)
Percent Error Formula
(Vtrue - Vexperiment) / Vtrue x 100
Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms: Valence Electrons
* VE = 1 - 8 * (I don't remember what I wrote this for) Groups 1-2: group # = VE Groups 13-18: group # - 10 = VE 8 is the max valence electrons from s & p (octet)
Sequence: Atomic Theory to Quantum Theory
*Bohr improved Rutherford's incomplete atomic model* (Rutherford only explained the nucleus & did not explain the electron) - *Bohr discovered "orbits"* (2D paths for hydrogen, but did not have other elements) - *Quantum model* (de Broglie, Heisenberg, Schrodinger) - *Explanation of "orbitals"* (3D regions where electrons may be found) - *Quantum numbers*
Chemical Property Examples?
*Flammability:* ability to catch on fire *Toxicity:* ability to be poisonous *Heat of Combustion:* amount of heat released when substance is completely burned *Reactivity:* what happens when a substance reacts to an x value *Oxidation:* combination of a substance with oxygen (In terms of vs rust, an ex: apple turning brown) *Rust:* corrosion of iron and iron alloys *Corrosion:* a corrosive substance that will destroy or irreversibly damage another surface
Why are intensive properties more useful to scientists than extensive properties?
*Intensive Properties:* do not depend on amount of matter present or amount of sample & do not change according to conditions (Ex: boiling point, density, state of matter, color, melting point, odor, temperature, refractive index, luster, hardness, ductility, malleability) *Extensive Properties:* depend amount of matter present, & can change according to sample size or conditions (Ex: volume, mass, size, weight, length)
Physical Property Examples?
*Melting Point:* temp. at which solid melts to liquid *Boiling Point:* temp. at which the vapor pressure is large enough that bubbles form inside the body of the liquid *Freezing Point:* temp. below at which liquid turns into solid *Conductivity:* transmission of heat/electricity/sound *Solubility:* ability to be dissolved/mixed into another *Viscosity:* resistance to flow/stickiness *Density:* measure of the relative "heaviness" of objects with a constant volume *Ductility:* easily pulled or stretched into thin wire *Color:* vividness of visual appearance *Luster:* shine or glow *Hardness:* rigid & resistant to pressure *Odor:* distinctive smell
Properties: Metal
*Melting/Boiling Point:* (Cu) Wide Range - most transition metals are high *Conductivity:* Very good *Ductility/Malleability:* Very good
Properties: Covalent
*Melting/Boiling Point:* (H20, CO2) Low *Conductivity:* Always poor *Ductility/Malleability:* Good
Properties: Ionic
*Melting/Boiling Point:* (NaCl) High *Conductivity:* 1. Solid = poor 2. Liquid = good 3. Solution = very good *Ductility/Malleability:* Poor/brittle
Ionic Compounds
*Nonmetals & metals*
Polar Compounds
*Nonmetals & nonmetals* or Metalloids & semiconductors
Physical property vs chemical property?
*Physical Properties:* properties that do not change the chemical nature of matter & can be seen without changing *Chemical Properties:* properties that do change the chemical nature of matter & can be seen with changing
A silver dollar has a mass of 26.73 grams. Convert this to kilograms, centigrams & milligrams 1 ounce = 28.35 grams
.02673 kg 2673 cg ? mg
Reasons For Metallic Properties
1. *Valence electrons are mobile,* as they are held very weakly by their nuclei (low ionization energy) 2. *D orbitals* have a lot of room to move around in It's a sea of freely flowing electrons held loosely by their nuclei
Dalton's Atomic Theory
1. All matter is composed of atoms 2. All atoms of the same element are identical; atoms of different elements have different properties 3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed *disproven by subatomic particles: proton, neutron & electron* 4. Atoms of different elements combined with simple whole number ratios to form chemical compounds *disproven by isotopes, which vary in neutrons* 5. In chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed (Law of Conservation of Mass)
You are to set up an experiment that will allow you to separate the following mixture: sand, iron filings, salt, & sawdust. Explain each separation technique & the property that allowed the substance to be separated
1. Because of magnetism, you should get a magnet to take away the *iron filings* 2. Dissolve *salt* into water so it is only water (would know it is there) 3. *Sawdust* would flow because of water & density 4. Strain/filter out *sand* 5. Boil & evaporate the water out of the *salt*
Atomic Theory: Pioneers
1. Dalton: introduced Dalton's atomic theory 2. Thompson: discovered electron by experimenting with cathode ray 3. Rutherford: discovered proton with gold foil experiment 4. Chadwick: discovered neutron, the particle with no charge 5. Millikan: determined charge to mass ratio of electron with oil drop experiment
2 Types of Attraction in Molecules
1. Int*ra*molecular Bonds: Ionic, non polar, covalent, polar covalent, metallic 2. Int*er*molecular Forces (IMF): Have to do with the attraction between molecules versus the attraction between atoms in a molecule, metal or compound (In order of decreasing strength, 3 IMFs are: H-bonding, Dipole-dipole & London Forces)
Scientists: Quantum Model
