chicago manual of style

pronouns

5.27: Pronouns defined A pronoun is a word used as a substitute for a noun or, sometimes, another pronoun. It is used in one of two ways. (1) A pronoun may substitute for an expressed noun or pronoun, especially to avoid needless repetition. For example, most of the nouns in the sentence The father told the father's daughter that the father wanted the father's daughter to do some chores can be replaced with pronouns (his, he, and her): The father told his daughter that he wanted her to do some chores. (2) A pronoun may also stand in the place of an understood noun. For example, if the person addressed has been identified elsewhere, the question Susan, are you bringing your boots? can be more simply stated as Are you bringing your boots? And in the sentence It is too hot, the indefinite it is understood to mean the temperature (of something). There are also a few word pairs, such as each other, one another, and no one, that function as pronouns. These are called phrasal pronouns. 5.28: Antecedents of pronouns A pronoun typically refers to an antecedent—that is, an earlier noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause in the same or in a previous sentence. Pronouns with antecedents are called anaphoric pronouns. (Anaphora refers to the use of a word or phrase to refer to or replace one used earlier.) An antecedent may be explicit or implicit, but it should be clear. Miscues and ambiguity commonly arise from (1) a missing antecedent (as in The clown's act with his dog made it a pleasure to watch, where it is intended to refer to the circus, which is not explicitly mentioned in the context); (2) multiple possible antecedents (as in Scott visited Eric after his discharge from the army, where it is unclear who was discharged—Eric or Scott); and (3) multiple pronouns and antecedents in the same sentence (e.g., When the bottle is empty or the baby stops drinking, it must be sterilized with hot water because if it drinks from a dirty bottle, it could become ill—where one hopes that the hot-water sterilization is for the bottle). 5.29: Adjective as antecedent A pronoun normally requires a noun or another pronoun as its antecedent. And because possessives function as adjectives, some writers have argued that possessives should not serve as antecedents of pronouns used in the nominative or objective case. But compare Mr. Blain's background qualified him for the job with Mr. Blain had a background that qualified him for the job. Not only is the identity of "him" perfectly clear in either construction, but the possessive in the first—a usage blessed by respected authorities—makes for a more economical sentence. 5.30: Pronouns without antecedents Some pronouns do not require antecedents. The first-person pronouns I and we (as well as me and us) stand for the speaker or a group that includes the speaker, so they almost never have an antecedent. Similarly, the second-person pronoun you usually needs no antecedent {are you leaving?}, although one is sometimes supplied in direct address {Katrina, do you need something?}. Expletives such as there and it (some of which are pronouns) have no antecedents {it is time to go} {this is a fine mess} (see 5.239-41). And the relative pronoun what and the interrogative pronouns (who, which, what) never take an antecedent {who cares what I think?}. In colloquial usage, they often appears without an antecedent {they say she's a good golfer}, though skeptical listeners and readers may want to know who "they" are. 5.31: Four properties of pronouns A pronoun has four properties: number, person, gender, and case (see 5.17-22). A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person, and gender. (This is called pronoun-antecedent agreement.) But only the third-person singular (he, she, it) is capable of indicating all three. Some pronouns can show only number—first-person singular and plural (I, we) and third-person plural. The second-person pronoun (you) indicates person only: it is no longer capable of showing singular or plural, since the form is the same for both in Modern English. First- and third-person personal pronouns (except it), who, and whoever can show nominative and objective case (I, me; we, us; he, him; she, her; they, them; who, whom; whoever, whomever); possessive pronouns represent the genitive case. 5.32: Pronoun number and antecedent A pronoun's number is guided by that of its antecedent or referent—that is, a singular antecedent takes a singular pronoun of the same person as the antecedent, and a plural antecedent takes a plural pronoun of the same person as the antecedent {a book and its cover} {the dogs and their owner}. A collective noun takes a singular pronoun if the members are treated as a unit {the audience showed its appreciation} but a plural if they act individually {the audience rushed back to their seats}. A singular noun that is modified by two or more adjectives to denote different varieties, uses, or aspects of the object may take a plural pronoun {British and American writing differ in more ways than just their spelling [here, writing may be thought of as an elided noun after British]}. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns that are joined by and are taken jointly and referred to by a plural pronoun {the boy and girl left their bicycles outside}. 5.33: Exceptions regarding pronoun number and antecedent: There are several refinements to the rules stated in 5.32: (1) When two or more singular antecedents denote the same thing and are connected by and, the pronoun referring to the antecedents is singular {a lawyer and role model received her richly deserved recognition today}. (2) When two or more singular antecedents are connected by and and modified by each, every, or no, the pronoun referring to the antecedents is singular {every college and university encourages its students to succeed}. (3) When two or more singular antecedents are connected by or, nor, either-or, or neither-nor, they are treated separately and referred to by a singular pronoun {neither the orange nor the peach smells as sweet as it should}. (4) When two or more antecedents of different numbers are connected by or or nor, the pronoun's number agrees with that of the nearest (usually the last) antecedent. If possible, cast the sentence so that the plural antecedent comes last {neither the singer nor the dancers have asked for their paychecks}. (5) When two or more antecedents of different numbers are connected by and, they are referred to by a plural pronoun regardless of the antecedents' order {the horses and the mule kicked over their water trough}. 5.34: Pronoun with multiple antecedents: When a pronoun has two or more antecedents that differ from the pronoun in person, and the antecedents are connected by and, or, or nor, the pronoun must take the person of only one antecedent. The first person is preferred to the second, and the second person to the third. For example, if the antecedents are in the second and first person, the pronoun that follows is in the first person {you or I should get to work on our experiment [our is in the first person, as is the antecedent I]}. If the antecedents are in the second and third person, the pronoun that follows takes the second person {you and she can settle your dispute}. If the pronoun refers to only one of the connected nouns or pronouns, it takes the person of that noun {you and Marian have discussed her trip report}. At times the pronoun may refer to an antecedent that is not expressed in the same sentence; it takes the number of that antecedent, not of any connected noun or pronoun that precedes it {neither they nor I could do his work [his is referring to someone named in a preceding sentence]}. 5.35: Pronoun case: Sets of word forms by which a language differentiates the functions that a word performs in a sentence are called the word's cases. A pronoun that functions as the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case {they went to town}. A personal pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the gender of the possessor {President Barack Obama took his advisers with him to Hawaii}. A pronoun that functions as the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case {they gave her a farewell party} {they gave it to him}. A pronoun put after an intransitive verb or participle agrees in case with the preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing {it is I} (see 5.45). A pronoun used in an absolute construction is in the nominative: its case depends on no other word {she being disqualified, our best hope is gone}. 5.36: Pronouns in apposition: The case of a pronoun used in an appositive construction is determined by the function (subject or object) of the words with which it is in apposition {we three—Bruce, Felipe, and I—traveled to Augusta} {she asked us—Barbara, Sarah, and me—to move our cars}. 5.37: Nominative case misused for objective The objective case governs personal pronouns used as direct objects of verbs {call me tomorrow}, indirect objects of verbs {write me a letter}, or objects of prepositions {makes sense to me}. One of the most persistent slips in English is to misuse the nominative case of a personal pronoun in a compound object: poor: The test would be simple for you or I. better: The test would be simple for you or me. poor: Read this and tell Laura and I what you think. better: Read this and tell Laura and me what you think. The mistake may arise from overcorrecting a common error that young children are prone to—using the objective case for a personal pronoun in a compound subject, as in Jim and me want to go swimming. Such problems arise in compounds so exclusively that the foolproof way to check for them is to read the sentence with the personal pronoun alone: no one would mistake The test would be simple for I or Read this and tell I what you think for correct grammar. 5.38: Seven classes of pronouns: There are seven classes of pronouns (the examples listed here do not include all forms of each): personal (I, you, he, she, it, we, and they); demonstrative (that and this); reciprocal (each other and one another); interrogative (what, which, and who); relative (that, what, which, and who); indefinite (another, any, each, either, and none); and adjective (any, each, that, this, what, and which). Many pronouns, except personal pronouns, may function as more than one type—e.g., that may be a demonstrative, relative, or adjective pronoun—depending on its use in a particular sentence. 