1. Werner Heisenberg: Uncertainty Principle (it is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position & velocity of an electron) 2. Louis de Broglie: Wave Properties of Matter (matter can exhibit wavelike behavior) 3. Erwin Schrödinger: 4 quantum numbers & came up with mathematical equations
Covalent Bonds: 2 Types
1. Nonpolar: Bonded atoms that share electrons equally. The same atoms are bonded (or very similar) Example: Cl—Cl = Cl2 2. Polar: Bonded atoms that don't share electrons equally. Different atoms bond Example: H—N—H (pretend there is another H atom bonded to N, underneath) = NH3
Quantum Numbers: 4 Types
1. Principal Quantum Number (n = 1, 2, 3... infinite) (distance from the nucleus) 2. Orbital/Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l = n-1 all integers below) (shape) 3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m*sub l = -l to +l, all the numbers in between) (orientation) 4. Spin Quantum Number (m*sub s = 1/2, -1/2) (spin direction)
Effective Nuclear Charge: 2 Factors
1. The distance the nucleus is from the valence electrons 2. Shielding: inner electrons that shield the nucleus from pull on valence electrons *Little shielding + little distances = decreases pull
Scientific Notation: 1.23
1.23 x 10^0
How many significant figures & round to 2 significant figures: 540000
2 5000
Diatomic Molecule
2 atoms of the same type of element forming a molecule 7 elements that form diatomic molecule (HOFNBriCl = "peanut brittle"): H, O, F, N, Br, I, Cl (H2, 02, F2, Br2, I2, Cl2)
Compound
2(+) different atoms chemically bonded together Form a different molecule/compound Chemical reaction occurs
Mixture
2(+) substances (elements, lattices, molecules, compounds) that are not chemically bonded together Each substance keeps its own properties & can be easily separated No chemical reaction occurs
Scientific Notation: 32000000
3.2 x 10^7
Precision & Scientific Notation: (4.26 x 10^12) x (5.4 x 10^-8)
23.004 x 10^4 2.3 x 10^5
The Eiffel Tower is 299.314 meters high. express this height in decameters, kilometers, centimeters & millimeters
2993 dm .2993 hm 29931.4 cm 299314 mm
How many significant figures & round to 2 significant figures: 0.000346
3 .00035
Precision & Scientific Notation: (9.31 x 10^13) / (3.1 x 10^6)
3.003 x 10^7 3.0 x 10^7
When a nurse says that a patient needs 400 cc's of fluid, what is she referring to?
400 mL of cm^3
Scientific Notation: 0.0000052
5.2 x 10^-6
Mendeleev's Table to Modern Table: Mendeleev Table
63 elements Left space for Scandium (Sc), Gallium (Ga) & Germanium (Ge)
A sample of aluminum has a mass of 8.4 grams. If it displaces 3.1 mL of water, what is its density? If the sample was cut exactly in half, what would the density be for half of this sample?
8.4g / 3.1mL = 2.7096774 2.7 g/mL Density would remain the same
Mendeleev's Table to Modern Table: Modern Table
90 elements 2 Groups of Later Additions: 14 Lanthanides & 3 Actinides (Rare Earth Elements) + Noble Gases = ("brings us to") 90 elements
Electron Sea
A "sea" of delocalized, mobile electrons which move freely about the metals network of empty atomic orbitals
Polyatomic Ion
A *group* of *covalently bonded* atoms that *has a charge*
Orbital
A 3D region around the nucleus that indicates the probable location of an electron
Electromagnetic Radiation
A form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space
Molecule
A group of neutral (no charge), covalently bonded atoms Examples: H2O, CO2, CH4, SO2 Nonpolar or polar Covalently bonded Covalent bonds form between nonmetals & nonmetals
Alpha Particle
A helium nucleus Has a charge of +2 Contains 2 protons & 2 neutrons Nucleus is stable Results in a decrease in mass number by 4 and a decrease in atomic number by 2 Stopped by paper Emission is the most massive (heaviest)
A molecule is __________ bonded
A molecule is *covalently* bonded Nonmetal & nonmetal
Heterogeneous Mixture
A non-uniform mixture of smaller constituent parts Can be separated from one another Consists of visibly different substances
Photon
A particle of electromagnetic radiation with no mass that carries a quantum of energy
Monatomic Ion
A single atom that forms from a charged particle Example: F^-1, Ca^+2, O^-2, Li^+1
Excited State
A state in which an atom has a higher potential energy than it has in its ground state
VSEPR
A theory that tells us that electron pairs align themselves as far away from each other as possible *V*alence *S*hell *E*lectron *P*air *R*epulsion
Intermolecular Forces: Hydrogen Bonding
A very strong type of dipole Dipole attraction is created when *F, O, or N are bonded to H (Because it bonds between strongest. All have highest/strongest electronegativities) They are given this special name (H-bonding) because compounds containing these forces are important in biological systems
Generic Formula
A, B, E *A*: Represents any central atom *B*: Represents the number of bonds around the central (double & triple bonds count as 1) *E*: Represents unshared pairs of electrons around the central atom Example: H2O would be AB2E2
Problem Solving: How do you find an element's group number using its noble gas notation?
Add all the electrons outside of the brackets
Problem Solving: Number of Valence Electrons
Add the number of electrons in the highest number energy levels VE = 1 - 8 (I don't remember what I wrote this for) Groups 1-2: group # = VE Groups 13-18: group # - 10 = VE 8 is the max valence electrons from s & p (octet)
If you had a mixture of cork & sand & they were both the same size particles, how would you separate these substances? What property would allow this?
Add water because density allows it to float. Then, filter out the sand
Boron Group (Group 13)
All have 3 valence electrons Change in properties (what)
Carbon Group (Group 14)
All have 4 valence electrons All living things have carbon in them
Nitrogen Group (Group 15)
All have 5 valence electrons Family includes nonmetals, metalloids & metals
Oxygen Group (Group 16)
All have 6 valence electrons
Electromagnetic Spectrum
All of the frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation All electromagnetic radiation moves at speed of light
Enthalapy of Vaporization
Amount of heat required to convert one mole of a metal to its vapor (+)Heat of vaporization = (+)strength of metallic bond
Chemical Bond
An attractive the force that holds atoms or ions together 3 types: ionic, covalent, metallic Bonds determine structure of the compound Structure affects properties (boiling point, conductivity)
Principles: Aufbau Principle
An electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it Diagonal Rule: chart including 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p... (inside out: left = lower, right = higher)
Stable Ion
An ion with a full energy sublevel When they want to get to its octet Example: Ca^+2
Black Body Radiation
An object heated & giving off light doesn't do it in a continuous way but in small packets of energy called photons (light is made of photons) This is where Ephoton = h x v comes from
Homogenous Mixture
Any combination of substances that has uniform composition and properties; a mixture that is uniform throughout One would not see different things
List the derived measurements with their respective units
Area - m^2 Volume - m^3 Density - kg/m^3
Electron Cloud
Area around nucleus of an atom where the atom's electrons are most likely to be found
Switches Between Mendeleev's & Moseley's Periodic Tables
Argon & Potassium (Ar & K) Cobalt & Nickel (Co & Ni) Tellurium & Iodine (Te & I) Thorium & Protactinium (Th & Pa)
Shielding
As more inner energy levels are added to atoms, the inner layers of electrons shield the outer electrons form the nucleus Effective nuclear charge (ENC) on outermost electrons (valence electrons) is less = outer electrons are less tightly held
1 amu
Atomic Mass Unit Exactly 1/12 the mass of a Carbon-12 atom
The first & most important elemental property is __________
Atomic radius
Isotope
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
What rule uses the chart with arrows?
Aufbau Principle's Diagonal Rule
Explain how basic units & derived are different & how they are alike
Base Measurements: Length, mass, time, amount/count of substance & temperature Derived Measurements: Area, density & volume Relationship: Need basic unit to measure derived Basic: get by 1 significant measure Derived: get by 2 or more basic measurements
What were the shortcomings of Bohr's model?
Bohr only experimented with hydrogen & he did not explore other elements
Bohr's Atomic Model vs Quantum Mechanical Model
Bohr's Atomic Model: (partially disproved) 1. Only accurate for hydrogen 2. Uses "orbit," says that electrons move in specific paths with different specific amounts of energy 3. 2 dimensional, only uses n=1, n=2, n=3 - Quantum Mechanical Model: 1. Applies to every element 2. Uses "orbitals," a 3 dimensional region of electrons 3. Includes 4 quantum numbers
How would you separate salt from the water in a sample of sea water?
Boil water first. They are only physically mixed & not chemically combined so this method is acceptable. Boil until it evaporates
Ionic Bond
Bond formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions Cation: Positive, lost electrons Anion: Negative, gained electrons Oppositely charged ions attract each other & form ionic bond Example: Na^+ + Cl^- = NaCl Electrons are transferred from one atom to another Negative ions attract more positive ions & a network is formed Ionic compounds result when metals react with nonmetals
Semiconductors
Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium
Criteria that determines if a substance is considered a pure substance?
Can't be separated Can't be decomposed by ordinary means
What is used as the standard to determine relative atomic mass? What are the units used when talking about a single atom or molecule?
Carbon-12 is standard Atomic mass units (amu)
Name at least 2 isotopes that are useful to us & why
Carbon-12: standard for finding atomic mass Carbon-14: carbon dating
Atomic Nucleus
Center of atom Central part of atom that contains both protons & neutrons
Physical change or chemical change? A tree is chopped down
Chemical Alive tree will begin to decompose
Physical change or chemical change? Leaves changing color in the fall
Chemical Chemicals change in leaves, as nutrients drain into tree's branches, trunk, & roots for winter storage, causing the leaves to stop producing the green pigment in chlorophyll
Physical change or chemical change? Gasoline is burned in a car engine
Chemical Combustion of gasoline makes water and carbon dioxide Chemical bonds are being broken
Physical change or chemical change? Iron nail rusts in water
Chemical Iron is oxidized (iron oxide) Turns into a compound
If you leave an apple slice on the counter, it reacts with the air & turns brown. Is this a physical change or a chemical change? Why?
Chemical The apple reacts with oxygen due to oxidation & reactivity
Plants use carbon dioxide, water, & sunlight to produce their food. Is this a physical or chemical change? Why? What is the process called?
Chemical Change Photosynthesis Water + carbon dioxide = glucose & oxygen (new chemical species are formed)
Gold coins have been known to lie on the bottom of the ocean unchanged by the environment for hundreds of years after a shipwreck. Would this be a physical or chemical property? Why?
Chemical Property In terms of reactivity, it does not react
Covalent Bond
Chemical bond where 2 atoms share a pair of valence electrons Can be single, double, or triple bond (Single: 2 electrons, double: 4 electrons, triple: 6 electrons) Molecules are always covalently bonded *Always formed between nonmetals* Lower melting points 2 Types: 1. Nonpolar: Bonded atoms that share electrons equally. The same atoms are bonded (or very similar) Example: Cl—Cl = Cl2 2. Polar: Bonded atoms that don't share electrons equally. Different atoms bond Example: H—N—H (pretend there is another H atom bonded to N, underneath)= NH3
Aristotle's Theory
Classical elements were air, water, fire & earth ("the elements alone or combined make up everything") There are very few elements that don't combine
Octet Rule
Completely filled s & p orbital (valence electrons) = 8VE. Very stable & unreactive Exception is helium (1s) because there is no p - its s is filled & it is stable with 2 (full!) (helium is most stable & unreactive)
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? CH4
Compound
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Ethyl Alcohol
Compound
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Water
Compound
________ (compounds/mixtures) can be broken down into simpler substances only by chemical change
Compounds
Compounds & mixtures can both be broken down into simpler substances. Explain how this happens for each type of matter
Compounds decompose (chemical change) with the use of heat & mixtures can be separated using filtration (separation by particle size), vaporization (separation by boiling/etc), floatation (separation of solids by different densities), magnetism (separation by magnetic field attractions, "pulled" out of mixture), mechanical separation (separation by hand or tool if large enough), paper chromatography (for mixtures that have components that "stick" to materials in different ways, separation by inner molecular attractions)
Wave
Continuous & has a form or pattern Described by a few properties with dimensions: wavelength (length of 1 cycle), frequency (how often wave crest passes) & amplitude (height above "rest position" Light is a part of electromagnetic spectrum
Molecules are __________
Covalent
Polyatom
Covalently bonded large share atoms
If a block of stainless steel has a mass of 400g & measures 4cm by 4cm by 3cm, what would its density be? If the block was cut exactly in half, what would be the density of each piece?