5.39: Form of personal pronouns A personal pronoun shows by its form whether it is referring to the speaker (first person), the person or thing spoken to (second person), or the person or thing spoken of (third person). Personal pronouns, in other words, convey the source, goal, and topic of an utterance. By their form they also display number, gender, and case. 5.40: Identification of personal pronouns The first person is the speaker or speakers {I need some tea} {we heard the news}. The second person shows who is spoken to {you should write that essay tonight}. And the third person shows who or what is spoken of {she is at work} {it is in the glove compartment}. The first-person-singular pronoun I is always capitalized no matter where it appears in the sentence {if possible, I will send you an answer today}. All other pronouns are capitalized only at the beginning of a sentence, unless they are part of an honorific title {Her Majesty, the Queen of England}. 5.41: Changes in form of personal pronouns Personal pronouns change form (or decline) according to person, number, and case. Apart from the second person, all personal pronouns show number by taking a singular or plural form. Although the second-person pronoun you is both singular and plural, it always takes a plural verb, even if only a single person or thing is addressed. There are four essential rules about the nominative and objective cases. (1) If the pronoun is the subject of a clause, it is in the nominative case {he is vice president}. (2) If the pronoun is the object of a verb, it is objective {she thanked him}. (3) If a pronoun is the object of a preposition, it is objective {please keep this between you and me}. (4) If the pronoun is the subject of an infinitive, it is objective {Jim wanted her to sing}. 5.42: Agreement of personal pronoun with noun A personal pronoun agrees with the noun for which it stands in both gender and number {John writes, and he will soon write well} {Sheila was there, but she couldn't hear what was said}. 5.43: Personal pronouns and gender Only the third-person-singular pronouns directly express gender. In the nominative or objective case, the pronoun takes the antecedent noun's gender {the president is not in her office today; she's at a seminar}. In the genitive case, the pronoun always takes the gender of the possessor, not of the person or thing possessed {the woman loves her husband} {Thomas is visiting his sister} {the kitten pounced on its mother}. Some nouns may acquire gender through personification, a figure of speech that refers to a nonliving thing as if it were a person. Pronouns enhance personification when a feminine or masculine pronoun is used as if the antecedent represented a female or male person (as was traditionally done, for example, when a ship or other vessel was referred to with the pronoun she or her). 5.44: Personal pronoun case Some special rules apply to personal pronouns. (1) If a pronoun is the subject of a clause, or follows a conjunction but precedes the verb, it must be in the nominative case {she owns a tan briefcase} {although Delia would like to travel, she can't afford to}. (2) If a pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition, it must be in the objective case {the rustic setting helped him relax} {that's a matter between him and her}. (3) If a prepositional phrase contains more than one object, all the objects must be in the objective case {will you send an invitation to him and me?}. (4) If a pronoun is the subject of an infinitive, it must be in the objective case {does Tina want me to leave?}. 5.45: Personal pronoun after linking verb Strictly speaking, a pronoun serving as the complement of a be-verb or other linking verb should be in the nominative case {it was she who asked for a meeting}. In that construction, she functions as a predicate nominative; when a pronoun does this, it is termed an attribute pronoun. The same construction occurs when someone who answers a telephone call is asked, "May I speak to [answerer's name]?" The refined response is This is he, not This is him. 5:46 The case of a pronoun following a comparative construction, typically at the end of a sentence, depends on who or what is being compared. In My sister looks more like our father than I [or me], for example, the proper pronoun depends on the meaning. If the question is whether the sister or the speaker looks more like their father, the pronoun should be nominative because it is the subject of an understood verb {my sister looks more like our father than I do}. But if the question is whether the father or the speaker looks more like the sister, the pronoun should be objective because it is the object of a preposition in an understood clause {my sister looks more like my father than she looks like me}. Whatever the writer's intent with the original sentence, and regardless of the pronoun used, the listener or reader can't be entirely certain about the meaning. It would be better to reword the sentence and avoid the elliptical construction. 5.47: Special uses of personal pronouns The case of a pronoun following a comparative construction, typically at the end of a sentence, depends on who or what is being compared. In My sister looks more like our father than I [or me], for example, the proper pronoun depends on the meaning. If the question is whether the sister or the speaker looks more like their father, the pronoun should be nominative because it is the subject of an understood verb {my sister looks more like our father than I do}. But if the question is whether the father or the speaker looks more like the sister, the pronoun should be objective because it is the object of a preposition in an understood clause {my sister looks more like my father than she looks like me}. Whatever the writer's intent with the original sentence, and regardless of the pronoun used, the listener or reader can't be entirely certain about the meaning. It would be better to reword the sentence and avoid the elliptical construction. 5.48: Singular "they" Normally, a singular antecedent requires a singular pronoun. But because he is no longer universally accepted as a generic pronoun referring to a person of unspecified gender, people commonly (in speech and in informal writing) substitute the third-person-plural pronouns they, them, their, and themselves (or the nonstandard singular themself). While this usage is accepted in those spheres, it is only lately showing signs of gaining acceptance in formal writing (see 5.256), where Chicago recommends avoiding its use (see 5.255).5 When referring specifically to a person who does not identify with a gender-specific pronoun, however, they and its forms are often preferred. (They used in this sense was the American Dialect Society's Word of the Year for 2015.) Like singular you, singular they takes a plural verb. So when the context requires it, they/them/their/theirs, like you/your/yours (long used as both singular and plural forms), can be used to refer to one person {they have a degree in molecular biology} {their favorite color is blue}. And themself (like yourself) may be used to signal the singular antecedent (though some people will prefer themselves) {they blamed themself [or themselves]}. A number of other gender-neutral singular pronouns are in use, invented for that purpose; forms of these are usually singular and take singular verbs. In general, a person's stated preference for a specific pronoun should be respected. See also 5.251-60. 5.49: Uses and forms of possessive pronouns The possessive pronouns, my, our, your, his, her, its, and their, are used as limiting adjectives to qualify nouns {my dictionary} {your cabin} {his diploma}. Despite their name, possessive pronouns function in a much broader series of relationships than mere possession {my professor} {your argument}. Each form has a corresponding absolute possessive pronoun (also called an independent possessive) that can stand alone without a noun: mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, and theirs. The independent form does not require an explicit object: the thing possessed may be either an antecedent or something understood {this dictionary is mine} {this cabin of yours is nice} {where is hers?}. An independent possessive pronoun can also stand alone and be treated as a noun: it can be the subject or object of a verb {hers is on the table} {pass me yours}, or the object of a preposition {put your coat with theirs}. When it is used with the preposition of, a double possessive is produced: that letter of Sheila's becomes that letter of hers. Such a construction is unobjectionable. Note that none of the possessive personal pronouns is spelled with an apostrophe. 5.50: Possessive pronouns versus contractions The possessive forms of personal pronouns are my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, and their, theirs. Again, none of them takes an apostrophe. Nor does the possessive form of who (whose). Apart from these exceptions, the apostrophe is a universal signal of the possessive in English, so it is a natural tendency (and a common error) to overlook the exceptions and insert an apostrophe in the pronoun forms that end in -s (or the sibilant -se). Aggravating that tendency is the fact that some of the words have homophones that are contractions—another form that is also signaled by apostrophes. The pronouns that don't sound like legitimate contractions seldom present problems, even if they do end in -s (hers, yours, ours). But several do require special attention, specifically its (the possessive of it) and it's ("it is"); your (the possessive of you) and you're ("you are"); whose (the possessive of who) and who's ("who is"); and the three homophones their (the possessive of they), there ("in that place" or "in that way"), and they're ("they are"). 5.51: Basic uses of reflexive and intensive pronouns The words myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves are used in two ways, and it's useful to distinguish between their functions as reflexive and intensive personal pronouns. Compare the intensive pronoun in I burned the papers myself (in which the object of burned is papers) with the reflexive pronoun in I burned myself (in which the object of burned is myself). Reflexive pronouns serve as objects that usually look back to the subject of a sentence or clause {the cat scared itself} {Gayla took it on herself to make the first move} {Ayoka dressed herself today} {don't repeat yourself [the subject of this imperative sentence is understood to be you]}. Intensive pronouns repeat the antecedent noun or pronoun to add emphasis {I myself don't care} {did you speak with the manager herself?} {Kate herself has won several writing awards} {did you knit that yourself?