Density = mass / volume D = 400 / 4 x 4 x 3 D = 400g / 48 D = 8.3g / mL If you cut a block of stainless steel in half, you would have two bars with half the mass of the original bar The density of stainless steel does not change
Calculate the density of a piece of wood if it has a mass of 750 grams & dimensions of 12cm x 0.6cm x 1.8cm
Density = mass / volume D = 750g / 12.96cm 57.87g / mL or 60 g/mL Same
Why is density such an important measurement in chemistry? When the density of a substance is compared to water what can that tell us?
Density is an intensive property It tells whether an object will float or sink
Quantum Theory
Describes mathematically the wave properties of electrons & other very small particles
Stanislao Cannizzaro
Developed a method that led to the determination of standard relative atomic masses
Periodic Table: Blocks
Diagram
Electron Dot Diagram
Diagram that uses the element symbol to represent the nucleus & inner electrons. Dots surrounding the symbol represent the valence electrons
Lewis Structure
Diagram using electron dot notation for molecules. Element symbol represents the nucleus & all inner electrons. Dots between atoms (or dash) are shared by each other. Electrons not shared are shown as dots Center element should be the one that needs to gain the most valence electrons to fulfill octet Single Bond: 1 shared pair of electrons (dash = 2 electrons) Double Bond: 2 shared pairs of electrons Triple Bond: 3 shared pairs of electrons Dashes in the center = 2 electrons Outside dashes = 1 electron Example: H2O
Helium
Does not have 8 valence electrons In Group 18 (noble gas) because it's extremely stable
Filtration is a separation technique often used. Give a minimum of 3 ways it's used every day life
Drinking Water: every day water is filtered out from lead & other wastes Pasta: boiled in water until water is filtered out using a drain Sunglasses: the light from the sun is limited in ways that the glasses protect you/filter out UV rays
Quantum Mechanical Model
Electrons are located in specific energy levels No exact path around the nucleus Region = orbital The model estimates the probability of finding an electron in a certain position
Valence Electrons
Electrons that are lost, gained, or shared in chemical bonding (Location) Electrons in the highest principle quantum number (highest energy level) Create bonds
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Gold
Element
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Mercury
Element
Anion Names
Element - last 3-4 letters + ide Flouride, Oxide, Nitride What does this even mean
Isotope Notation: Hyphen-Method
Element-(fill in element's mass number here)
________ (elements/compounds) are pure substances that cannot be broken down further
Elements
Is a mixture a pure substance? Why/why not?
Elements & compounds are always the same but not in a mixture. Mixtures are physically mixed & are not chemically combined Can be chemically separated
When is a sample of matter considered a pure substance?
Elements & compounds. When it cannot be broken down into simpler, stable substances & is made of 1 type of atom
Are elements & compounds pure substances? Why/why not?
Elements are pure substances because they are made of only one type of atom Pure substances are joined chemically. Water, a compound, is composed of two different elements, which are pure substances, an oxygen chemically bonded to two hydrogen atoms Elements & compounds are always the same
Reactive Elements
Elements that are reactive bond easily with other elements to make compounds Incomplete valence electron level All atoms want to have 8 electrons in outmost energy level (octet rule) Atoms bond until level is complete (few valence electrons lose them during bonding, 6, 7, or 8 gain)
Element vs compound?
Elements: cannot be broken down Compounds: can be broken down by chemical processes
The Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it only changes form
Lattice Energy
Energy given off when 1 mole of an ionic compound forms (+)Energy = (+)strength of bond
Bond Energy
Energy needed to break a molecular compound Shorter bond = (+)energy needed Example: Breaking a stick is harder when it's short
Ionization Energy
Energy needed to remove an electron from an atom Measured in kilojoules (KJ) A(atom) + energy → A(atom)^+ + electron The atom has been ionized or charged Represents noble gases Does not represent f & d blocks
Formula/Relationship: Energy of a Photon
Ephoton = hv Ephoton = Planck's Constant, 6.626 x 10^-34 J/s x Frequency
What groups or blocks are missing on both?