}. An intensive pronoun is used in apposition to its referent, so it's in the nominative case. A common problem occurs when the -self form does not serve either of those functions. For example, the first-person pronoun in a compound might be used as a subject: poor: The staff and myself thank you for your contribution. better: The staff and I thank you for your contribution. Or it might be used as an object that does not refer to the subject: poor: Deliver the equipment to my partner or myself. better: Deliver the equipment to my partner or me. 5.52: Demonstrative pronouns defined A demonstrative pronoun (or, as it is sometimes called, a deictic pronoun) is one that points directly to its antecedent in the text: this or that for a singular antecedent {this is your desk} {that is my office}, and these or those for a plural antecedent {these have just arrived} {those need to be answered}. This and these point to objects that are near in space, time, or thought, while that and those point to objects that are somewhat remote in space, time, or thought. The antecedent of a demonstrative pronoun can be a noun, phrase, clause, sentence, or implied thought, as long as the antecedent is clear. Kind and sort, each referring to "one class," are often used with an adjectival this or that {this kind of magazine} {that sort of school}. The plural forms kinds and sorts are usually preferred with the plural demonstratives {these kinds of magazines} {those sorts of schools}. A demonstrative pronoun standing alone cannot refer to a human antecedent; it must be followed by a word denoting a person. For example: I heard Mike's son playing. That child is talented. In the second sentence, it would be erroneous to omit child or some such noun after that. 5:53 Each other and one another are called reciprocal pronouns because they express a mutual relationship between elements {after much discussion, the two finally understood each other} {it's true that we love one another}. Compare the nuances of meaning that a reciprocal or plural reflexive pronoun creates in the same sentence: {after our hike, we all checked ourselves for ticks [each person inspected him- or herself]} {after our hike, we checked one another for ticks [each person inspected one or more of the others]}. Reciprocal pronouns can also take the inflected genitive -'s to express possession {we admired each other's watch}. In traditional usage, each other is reserved for two {she and I protected each other} and one another for more than two {all five of us watched out for one another}. 5.54: Interrogative pronouns defined An interrogative pronoun asks a question. The three interrogatives are who, what, and which. Only one, who, declines: who (nominative), whom (objective), whose (possessive) {who starred in Casablanca?} {to whom am I speaking?} {whose cologne smells so nice?}. In the nominative case, who is used in two ways: (1) as the subject of a verb {who washed the dishes today?} and (2) as a predicate nominative after a linking verb {it was who?}. In the objective case, whom is used in two ways: (1) as the object of a verb {whom did you see?} and (2) as the object of a preposition {for whom is this building named?}. 5.55: Referent of interrogative pronouns To refer to a person, who, what, or which can be used. But they are not interchangeable. Who is universal or general: it asks for any one or more persons among a universe of people. The answer may potentially include any person, living or dead, present or absent {who wants to see that movie?} {who were your greatest inspirations?}. Who also asks for a particular person's identity {who is that person standing near the Emerald Buddha?}. Which and what, when followed by a noun denoting a person or persons, are usually selective or limited; they ask for a particular member of a group, and the answer is limited to the group addressed or referred to {which explorers visited China in the sixteenth century?} {what ice-skater is your favorite?}. To refer to a person, animal, or thing, either which or what may be used {which one of you did this?} {what kind of bird is that?}. When applied to a person, what often asks for the person's character, occupation, qualities, and the like {what do you think of our governor?}. When applied to a thing, what is broad and asks for any one thing, especially of a set {what is your quest?} {what is your favorite color?}. 5.56: Relative pronouns defined A relative pronoun is one that introduces a dependent (or relative) clause and relates it to the independent clause. Relative pronouns in common use are who, which, what, and that. Who is the only relative pronoun that declines: who (nominative), whom (objective), whose (possessive) {the woman who presented the award} {a source whom he declined to name} {the writer whose book was a best seller}. Who normally refers to a human being, but it can be used in the first, second, or third person. Which refers only to an animal or a thing. What refers only to a nonliving thing. Which and what are used only in the second and third person. That refers to a human, animal, or thing, and it can be used in the first, second, or third person. When a relative pronoun qualifies a noun element in the clause it introduces, it is sometimes called a relative adjective. See also 5.64. 5.57: Gender, number, and case with relative pronouns A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender, person, and number. If a personal pronoun follows a relative pronoun, and both refer to the same antecedent in the independent clause, the personal pronoun takes the gender and number of that antecedent {I saw a farmer who was plowing his fields with his mule}. If the personal pronoun refers to a different antecedent from that of the relative pronoun, it takes the gender and number of that antecedent {I saw the boy and also the girl who pushed him down}. A personal pronoun does not govern the case of a relative pronoun. Hence an objective pronoun such as me may be the antecedent of the nominative pronoun who, although a construction formed in this way sounds increasingly archaic or even incorrect {she was referring to me, who never graduated from college} {it was we whom they objected to}. When a construction may be technically correct but sounds awkward or artificial {I, who am wronged, have a grievance}, the best course may be to use preventive grammar and find a different construction {I have been wronged; I have a grievance} {having been wronged, I have a grievance}. 5.59: Antecedent of relative pronouns Usually a relative pronoun's antecedent is a noun or pronoun in the independent clause on which the relative clause depends. For clarity, it should immediately precede the pronoun {the diadem that I told you about is in this gallery}. The antecedent may also be a noun phrase or a clause, but the result can sometimes be ambiguous: in the bedroom of the villa, which was painted pink, does the which-clause refer to the bedroom or to the villa? See 5.60. 5.60: Remote relative clauses For clarity, pronouns must have unambiguous antecedents. A common problem with the relative pronouns that, which, and who arises if you separate the relative clause from the noun to which it refers. The longer the separation, the more pronounced the problem—especially when one or more unrelated nouns fall between the true antecedent and the clause. Consider the guy down the street that runs through our neighborhood: if the intent is for that runs through our neighborhood to refer to the guy rather than the street, the writer should reword the phrase to make that instantly clear to the reader. poor: Stress caused her to lose the freedom from fear of the future, which she once enjoyed. better: Stress caused her to lose what she once enjoyed: freedom from fear of the future. poor: After the news came out, the CEO fired the aide, a friend of the chairman, who was the target of the investigation. better: After the news came out, the CEO fired the aide, who was the target of the investigation and also a friend of the chairman 5.61: Omitted antecedent of relative pronoun If no antecedent noun is expressed, what can be used to mean that which {is this what you were looking for?}. But if there is an antecedent, use a different relative pronoun: who {where is the man who spoke?}, that (if the relative clause is restrictive, i.e., essential to the sentence's basic meaning) {where are the books that Jones told us about?}, or which (if the relative clause is nonrestrictive, i.e., could be deleted without affecting the sentence's basic meaning) {the sun, which is shining brightly, feels warm on my face}. See also 6.27. 5.62: Relative pronoun and the antecedent "one" A relative pronoun takes its number from its antecedent. That's easy enough when the antecedent is simply one. But if one is part of a noun phrase with a plural noun such as one of the few or one of those, the relative pronoun following takes the plural word as its antecedent—not one. Treat the pronoun as a plural and use a plural verb. For example, in Lily is one of those people who are famous for being famous, the plural verb are links a quality belonging to those people. 5.65: Compound relative pronouns Who, whom, what, and which form compound relative pronouns by adding the suffix -ever. The compound relatives whoever, whomever, whichever, and whatever apply universally to any or all persons or things {whatever you do, let me know} {whoever needs to write a report about this book may borrow it}. 5.67: Indefinite pronouns generally An indefinite pronoun is one that generally or indefinitely represents an object, usually one that has already been identified or doesn't need exact identification. The most common examples are another, any, both, each, either, neither, none, one, other, some, and such. There are also compound indefinite pronouns such as anybody, anyone, anything, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one, oneself, somebody, and someone. Each, either, and neither are also called distributive pronouns because they separate the objects referred to from others referred to nearby. Indefinite pronouns have number. When an indefinite pronoun is the subject of a verb, it is usually singular {everyone is enjoying the dinner} {everybody takes notes during the first week}. But sometimes an indefinite pronoun carries a plural sense in informal prose {nobody could describe the music; they hadn't been listening to it} {everyone understood the risk, but they were lured by promises of big returns}. The forms of indefinite pronouns are not affected by gender or person, and the nominative and objective forms are the same. To form the possessive, the indefinite pronoun may take -'s {that is no one's fault} {is this anyone's jacket?} or the adverb else plus -'s {don't interfere with anybody else's business} {no one else's cups were broken}.

nouns

5.4: Nouns generally A noun is a word that names something, whether abstract (intangible) or concrete (tangible). It may be a common noun (the name of a generic class or type of person, place, thing, process, activity, or condition) or a proper noun (the name of a specific person, place, or thing—hence capitalized). A concrete noun may be a count noun (if what it names can be counted—as with horses or cars) or a mass noun (if what it names is uncountable or collective—as with information or salt). 5.5 common nouns A common noun is the generic name of one item in a class or group {a chemical} {a river} {a pineapple}. It is not capitalized unless it begins a sentence or appears in a title. A common noun is usually used with a determiner—that is, an article or other word (e.g., some, few) that indicates the number and definiteness of the noun element {a loaf} {the day} {some person}. Common nouns may be analyzed into three subcategories: concrete nouns, abstract nouns, and collective nouns. A concrete noun is solid or real; it indicates something perceptible to the physical senses {a building} {the wind} {honey}. An abstract noun denotes something you cannot physically see, touch, taste, hear, or smell {joy} {expectation} {neurosis}. A collective noun—which can be viewed as a concrete noun but is often separately categorized—refers to a group or collection of people or things {a crowd of people} {a flock of birds} {a herd of rhinos}. 5.6: Proper nouns A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, or thing {John Doe} {Moscow} {the Hope Diamond}, or the title of a work {Citizen Kane}. Proper nouns may be singular {Mary} {London} or plural {the Great Lakes} {the Twin Cities}. A proper noun is always capitalized, regardless of how it is used—unless someone is purposely flouting the rules {k.d. lang}. A common noun may become a proper noun {Old Hickory} {the Big Easy}, and sometimes a proper noun may be used figuratively and informally, as if it were a common noun {like Moriarty, he is a Napoleon of crime [Napoleon here connotes an ingenious mastermind who is ambitious beyond limits]}. Proper nouns may be compounded when used as a unit to name something {the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel} {Saturday Evening Post}. Over time, some proper nouns (called eponyms) have developed common-noun counterparts, such as sandwich (from the Earl of Sandwich) and china (the porcelain, from the nation China). Articles and other determiners are used with proper nouns only when part of the noun is a common noun or the determiner provides emphasis {the Savoy Hotel} {Sam? I knew a Sam Hill once}. 5.7: Mass nouns A mass noun (sometimes called a noncount noun) is one that denotes something uncountable, either because it is abstract {cowardice} {evidence} or because it refers to an aggregation of people or things taken as an indeterminate whole {luggage} {the bourgeoisie}. The key difference between mass nouns and collective nouns is that unlike collective nouns (which are count nouns), mass nouns almost never take indefinite articles and typically do not have plural forms (a team, but not an evidence; two groups, but not two luggages). A mass noun can stand alone {music is more popular than ever} or with a determiner other than an indefinite article (some music or the music but generally not a music). As the subject of a sentence, a mass noun typically takes a singular verb and pronoun {the litigation is so varied that it defies simple explanation}. Some mass nouns, however, are plural in form but are treated as grammatically singular {politics} {ethics} {physics} {news}. Others are always grammatically plural {manners} {scissors} {clothes}. But just as singular mass nouns don't take an indefinite article, plural mass nouns don't combine with numbers: you'd never say three scissors or six manners. Some that refer to concrete objects, such as scissors or sunglasses, can be enumerated by adding pair of {a pair of scissors} {three pairs of sunglasses}. Likewise, singular concrete mass nouns can usually be enumerated by adding a unit noun such as piece (with of) {a piece of cutlery} {seven pieces of stationery}. Both singular and plural mass nouns can take indefinite adjectives such as any, less, much, and some that express general quantity {what you need is some courage} {he doesn't have any manners}. properties of nouns: Nouns have properties of case and number. Some traditional grammarians also consider gender and person to be properties of nouns. 5.9: Noun case: In English, only nouns and pronouns have case. Case denotes the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence. Grammarians disagree about the number of cases English nouns possess. Those who consider inflection (word form) the defining characteristic tend to say that there are two: common, which is the uninflected form, and genitive (or possessive), which is formed by adding -'s or just an apostrophe. But others argue that it's useful to distinguish how the common-case noun is being used in the sentence, whether it is playing a nominative role {the doctor is in} or an objective role {go see the doctor}. They also argue that the label we put on nouns according to their function should match those we use for who and for personal pronouns, most of which do change form in the nominative and objective cases (who/whom, she/her, etc.) noun and numbers: Number shows whether one object or more than one object is referred to, as with clock (singular) and clocks (plural). 5.11: Noun gender: English nouns have no true gender, as that property is understood in many other languages. For example, whether a noun refers to a masculine or feminine person or thing does not determine the form of the accompanying article as it does in French, German, Spanish, and many other languages. Still, some English words—almost exclusively nouns denoting people or animals—are inherently masculine {uncle} {rooster} {lad} or feminine {aunt} {hen} {lass} and take the gender-appropriate pronouns. But most English nouns are common in gender and may refer to either sex {relative} {chicken} {child}. Many words once considered strictly masculine—especially words associated with jobs and professions—have been accepted as common (or indefinite) in gender over time {author} {executor} {proprietor}. Similarly, many forms made feminine by the addition of a suffix {aviatrix} {poetess} have been essentially abandoned 5.12: Noun person: A few grammarians attribute the property of person to nouns, distinguishing first person {I, Dan Walls, do swear that . . .}, second person {you, the professor, are key}, and third person {she, the arbiter, decides}. While those examples all use nouns in apposition to pronouns, that's not closely relevant to the question whether the nouns themselves have the property of person in any grammatical sense. But using that property in analyzing nouns does help to point out three things. First, as with grammatical case, one argument for the property of person is to keep the properties of nouns parallel to those of pronouns, even though English nouns do not change form at all in first, second, or third person as personal pronouns do. Second, person determines what form other words will take—here, the verbs. Third, the examples illustrate why attributing person to nouns requires a stretch of logic—if the pronouns were not present in the first two examples, the verb would be in the third person, even if Dan Walls were talking about himself and even if the speaker were addressing the professor. 5.14: Plurals singular sense: Some nouns are plural in form but singular in use and meaning {good news is always welcome} {economics is a challenging subject} {measles is potentially deadly}. Also, a plural word used as a word is treated as a singular {"mice" is the plural of "mouse"} {"sistren" is an archaic plural}. Some traditional plurals, such as data and (to a lesser extent) media, have gradually acquired a mass-noun sense and are increasingly treated as singular. Although traditionalists stick to the plural uses {the data are inconclusive} {the media are largely misreporting the event}, the new singular uses—using the terms in a collective sense rather than as count nouns—exist alongside the older ones {the data shows the hypothesis to be correct} {the media isn't infallible}. (In the sciences, data is always plural.) In formal contexts, the most reliable approach is to retain the plural uses unless doing so makes you feel as if you're being artificial, stuffy, and pedantic. Consider using alternative words, such as information and journalists. Or simply choose the newer usage. But make your play and be consistent—vacillating will not win the admiration of readers and listeners. 