F & d blocks Rare earth metals (Lanthanides & Actinides) & transition metals
Electronegativity Difference Between Different Atoms Bonded Together (Ionic, Polar, or Nonpolar)
Find the difference between elements using their electronegativity & categorize: I, P or NP Nonpolar: 0 to 0.3 Polar: 0.3 to 1.7 Ionic: 1.7 to 3.3 Polar & ionic are covalent
Group 13-16 are named after their __________
First element Group 13: Boron Group Group 14: Carbon Group Group 15: Nitrogen Group Group 16: Oxygen Group
Molecular Formula
Formula showing the number & types of elements that are covalently bonded
Alkali Metals
Group 1 1 valence electron Never found pure in nature (always bonded with another element) Shiny, soft, very low density, very low melting point in pure state Most reactive of metals Reacts violently with water (explodes & catches on fire) Example: sodium
Halogens
Group 17 Right before noble gases 7 valence electrons To stabilize to octet, they gain 1 electron Most active nonmetals Never found alone in nature Very aggressive & reactive Reacts with alkali metals to make salts All nonmetals Bromine is the only nonmetal liquid at room temperature & mercury is the only metal at room temperature Example: Fluorine, chlorine, bromine
Noble Gases
Group 18 All colorless, odorless gases Extremely unreactive Inactive because their outermost energy level is full Do not readily combine with other elements to combine as compounds so they are called inert All are found in small amounts on earth's atmosphere Much more unreactive than transition metals Argon is used a lot, #3 in the atmosphere
Alkaline Earth Metals
Group 2 2 valence electrons Never found pure in nature Harder, denser, higher melting temperatures than Alkali Metals Example: magnesium, calcium
Transition Metals
Groups 3-12 Largest group Entire d-block 1-4 valence electrons lost in bonding Good conductors of heat & electricity (metallic properties) Some can be found pure in nature (unreactive, Au, Ag, Cu, Co) Compounds are usually brightly colored & often used in color paints Least reactive metals, greatest density, hardest & highest melting temperatures Many combine with oxygen to form compounds called oxides (corrosion = presence of water/moisture weakens metals themselves) Example: copper, zinc, gold, nickel, silver, iron (copper, gold & silver can be found alone)
Diatomic Molecule: 7 Elements
H, O, F, N, Br, I, Cl (H2, 02, F2, Br2, I2, Cl2) Think: HOFNBriCl = "peanut brittle"
Covalent Radius
Half the distance between the nuclei of 2 bonded atoms Atomic radii are usually measured in picketers (pm) 1 x 10^-12m, or angstroms (Å) 1 x 10^-10m Example: 2 Br atoms bonded together are 2.85 angstroms apart, so the radium of each atom is 1.43 Å
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Carbonated Beverage
Heterogeneous
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Raisin Bran
Heterogeneous
Beta Particle
High-speed electron emitted in the decay of a radioactive isotope Has a charge of -1 Results in same mass number & an increase in atomic number by 1 Stopped by aluminum foil Emission is the most charged
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Air
Homogeneous
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Milk
Homogeneous
Element, compound, heterogenous mixture, or homogenous mixture? Stainless Steel
Homogeneous
Periodic Table: Periods
Horizontal row Left & right
Malleability
How metals can't be broken even when molded/bent into different shapes Electrons allow atoms to slide by The ability of a metal to be hammered into shape
What rule can be described as electrons not liking each other so they spread out whenever they can?
Hund's Rule
What has to happen for visible light to be emitted from a tube of hydrogen gas?
Hydrogen gas must be excited by heat or electricity
How can you tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar using its generic formula?
If the difference in electronegativity for the atoms in a bond is greater than 0.4 OR find its geometry/shape Is it symmetrical? If so, it is nonpolar *Linear* SYMMETRICAL - nonpolar Bent/Angular - polar *Trigonal Planar* SYMMETRICAL - nonpolar Trigonal Pyramidal - polar *Tetrahedron* SYMMETRICAL - nonpolar
Hydrogen
In Group 1, but it is not a metal Unique element Gas at room temperature Has 1 proton & 1 electron in its one & ONLY energy level Needs 1 more electron to fill its valence shell / s orbital 1 valence electron
Ionic Compounds: Nonmetals
In ionic compounds, nonmetals in 15, 16 & 17 gain electrons from metals Anions (negatively charged) → nonmetals add electrons to achieve octet Hydrogen is an exception Nonmetal ionic charge: 3-, 2-, or 1- Electrostatic Attraction: Between atoms of metals & nonmetals with very different electronegativity, formed by transfer of electron Examples: NaCl, CaCl2, K2O 1. Opposite charges 2. Electrostatic Attraction 3. Very structured arrangement
3 Intermolecular Forces
In order of DECREASING strength 1. H-Bonding (Hydrogen Bonding) 2. Dipole-Dipole 3. London Forces
In the Lewis Structure, dashes in the center equal __________ & outside dashes equal __________
In the Lewis Structure, dashes in the *center equal 2 electrons* & *outside dashes equal 1 electron*
Formula/Relationship: l, Sublevel & Shape
In the order of l, sublevel & shape 0, s, sphere 1, p, dumbell 2, d, flower 3, f, complex 4, g
Quantum Numbers: Principle Quantum Number
Indicates main energy level n = 1, 2, 3... infinite Describes how large a region is & proximity to nucleus Each main energy level has sublevels
Quantum Numbers: Orbital/Angular Momentum Quantum Number
Indicates shape of orbital sublevels l = n - 1 is directly connected to principal quantum
Quantum Numbers: Magnetic Quantum Number
Indicates the orientation of the orbital in space Values of m'sub l integers from -l to l Number of values = number of orbitals Ex: for l = 2, m'sub l is m'sub l = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
Crystal Lattice Structure
Lattice Structure/Crystal Lattice A rigid framework of ions Caused by strong attraction between each other (ions) Example: cubes, hexagons, tetrahedrons
Period Trends: Atomic Radii, Ionization Energy & Electronegativity
Left to right → (-)Atomic radii (AR) (+)Ionization energy (IE) (+)Electronegativity (EN)
Bond Length
Length of the covalent bond formed between atoms Shorter bond = (+)energy needed Example: Breaking a stick is harder when it's short
Structural Formula
Lewis Structure that only shows the bonds Example: C3H8 Isomer: The same element, but rearranged
Forces That Act on an Atom: Electrostatic Force
Like charges repel & opposite charges attract Holds electrons from flying out in atom Effect is decreased by nuclear force in the nucleus
Problem Solving: How do you find an element's block using its noble gas notation?