5.15: Plural-form proper nouns A plural geographical name is often treated as singular when the name refers to a single entity {the United States is a relatively young nation} {Naples is a very beautiful city}. But there are many exceptions {the Alps have never been totally impassable}. Names of companies, institutions, and similar entities are generally treated as collective nouns—and hence singular in American English, even when they are plural in form {General Motors reports that it will earn a profit} {American Airlines has moved its headquarters}. In British English, however, singular nouns that refer to individuals who work independently typically take plural verbs {Manchester United have won the FIFA Cup} {England are now leading in World Cup standings}. 5.16: Tricky anomalies of the plural Not all English nouns show the usual singular-plural dichotomy. For example, mass nouns such as furniture, spaghetti, and wheat have only a singular form, and oats, scissors, and slacks (= pants) exist only as plurals. Some nouns look singular but are invariably plural {the police were just around the corner} {the vermin seem impossible to eradicate}. Others look plural but are invariably singular {the news is good} {linguistics is my major}. Strangely enough, person forms two plurals—persons and people—but people also forms the plural peoples {the peoples of the world}. 5.17: Function of case Case denotes the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence. 5.18: Common case, nominative function The nominative (sometimes called the subjective) function denotes the person, place, or thing about which an assertion in a clause is made {the governor delivered a speech [governor is the subject]} {the shops are crowded because the holiday season has begun [shops and season are the subjects of their respective clauses]}. A noun serving a nominative function controls the verb and usually precedes it {the troops retreated in winter [troops is the subject]}, but through inversion it can appear almost anywhere in the sentence {high up in the tree sat a leopard [leopard is the subject]}. A noun or pronoun that follows a be-verb and refers to the same thing as the subject is called a predicate nominative {my show dogs are Australian shepherds [Australian shepherds is a predicate nominative]}. Generally, a sentence's predicate is the part that contains a verb and makes an assertion about the subject. 5.19: Common case, objective function The objective (sometimes called the accusative) function denotes either (1) the person or thing acted on by a transitive verb in the active voice {the balloon carried a pilot and a passenger [pilot and passenger are objective: the direct objects of the verb carried]} or (2) the person or thing related to another element by a connective, such as a preposition {place the slide under the microscope [microscope is objective: the object of the preposition under]}. A noun in an objective function usually follows the verb {the queen consulted the prime minister [queen is nominative and prime minister is objective]}. But with an inverted construction, the object can appear elsewhere in the sentence {everything else was returned; the jewelry the thieves had already sold [jewelry is objective and thieves is nominative]}. A noun serving an objective function is never the subject of the following verb and usually does not control the number of the verb {an assembly of strangers was outside [the plural noun strangers is the object of the preposition of; the singular noun assembly is the subject of the sentence, so the verb was must also be singular]}. 5.20: Genitive case The genitive case denotes (1) ownership, possession, or occupancy {the architect's drawing board} {Arnie's room}; (2) a relationship {the philanthropist's secretary}; (3) agency {the company's representative}; (4) description {a summer's day}; (5) the role of a subject {the boy's application [the boy applied]}; (6) the role of an object {the prisoner's release [someone released the prisoner]}; or (7) an idiomatic shorthand form of an of-phrase {one hour's delay [equal to a delay of one hour]}. The genitive case is also called the possessive case, but possessive is a misleadingly narrow term, given the seven different functions of this case—true possession, as ordinarily understood, being only one. For instance, the fourth function above is often called the descriptive possessive. This is a misnomer, however, because the form doesn't express actual possession but instead indicates that the noun is functioning as a descriptive adjective. The genitive is formed in different ways, depending on the noun or nouns and their use in a sentence. The genitive of a singular noun is formed by adding -'s {driver's seat} {engineer's opinion}. The genitive of a plural noun that ends in -s or -es is formed by adding an apostrophe {parents' house} {foxes' den}. The genitive of an irregular plural noun is formed by adding -'s {women's rights} {mice's cage}. The genitive of a compound noun is formed by adding the appropriate ending to the last word in the compound {parents-in-law's message}. All these -'s and -s' endings are called inflected genitives 5.22: Joint and separate genitives If two or more nouns share possession, the last noun takes the genitive ending. (This is called joint or group possession.) For example, Peter and Harriet's correspondence refers to the correspondence between Peter and Harriet. If two or more nouns possess something separately, each noun takes its own genitive ending. For example, Peter's and Harriet's correspondence refers to Peter's correspondence and also to Harriet's correspondence, presumably with all sorts of people. Joint possession is shown by a single apostrophe plus -s only when two nouns are used. If a noun and a pronoun are used to express joint possession, both the noun and the pronoun must show possession. For example, Hilda and Eddie's vacation becomes (when Eddie has already been mentioned) Hilda's and his vacation or (if Eddie is speaking in first person) Hilda's and my vacation 5.23: Appositives—definition and use An appositive is a noun element that immediately follows another noun element in order to define or further identify it {George Washington, our first president, was born in Virginia [our first president is an appositive of the proper noun George Washington]}. An appositive is said to be "in apposition" with the word or phrase to which it refers. Commas frame an appositive unless it is restrictive {Robert Burns, the poet, wrote many songs about women named Mary [here, poet is a nonrestrictive appositive noun]} {the poet Robert Burns wrote many songs about women named Mary [Robert Burns restricts poet by precisely identifying which poet]}. A restrictive appositive cannot be removed from a sentence without obscuring the identity of the word or phrase that the appositive relates to. 5.24: Nouns as adjectives (attributive nouns, Words that are ordinarily nouns sometimes function as other parts of speech, such as adjectives or verbs. A noun-to-adjective transition takes place when a noun modifies another noun {the morning newspaper} {a state legislature} {a varsity sport} (morning, state, and varsity function as adjectives). These are also termed attributive nouns. Note that they are typically singular in form (car dealership, not cars dealership). Occasionally the use of a noun as an adjective can produce ambiguity. For example, the phrase fast results can be read as meaning either "rapid results" or (less probably but possibly) "the outcome of a fast." Sometimes the noun and its adjectival form can be used interchangeably—e.g., prostate cancer and prostatic cancer both refer to cancer of the prostate gland. But sometimes the use of the noun instead of the adjective may alter the meaning—e.g., a study group is not necessarily a studious group. A preposition may be needed to indicate a noun's relationship to other sentence elements. But if the noun functions as an adjective, the preposition must be omitted; at times this can result in a vague phrase—e.g., voter awareness (awareness of voters or by them?). Context might suggest what preposition is implied, but a reader may have to deduce the writer's meaning. 5.25: Nouns as verbs (denominal verbs) English nouns commonly pass into use as verbs; it has always been so. (The resulting verbs are called denominal verbs.) For example, in 1220 the noun husband meant "one who tills and cultivates the earth" {the husband has worked hard to produce this crop}. It became a verb meaning "to till, cultivate, and tend crops" around 1420 {you must husband your land thoughtfully}. New noun-to-verb transitions often occur in dialect or jargon. For example, the noun mainstream is used as a verb in passages such as more school districts are mainstreaming pupils with special needs. In formal prose, such recently transformed words should be used cautiously if at all. 5.26: Adverbial functions

Back Matter

An appendix may include explanations and elaborations that are not essential parts of the text but are helpful to a reader seeking further clarification, texts of documents, long lists, survey questionnaires, or sometimes even charts or tables. The appendix should not, however, be a repository for odds and ends that the author could not work into the text. Relevant information that is too unwieldy or expensive to produce in print may be suitable for presentation on the publisher's website and under its aegis (a practice more common with journals). Appendixes usually follow the last book chapter, though an appendix may be included at the end of a chapter (introduced by an A-level subhead) if what it contains is essential to understanding the chapter. (In multiauthor books and in books that will be offered as individual chapters, any appendix must follow the chapter it pertains to.) When two or more appendixes are required, they should be designated by numbers (Appendix 1, Appendix 2, etc.) or letters (Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.), and each should be given a title as well. Appendixes may be set either in the same type size as the text proper or in smaller type A chronological list of events may be useful in certain works. It may appear in the back matter under its own heading, but if it is essential to understanding the narrative, it is better placed in the front matter, immediately before the text. For an example, see figure 1.9. A glossary is a useful tool in a book containing many words in another language or other unfamiliar terms. Words to be defined should be arranged in alphabetical order, each on a separate line and followed by its definition. (The term may be followed by a period, a colon, or an em dash, or distinguished from the definition typographically, or both.) A glossary usually precedes the notes and bibliography or reference list but may follow the notes, especially if terms listed in the glossary appear in the notes. A glossary that consists mainly of terms that do not appear in the text may be included as an appendix. See also 2.23. Endnotes, simply headed Notes, follow any appendix material and precede the bibliography or reference list (if there is one). Any notes to an appendix may be included with the endnotes and introduced by an appropriate subhead (Appendix). But if the appendix consists mainly of tables or other data, it may be best to keep the notes with the appendix (see 3.76-80). The notes to each chapter are introduced by a subhead indicating the chapter number and often the chapter title. The running heads to the endnotes should identify the text pages or chapters the notes apply to (see 1.15). Endnotes are normally set smaller than the text but larger than footnotes. Notes are usually placed at the ends of chapters in multiauthor books (see 14.43); such chapter endnotes are a requirement for books that will be offered as individual chapters. For unnumbered notes and notes keyed to line or page numbers, see 14.52, 14.53. For endnotes versus footnotes, see 14.43-48. Bibliographies and reference lists are normally set smaller than the text and in flush-and-hang style. A bibliography usually precedes the index and follows the notes, if any. In a multiauthor book or a book that will be offered in the form of individual chapters, a brief bibliography may be placed at the end of each chapter (see 14.62). For a discussion of the various kinds of bibliographies, see 14.64; for reference lists, see 15.10. For discographies and the like, which usually precede any bibliography or reference list but may instead be included as an appendix, see 14.262. For a full discussion and examples, see chapters 14 and 15. A list of contributors may be appropriate for a work by many authors in which only the volume editor's name appears on the title page. The list (usually headed Contributors) may appear in the front matter, but the preferred location is in the back matter, immediately before the index. Names are arranged alphabetically by last name but not inverted ("Aiden A. Author," not "Author, Aiden A."). Brief biographical notes, affiliations, and contact information (if authorized by the contributor) may accompany the names. See figure 1.10. A work by only a handful of authors does not require a formal list of contributors if the authors' names appear on the title page and biographical data can be included elsewhere in the book (see 1.50, 1.66, 14.55). The index, or the first of several indexes, begins on a recto; subsequent indexes begin verso or recto. In a book with both name and subject indexes, the name index should precede the subject index. Indexes in printed books are normally set two columns to a page and in smaller type than the text. For a full discussion of indexes and indexing, see chapter 16. A brief note on the author or authors (including any editors, compilers, and translators) lists previous publications and, if relevant, academic affiliation. When such a note does not appear in the back matter (usually as the final element; but see 1.67), it may appear in the front matter or, more commonly, on the back cover or on the inside flap of the dust jacket, according to the publisher's preference (see also 1.70, 1.71). If such biographical information appears in more than one place, the details, if not the wording, must be consistent. In a departure from earlier practice, Chicago now prefers to place biographical notes on the back cover or on the inside flap of the dust jacket rather than on the copyright page. The last page of a specially designed and produced book occasionally contains a colophon—an inscription including the facts of production. For an example, see the last page of the print edition of this manual. For another meaning of colophon, see 1.69. In rare cases, errors severe enough to cause misunderstanding are detected in a finished book that has already been printed in significant numbers. If the copies have not yet been distributed, a separate page that lists errata may be supplied. An errata page prepared along with the rest of the text may be justified when all or part of a book consists of pages scanned from an earlier publication. It may be placed either at the end of the front matter or at the end of the book and should be listed in the table of contents. The following form may be adapted to suit the particulars. Today it is more common for publishers to list such errata online, a practice especially suited to technical manuals. Publishers who make significant corrections to electronic versions of their books can include in the corrected version a notice and description of the changes (or a link to such documentation online); any readers who received the uncorrected version may need to be notified of the update. See also 1.28.

Roman Numerals

I - 1 V - 5 X - 10 L - 50 C - 100 D - 500 M - 1000

Double-Checking Proofs and Assigning Responsibility

In addition to the tasks outlined in 2.110-18, the proofreader must perform the following checks, according to the needs of the particular work: Check article or chapter titles and, if necessary, subheads or other heads against the table of contents to ensure consistent wording, and verify or add beginning page numbers in the table of contents. Query—or delete, if necessary—any item listed in the table of contents that does not appear in the work. If footnotes are used, ensure that each footnote appears, or at least begins, on the page that includes its superscript reference number or symbol. Complete any cross-references (see 2.35). For a book, check the half title and the title page to be sure the title is correct and the author's or volume editor's name is spelled right; verify that the information on the copyright page is accurate and complete. For a journal, check the covers, spine, and any front or back matter copy that is unique to the particular journal; with the previous year's volume at hand, check the elements that change with each issue, such as volume and issue numbers and date, month, or season of publication; ensure that the inclusive page numbers that appear on the spine are accurate; check front and back matter for any elements that may have changed, such as subscription prices or names of editors and members of the editorial board; ensure that copyright lines are included and accurate on all individual articles or other elements of the journal that carry them. 2.135: Assigning responsibility for errors on proofs: The proofreader may be asked to distinguish between errors introduced by the typesetting process, errors that were left uncorrected in the manuscript, and errors that were introduced during editorial cleanup after the author reviewed the editing. In such cases, corrections should be accompanied by abbreviations determined by the publisher or typesetter, such as PE (printer's error—the customary term for what is generally a typesetter's error), AA (author's alteration), EA (editor's alteration), and DA (designer's alteration). All such indications should be circled to prevent their being incorporated into the corrected proofs. 2.136: Author's alterations (AAs) versus editor's alterations (EAs) For books, a publisher's contract may allow an author to make, without penalty, alterations in proofs in terms of a percentage of the initial cost of the typesetting. Since the cost of corrections is very high relative to the cost of the original typesetting, an AA allowance of (for example) 5 percent does not mean that 5 percent of the proofs may be altered. An author may be asked to pay the cost of AAs beyond the AA allowance stipulated in the contract. Any rewriting or adding of new material by the author is considered an AA. Page numbers added to cross-references in proofs are also usually considered AAs. Corrections of errors uncaught or even introduced in editing are considered AAs if the author reviewed and approved the edited manuscript. Correction of an error introduced into the manuscript by the publisher after the author's review—made by the manuscript editor, for example, in entering the author's final adjustments—is an EA and not chargeable to the author. Supplying page numbers in lists of tables and illustrations and in running heads to notes constitutes an EA. For articles, consult the journal publisher. 2.137: Checklist for proofing and testing electronic formats