Look for the letter of the highest energy level (highest energy level will always be the last level in the notation)
Problem Solving: How do you find an element's period number using its noble gas notation?
Look for the number of the highest energy level (highest energy level will always be the last level in the notation)
Metallic Properties
Malleability Ductility Luster Good conductors of heat & electricity in both solids & liquids
The Law of Conservation of Mass
Mass is neither created nor destroyed during ordinary chemical reactions or physical changes
Problem Solving: How do you find the number of neutrons?
Mass number - atomic number = number of neutrons
Isotope Notation: Nuclear Symbol
Mass number at the top, atomic number at the bottom & element on the right side
Mass Number vs Average Atomic Mass
Mass number is the number of protons & neutrons Average atomic mass is the average mass of all the isotopes of a certain type (weighted average that takes into account the abundances of all of the different isotopes) Weighted average uses the relative abundance ( out of 1, not 100) Out of 100 is a %
Compare & contrast mass & weight
Mass: measure of how much matter is in a substance & never changes Weight: measure of gravitational pull & can change depending on pull
Electronegativity
Measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons Fluorine (F) is highest (king of the hill) Cesium is lowest (Cs) Does not represent noble gases or f & d blocks
If the nucleus was the size of a marble, how big would the outside edge of the atom be? What does most of an atom consist of?
Met stadium parking lot Empty space (absolutely nothing)
Give the 5 basic unites of measurements used in chemistry in the SI system, what quantity is being measured, the symbol & what is used to measure each
Meter - (m) - Length Kilogram - (kg) - Mass Second - (s) - Time Mole - (mol) - Amount/Count Kelvin - (°K) - Temperature
Intermolecular Forces: Dipole-Dipole Attractions
Molecules have a separation of charge Happens in BOTH ionic & polar bonds (+)Electronegativity = (+)strength of dipole *Molecules are attracted to each other in a compound by these positive & negative forces. If not, all molecules would be gases* Molecules add up * stick together when negative attracts to positive
Ionic Radii: Anion
Negative, gains 1 or more electrons Anion is always LARGER than parent atom
Electron
Negatively charged subatomic particle
Neutron
Neutrally charged subatomic particle Inside nucleus of an atom
Principles: Pauli Exclusion Principle
No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers
The sodium atom has 11 electrons. If the outermost electron is in the 4s orbital, would this atom be considered in the ground state?
No, the outermost should have been 3s^1 (lowest state), but because it continued to move up to 4s^1, the atom is in the excited state
What group is represented on ionization energy but not on electronegativity?
Noble gases are not in electronegativity
Why are the noble gases used for shortcut notation?
Noble gases are stable & nonreactive (helium is the most stable & unreactive) Each one completes an energy level
__________ is the only nonmetal liquid at room temperature __________ is the only metal liquid at room temperature
Nonmetal: bromine Metal: mercury (cohesion = sticks to itself)
Nonmetals __________ to achieve octet Metals __________ to achieve octet
Nonmetals *gain* to achieve octet Metals *lose* to achieve octet
Gamma Rays
Not charged particles like alpha & beta Electromagnetic radiation with high frequency
Why are some isotopes unstable?
Nucleus is too big, as there are too many protons & neutrons Increasing distance between proton (+)nuclear force increases = (-)electrostatic = (-)stability & strength Typically heavier isotopes
Mass Number
Number of protons & neutrons combined
Nuclear Charge
Number of protons = atomic number in the nucleus Size of nucleus What holds electrons from zipping out (electrostatic force)
Atomic Number
Number of protons in an element
Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms: Electron Configuration Notation (ECN)
Orbital notation but replaces arrows with superscripts
Sublevels
Orbitals of different shapes
Principles: Hund's Rule
Orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any pairing occurs Electrons will spread out if they can without going to a higher energy orbital (Electrons will have the same spin direction in each of the orbitals they occupy individually)
Problem Solving: How do you find the amount of a radioisotope remaining after decay if the number of half-lives is given?
Original amount of radioisotope * (0.5^# of half-lives)
Problem Solving: How do you find the amount of a radioisotope remaining after decay if the number of half-lives is not given?
Original amount of radioisotope x 0.5^(time passed / half-life length)
Elements in the same column have the same __________
Outer shell electron configuration (valence electrons) Picture: periodic table energy levels (Aufbau)
Wave-Particle Duality: Characteristics
Particle: 1. Photoelectric Effect 2. Black Body Radiation - Wave: 1. Diffraction 2. Interference of matter waves 3. Continuous 4. Wavelength & frequency
What rule can be compared to no 2 people having the same fingerprints?
Pauli Exclusion Principle
Physical change or chemical change? Paper is cut into small pieces
Physical It is still paper, at different sizes & shapes
Physical change or chemical change? You sharpen your pencil
Physical Pencil stays the same
Physical change or chemical change? Gaseous CO2 is made a solid
Physical Phase change, not composition change
Physical change or chemical change? Water boiling
Physical Phase change, the water is changing forms & becomes water vapor but it is still water
You drop a glass on the floor & it breaks into tiny pieces. Is this a physical change or a chemical change? Why? Name physical properties & chemical properties of the glass
Physical The glass did not change into new substance, it just changed shape & broke apart, nonetheless still glass Physical Properties: hardness, texture, transparency Chemical Property: brittle, not reactive to most substances
Physical change or chemical change? Dissolving sugar in water
Physical They do not chemically combine to form a new substance
Ionic Radii: Cation
Positive, lose 1 or more electrons Cation is always SMALLER than parent atom
Proton
Positively charged subatomic particle Inside nucleus of atom
Explain the difference between precise measurements and accurate measurements. Give an example of each
Precise: how close values are together Ex: three arrows hitting a similar area on a target consecutively, though may not be bulls-eye Accurate: how close value is to accepted value Ex: arrow hitting bulls-eye on target
Radioactive Decay
Process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation in the form of a particles or electromagnetic waves Elements that undergo this process are called radio types or radioactive nuclides
Why is the proton used to identify an atom & not the other subatomic particles? What is this identifier called?
Proton, because it directly connects to its atomic number. When you change the number of protons, you also change the element completely Identifier: Atomic number
Why don't atoms have a charge?
Protons & electrons have equal but opposite charges. Therefore, they cancel out
In a ________ (pure substance/mixture) all samples of matter have the same properties
Pure substance
Compare qualitative and quantitative measurements. Give an example of each & an advantage of each
Qualitative: describe without numbers Ex: "the sky is blue" (+)used by senses = quick & easy to use Quantitative: describe with numerical values Ex: the amount of mass is a single grape (+)numerical value = exact & reliable
Intermolecular Forces: London Dispersion
Question: Nonpolar molecules do not have dipoles like polar molecules. How then, can non polar compounds form solids or liquids? London forces (Van der Waals forces) are due to small dipoles that exist in nonpolar molecules Because electrons are moving around in atoms, there will be instances when the change around an atom is not symmetrical; The resulting *tiny, temporary dipoles cause attractions between atoms/molecules* (+)MASS = (+)LONDON FORCES (+)Intermolecular forces = (+)melting & boiling point (the more energy it takes to overcome them)
Beta Decay
Radioactive decay in which a beta particle is emitted Occurs when neutron changes into a proton & electron As a result, the nucleus has one less neutron, but one extra proton Mass number stays the same Atomic number increases by 1
Gamma Decay
Radioactive decay where atom releases gamma rays
Visible Spectrum
Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet (ROYGBIV)
Problem Solving: How do you find the number of electrons?
Refer to the number of protons. The number of protons is equivalent to the number of electrons
Network
Repeating pattern of multiple ions Example: NaCl Every Na ion is next to 6 Cl ions
What were the shortcomings of Rutherford's model?
Rutherford only explained the nucleus & did not explain the electron
Formula/Relationship: Diagonal Rule Key (Orientations)
S = 1 orientation P = 3 orientations D = 5 orientations F = 7 orientations
Explain why a beaker containing sand & water is a mixture although sand itself is a pure substance
Sand & water do not mix smoothly enough to form a new substance. They just stay in the beaker together (They retain their own identities & properties, & are not chemically combined)
Mendeleev's Predicted Elements
Scandium (Sc), Gallium (Ga) & Germanium (Ge)
Scientists: Packet of Energy Called a Quantum
Schrödinger
Number of Elements Today
Scientists have identified 90 natural naturally occurring elements & made 28 synthetic
Relationships: Bond Energy & Bond Length
Shorter bond = (+)energy needed Example: Breaking a stick is harder when it's short Inversely proportional
Formula Unit
Simplest whole number ratio of cations to anions in an ionic compound Example: NaCl, CaF2
Ionic Radii
Size of an ion Cation: Positive, lose 1 or more electrons Anion: Negative, gains 1 or more electrons
Electron Shell
Specific area where electrons of the same energy level are found
Quantum Numbers: Overview
Specify the properties of atomic orbitals & the properties of electrons in orbitals Describe atomic orbitals & electrons in atoms Similar to an address (n, l, m'subscript l, m'subscript s)
Formula/Relationship: Shape Orientations
Sphere = 1 orientation Dumbell = 3 orientations Flower = 5 orientations Complex = 7 orientations
Why are standards important in measurement? What are the standards of each of the SI measurements?
Standard units are forever: they will be used thousands of years from now & are therefore reliable & greatly agreed upon Length - Meter Mass - Kilogram Time - Second Amount/Count - Mole Temperature - Kelvin
__________ determine the amount of periods
Sublevels (s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14) *THIS IS SUPER COOL, CHECK THE BLOCKS*
Element
Substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means Composed of atoms that have the same atomic number (each atom has the same number of protons in its nucleus as all other atoms of that element)
Speed of Light
Symbol: (c) 3.00 x 10^8 m/s All electromagnetic radiation moves at speed of light
Planck's Constant
Symbol: (h) 6.626 x 10^-34 J/s
Wavelength
Symbol: (λ) The distance between corresponding points on adjacent waves Inverse relationship with frequency
Frequency
Symbol: (ν= Greek letter Nu) The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time Inverse relationship with wavelength
The __________ intermolecular forms are, the __________ the melting & boiling point
The *stronger* intermolecular forms are, the *higher* the melting & boiling point (the more energy it takes to overcome them)
Ductility
The ability of a metal to be drawn into wire
Mendeleev's Table to Modern Table: In Between
The addition of 27 elements (Duh) (63 + 27 = 90)
Electron Configuration
The arrangement of electrons in an atom
Refraction/Diffraction (?)
The bending of a wave as it moves around an obstacle or passes through a narrow opening due to change of speed Example: bending spoon illusion, white light
Radius
The distance from the center of the nucleus to the edge of the electron cloud Since a cloud's edge is difficult to define, scientists use covalent radius
Continuous Spectrum
The emission of a continuous range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
The Photoelectric Effect
The emission of electrons from a metal when light shines on the metal Einstein
Ground State
The lowest energy state of an atom
Why is the mass number an integer & average atomic mass a decimal?