electronic publications formats

Print, for centuries the basis of the publishing industry, has been joined in the last half century by a number of electronic formats, from plain-text ASCII files to full-featured web presentations and apps. Though plain text is technically sufficient for many purposes, the most common publishing formats support special characters, images, and other enhancements. PDF. An abbreviation for portable document format, PDF is practically identical to print; in fact, it was designed as a means of preserving all the characteristics of a fixed layout and forms the basis of most modern printed publications. Though PDF essentially provides an image of the printed page, the text can be searchable and hyperlinks can be added for internal cross-references or to external resources. (PDF also supports embedded multimedia content, but to date few publishers have taken advantage of this.) PDF readers typically include tools for annotation, making it a suitable alternative to paper for proofreading or editing (see 2.133). PDF, offered by many journal publishers and used as the basis of some e-book formats, can also be included as a component of web publications and apps. E-book formats. Book publishers especially have turned to e-book formats as a means of offering their content in a way that mimics many of the characteristics of the printed-and-bound book. PDF can be used as the basis of an e-book, but EPUB and a number of similar formats tailored to the specialized features of the software and devices that support them are more common. EPUB, short for electronic publication, is an open standard that defines the content and structure of e-books. Most e-book publications consist of reflowable text and images, though EPUB and some other e-book formats also support fixed-layout options. E-book formats include linked tables of contents and other navigational tools and are designed to be read one screen or "page" at a time. Software and devices for e-books typically support note-taking and bookmarking features and some multimedia content. HTML. An abbreviation for hypertext markup language, HTML refers to a specific set of tags used to describe the text and graphics that are displayed in a web browser. Many journals offer full-text HTML versions of their articles in addition to or instead of PDF. Browser-based HTML is ideal for presenting multimedia content and complex tabular matter and for facilitating author and reader interaction as well as links to related content—all as part of the larger context of the publisher's or content provider's website (see 1.86). HTML is also especially suited to complex, extensively hyperlinked publications such as dictionaries and other reference works. Apps. The term app, short for application, can be used to refer to any software program, from a word processor to a web browser to the camera app on a mobile device. It can also refer to the software required to read a specific e-book format. For publishers, apps afford additional possibilities for offering content. Publishers of reference works or textbooks can develop app versions designed for the smaller screens and specialized hardware typical of mobile devices. Academic publishers, on the other hand, can tailor the electronic versions of their books and articles for compatibility with third-party bookshelf-style apps. Apps, together with web presentations, offer the widest range of possibilities for presenting content. Navigation is the basis of any electronic publication, starting with search. Searchable PDF may be enhanced by publishers with linked tables of contents and other internal links, or by links to outside resources, but need not be. Any other navigational tools for PDF will depend on the software used to read it. Linked tables of contents are created as a matter of course for EPUB and similar e-book formats, which typically consist of a number of documents and images (i.e., the content of the book) "packaged" for delivery as a single set of files to be presented in a specific order according to a set of encoded instructions. Such navigation, then, is generally determined by the content and structure of the book itself, allowing publishers to streamline publication in e-book formats according to a strategy of consistent markup and file formats. Markup for e-books may also include internal links to notes and other cross-references and links to outside resources (but see 1.121). A web-based reference work or app, on the other hand, must take into account the fact that readers will typically consult smaller pieces of content and will expect to be able to shuttle through many parts of a work in a very short period of time and in no particular order. This generally involves a greater number of cross-references and hyperlinked items. Dictionaries, in fact, may be entirely hyperlinked, such that every word in every definition is linked to the entry for that term, and so on, providing endless pathways through a significant subset of a single language. Search is essential too. Readers expect to be able to search for and find any component of a work on the basis of a few key terms; any work that allows full-text searching will benefit from context-sensitive keyword indexing (see 16.7). Readers may also want to know where other readers are landing, through links to the most popular content or to cited-by statistics. There is no cost to following a hyperlink, provided there is a means of stepping back and forth between the link and the item it points to. But if there are too many links, or if they do not tend to lead to strongly related content—or, worse, if they fail—a publication risks irritating its readers. Beyond cross-references and linked tables of contents or other navigational items, a link can be directed to almost anything. Words might be linked to their definitions—either in a glossary or through a third-party dictionary. Authors' names might contain mail-to links or lead to their networking pages or to lists of their other works. URLs or other identifiers can be embedded in any piece of content. Some of these links, including links to dictionary definitions and outside searches for individual terms, may be a feature of a specific device or app. Publisher-created links, on the other hand, must be maintained and updated, often at significant cost. For this reason, links added to PDF and e-book formats are sometimes limited either to internal cross-references (which do not generally change) or to outside resources via a permanent identifier such as a DOI (see 14.8). The content of web-based works is generally more flexible, and some links can be checked or generated programmatically. For example, links to related titles or subjects can be generated by matching title or subject metadata against an evolving database each time a user calls up a specific piece of content. See also 2.34. PDF and most e-book formats will retain the traditional front matter of a printed publication, including the order in which it is presented. Readers of web-based publications, on the other hand, will want to be able to navigate primarily to the core content of the publication (and the content that it generates) rather than to ancillary elements such as prefaces, copyright information, or information about the publication or its authors. These elements can be demoted from their usual position in the front (or back) of a book and made accessible on the margins of the screen. Copyright information, however, should usually be included with each subdocument, and help and related documentation should also be available from any part of a publication. Much of the usual taxonomy for printed works—from copyright page to table of contents to preface, foreword, and introduction—will benefit from a different set of categories (i.e., home pages, "about us" links, site maps, help menus and other tools, search engines, etc.). The table of contents, however, especially in works that can be read in larger chunks—such as an online journal or this manual—may be a significant driver in the top-level navigation of a web-based publication. See also 1.125. A primary advantage of a traditional printed-and-bound book or journal (or its PDF counterpart) is the presence of fixed page numbers. Page numbers give students and researchers a convenient means of making precise citations to the works they consult, allowing readers with access to the same book to retrace their steps (but without the benefit of searchable text). Printed publications also typically include running heads specific to chapter (or article), section, or other text division (see 1.10-16). Many e-books lack fixed page numbers because they allow for reflowable text and user-defined options for typeface and size. Instead, software and devices for e-books orient readers by means of location or screen numbers (and sometimes percentage relative to the work as a whole) and by bars that graphically represent a reader's position in the book and provide a means of shuttling between locations.2 These navigational elements may appear in lieu of detailed running heads, or in addition to a simple running head displaying the title of the book (but see 2.76). For web-based publications and apps, readers can be oriented in a variety of ways independent of page numbers or running heads per se. Dictionaries and encyclopedias rely on a natural organizing principle: readers cite material sub verbo—or "under the word"—that is, by entry or entry title (14.232-34). Other types of publications broken into scrollable sections or subsections may benefit from hierarchical navigation based on a table of contents; section or paragraph numbering can be added as an aid to navigation and citation. Meanwhile, each page in a web-based publication or app can display the location in the current document relative to the section or chapter hierarchy and to the work or site as a whole (e.g., 1: Books and Journals » Chapter Contents » Considerations for Electronic Formats)—or provide a ready means of returning to the top-level navigation. source citations: A primary advantage of the electronic environment is the ability to link to and from in-text references and the items they refer to, solving the problem of footnotes versus endnotes that arises in printed books (see 14.43-48). A related advantage is the ability to link out to the cited resources themselves. Such links can be applied in any electronic format, from PDF to e-book to HTML (but see 1.121). On the other hand, in some electronic formats, linked-to items in the notes or in the bibliography or reference list may be presented apart from the context of the list as a whole, making such traditional bibliographic strategies as ibid. or the 3-em dash for repeated references impractical (see 14.34, 14.67).