The mass number is the number of protons & neutrons, which come in whole numbers & average atomic mass is the weighted average of all the different isotopes
Quantum
The minimum amount of energy that can be gained or lost by an atom
Periodic Law
The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (mass during Mendeleev's time), their physical & chemical properties show a predictable periodic pattern The properties of yet undiscovered elements can be predicted based on their apparent location on the periodic table (columns) The recurring pattern of trends in the periodic table makes the periodic table periodic. As you go through a column, you'll see that there is a recurring pattern in their physical & chemical properties. You can also predict what other elements the element can chemically react with
The Law of Definite Proportions
The proportion of elements in any compound is always the same
Effective Nuclear Charge
The pull that an electron feels from the nucleus How the pull is acting (-)Distance to nucleus (closer) = (+)pull it feels (+)Effective nuclear charge = (+)tighter the electron cloud is pulled Effective nuclear charge (ENC) on outermost electrons (valence electrons) is less = outer electrons are less tightly held 2 Factors: 1. The distance the nucleus is from the valence electrons 2. Shielding: inner electrons that shield the nucleus from pull on valence electrons *Little shielding + little distances = decreases pull
Why makes the periodic table periodic?
The recurring pattern of trends in the periodic table makes the periodic table periodic. As you go through a column, you'll see that there is a recurring pattern in their physical & chemical properties. You can also predict what other elements the element can chemically react with by just its location
Isomer
The same element, but rearranged Structural formula
Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms: Exceptions in Notations
These elements will want to become as stable as possible, so it possible for an extra arrow to shift into the next energy level; arrow shifts to the next energy sublevel because shells want to be either half filled or completely full Exceptions: Cr(24), Cu(29) & Ag(47)
Why do atoms bond?
To form a full octet, or fill the outermost energy level through gaining, losing, or sharing electrons Exception: Helium has 1 electron & will want 2 = duet Noble gases don't bond because they already have octet
Hertz (Hz)
Unit of frequency, = waves/second
Group Trends: Atomic Radii, Ionization Energy & Electronegativity
Up to down ↓ (+)Atomic radii (AR) (-)Ionization energy (IE) (-)Electronegativity (EN)
How do you know which element to put in the center of the Lewis Structure?
Use the element that needs to gain the most valence electrons to fulfill octet
Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms: Noble Gas Notation
Uses a noble gas in brackets to show the inner electrons & then the remaining electrons are shown in regular ECN notation Choice of noble gas must be the nearest atomic number to the element & should be slightly smaller than it
Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms: Orbital Notation
Uses blanks to represent orbitals & arrows to represent electrons
Periodic Table: Groups
Vertical columns (families) Up & down
Metallic Bonding
Very few metals can be found in nature alone (gold, silver, copper) Occurs between like atoms of a metal in the free state (not in compound, pure) Example: zinc atoms, silver atoms Reasons For Their Properties: 1. *Valence electrons are mobile,* as they are held very weakly by their nuclei (low ionization energy) 2. *D orbitals* have a lot of room to move around in It's a sea of freely flowing electrons held loosely by their nuclei
Water & gasoline are mixed together. How would you separate these 2 liquids? What property/properties make this possible?
Water is less dense so it would rise. Gas & water do not mix, so you can boil the mixture & wait for the water to vaporize
If a person was standing at sea level then traveled to top of Mt. Everest, what would change: the person's mass or weight? Why?
Weight Gravitational pull is not always the same Mass is not affected
Emission
When an electron falls from a higher energy level to a lower energy level & a photon is emitted Energy of each absorbed or emitted photon corresponds to a particular frequency, which is where we get Ephoton = h x v (used for particles) Electrons move down = emit Opposite: absorption
Why is it better to organize the periodic table by atomic number & not atomic mass?
When changing an atomic number (number of protons/electrons), you completely change the element. Because the atomic number never changes, it is more useful in regards to organization. In addition, the different isotopes of an element create overlaps when based on atomic mass
Absorption
When energy is added & an electron moves from a lower energy level to a higher energy level Energy of each absorbed or emitted photon corresponds to a particular frequency, which is where we get Ephoton = h x v Electrons move up = absorb Opposite: emission
What is the photoelectric effect & how does it help support the particle characteristics of light?
When light hits metal, electrons are released, showing it takes a certain amount of energy to excite electrons, which is done using photons that each have a quantum of energy
S Block
Who has the time to read this
2nd Ionization Energy
Will take an ion & add energy to remove a second electron A^+ + energy → A^+2 + electron This process can continue until the ion reaches stability (+)Larger atom = (+)Ease for electrons to move
If x-rays have shorter waves compared to microwaves, why are we more concerned with the former than the latter?
X-rays have shorter waves, but higher frequency, which means that they have a high amount of energy Microwaves have longer waves, but have lower frequency, which means that they have a lower amount of energy (Wavelength & frequency have an inverse relationship = high energy is bad)
Problem Solving: Determine Group, Period & Block of [Ar(18)]4s^2-3d^10-4p^5
[Ar(18)]*4*s^2-3d^10-*4*p^5 Group 17 (add all electrons outside of brackets) Period *4* (highest energy level number) P block (highest energy level letter)
Problem Solving: Determine Group, Period & Block of [Kr(36)]5s^2-4d^10
[Kr(36)]*5*s^2-4d^10 Group 12 (add all electrons outside of brackets) Period *5* (highest energy level number) D block (highest energy level letter)
Problem Solving: Determine Group, Period & Block of [Xe(54)]6s^1
[Xe(54)]*6*s^1 Group 1 (add all electrons outside of brackets) Period *6* (highest energy level number) S block (highest energy level letter)
Formula/Relationship: n & l
l = n - 1
Formula/Relationship: Total Number of Orbitals
n^2
Formula/Relationship: Total Number of Electrons In Energy Level
n^2 x 2