manuscript process

The following outline highlights the basic steps of the publication process from approved manuscript to published work. These steps are broadly modeled on a typical manuscript editing and proofreading schedule for a book-length work; the procedures for journals will vary. For a more detailed look at manuscript preparation, editing, and proofreading, see the discussions in the remainder of this chapter. For sample timetables for producing a book and a journal, see figures 2.1 and 2.2. Manuscript submission. In addition to the final manuscript, the author submits to the publisher all artwork and any necessary permissions to reproduce illustrations or previously published material or to cite unpublished data or personal communications. See 2.3-6. Manuscript editing. The manuscript editor suggests changes to the manuscript (and, where necessary, queries the author) and demarcates or checks the order and structure of the elements (e.g., illustrations, headings, text extracts). See 2.57-67, 2.69. Author review. The author reviews the edited manuscript and answers any queries. All remaining changes and adjustments to the manuscript need to be indicated by the author at this stage. See 2.71, 2.88. Final manuscript. The manuscript editor produces a final manuscript, incorporating the results of the author's review of the edited manuscript and, among other things, double-checking each element in the manuscript against a design template for completeness, consistency, and proper markup. See 2.73-77. Proofreading and indexing. Once the final manuscript has been converted for publication—for example, as a typeset and paginated book or journal article or the full text of an electronic publication (see 1.118)—it will need to be checked by the author and any additional proofreaders in at least one format (typically PDF or print, as page proofs or proof) for errors and inconsistencies. See 2.100-140. It is also at this stage that an index may be prepared and subsequently edited (see chapter 16; for journal indexes, see 1.110-11). Final revisions. As the publisher makes sure all necessary corrections have been made, the index, if there is one, is proofread in its final format and corrected as needed (see 2.106). Book pages, especially, may go through several rounds of revision, though publishers usually set firm limits on changes beyond the first round of revisions. See 2.105. Prepress or final review. For a printed-and-bound book, publishers usually review the typesetter's final files—either as an inexpensive printout or on-screen—before ink is committed to paper. Once the job is on the press, an initial set of folded-and-gathered sheets may be sent from the printer to the publisher for review before the job is finished (see 2.107). For electronic formats, a final version must be reviewed in each context in which it will be published before it is posted or distributed or otherwise made available to the public (see 2.137-40). Publication. In the stages leading up to publication it is critically important to make all possible efforts to eliminate any errors or inconsistencies (typographical or otherwise) or other problems. The occasional error in a published work is inevitable, but even minor errors reflect badly on publishers and authors alike. Before manuscript editing begins (see 2.48-99), an author should provide any of the elements in the list that follows that are to be included in the work. This list is modeled on the parts of a book (see 1.3-76). An author contributing to a journal should consult the journal's specific submission requirements. Title page Dedication Epigraph Table of contents List of illustrations List of tables Preface Acknowledgments Any other front matter All text matter, including introduction and part titles Notes Appendixes Glossary Bibliography or reference list Any other back matter All illustrations and all tables Illustration captions A list of special characters used in the manuscript Abstract(s) and keywords (see 1.76) All permissions, in writing, that may be required to reproduce illustrations or previously published material or to cite unpublished data or personal communications (see chapter 4) submitting the manuscript: Publishers usually require the latest version of the electronic file(s) for the work, and authors are advised to make a secure backup of this final manuscript and to avoid making any further changes to it. Some publishers also require hard copy or PDF as a safeguard against any glitches in the electronic files—especially for book-length works or works with complex formatting or special typographical needs. To ensure that this copy is identical to the electronic files, any last-minute changes made to the electronic files before the manuscript is submitted must be reflected in the hard copy or PDF—either by means of a new printout or PDF or marked by hand (see also 2.5). Authors are advised to include a cover letter specifying the author's name, the title of the work, a total word count (rather than a page count), the electronic file names, and the software used. Any material (such as artwork) that cannot be included in electronic form must be noted and described. Conversely, any material that cannot be printed or supplied as PDF (such as videos, animations, or large data files that might be included in an electronic journal or web-based publication) must also be noted and described; for all such material, the software used, the number of items, their type(s), and the individual file names must be specified. For any additional instructions, authors should check with their publishers. For advice on manuscript formatting, see 2.7-25. For advice on preparing index manuscripts, see chapter 16. For paper-only manuscripts, see 2.6. For manuscripts consisting of previously published material, see 2.43. changes after submission: Once an author has submitted a final manuscript to the publisher, the publisher is responsible for maintaining the version of record. An author who needs to make further changes after submitting the files must therefore alert the publisher immediately. Minor changes can usually be indicated later, on the edited document that the manuscript editor will send to the author for review (see 2.71, 2.88). For major changes, the author may need to send a revised manuscript to the publisher before editing begins. Authors should be advised, however, that many book publishers begin manuscript preparation immediately upon receipt and may not be able to accept a revised version after the original submission of the final manuscript. For journals, major changes are rarely permitted after an article has been accepted; schedules do not allow for them. Peer-reviewed articles that require major changes may also require additional review. paper-only: In the rare case of a typewritten manuscript, authors are typically required to submit two paper copies of the manuscript; they should keep a third copy for themselves. All copy must be double-spaced to leave sufficient room for pencil-editing marks between the lines. It is essential, moreover, that everything in a paper-only manuscript be legible. Anything added in handwriting before the manuscript is submitted to the publisher must be clearly written, in upper- and lowercase letters, directly above the line or in the margin. Avoid writing on the backs of pages in case the publisher photocopies the manuscript. Any correction longer than a short phrase should be provided as a separate document and inserted in the manuscript following the page to which it pertains—clearly labeled in both places to show where it should be inserted. Finally, to facilitate photocopying, use good-quality paper in a standard size—usually 8½ × 11 inches or A4 (210 × 297 mm). See also 2.43. prep guidelines: Many publishers have specific requirements or preferences regarding choice of software and typeface, as well as formats for submitting illustrations and tables along with the manuscript. These should be followed to the letter. Consistency and simplicity in all matters is essential. Authors should know that their manuscripts will almost always be converted into another software environment for publication and that, therefore, the consistency and accuracy of the content (i.e., the words themselves and the order in which they are presented) are more important than the style of presentation. As long as the basic structure of chapters and sections and the like is clear, a simple presentation is always preferable to an elaborately formatted manuscript. Authors who want a more explicit idea of what publishers look for in the format and structure of a manuscript would do well to consider the steps in a manuscript editor's typical cleanup routine (see 2.80). line spacing: Though authors may prefer to use less line spacing on the screen, publishers have customarily required that any printout be double-spaced—including all extracts and lists, footnotes or endnotes, bibliographies or reference lists, and any other material. The extra line spacing is crucial for manuscripts edited with pencil on paper; some publishers will choose to edit the paper copy and update the electronic files based on this edited copy. (Authors concerned about saving paper are encouraged to consult with their publishers about line-spacing requirements and any option for sending PDF instead of paper; see 2.4.) Avoid extra space or blank lines between paragraphs (see 2.12). If such a break is intended to appear in the printed version, indicate this explicitly with three asterisks set on a line by themselves (see also 1.58). If blank space rather than an ornament is preferred, specify this in a note to the publisher. For stanza breaks in poetry, see 2.20. margins: To avoid the appearance of inconsistent spacing between words and sentences, all text in a manuscript should be presented flush left (ragged right)—that is, lines should not be "justified" to the right margin. To leave enough room for handwritten queries, margins of at least one inch should appear on all four sides of the hard copy.

communication with authors

Writing author comments and queries: Editors may generally impose a consistent style and correct errors without further comment—assuming these changes are apparent on the edited manuscript. Corrections to less obvious problems may warrant a comment. Comments should be concise, and they should avoid sounding casual, pedantic, condescending, or indignant; often, a simple "OK?" is enough. Comments that are not answerable by a yes or a no may be more specific: "Do you mean X or Y?" Examples of instances in which an editor might comment or query include the following: To note, on an electronic manuscript, that a particular global change has been corrected silently (i.e., without marking or tracking the change) after the first instance To point out a discrepancy, as between two spellings in a name, or between a source cited differently in the notes than in the bibliography To point out an apparent omission, such as a missing quotation mark or a missing source citation To point out a possible error in a quotation To point out repetition (e.g., "Repetition intentional?" or "Rephrased to avoid repetition; OK?") To ask for verification, as of a name or term whose spelling cannot be easily verified To ask for clarification where the text is ambiguous or garbled To point to the sources an editor has consulted in correcting errors of fact (but see 2.56) For the mechanics of entering queries on a manuscript, see 2.87 (for electronic manuscripts) and 2.92 (for paper manuscripts). Writing a cover letter to the author The letter sent to the author with the edited manuscript, or sometimes separately, should include some or all of the following items (unless already communicated): An explanation of the nature and scope of the editing—for example, adjustment of spelling and punctuation to conform to house style (or to a particular style manual) and occasional rephrasing for clarity or to eliminate inadvertent repetition If the editing has been shown, an indication of how this has been done—that is, with change-tracking (redlining) software (see 2.84) or with pencil and paper (2.91)—and brief instructions for interpreting the marks Instructions as to how the author should respond to queries, veto any unwanted editing, and make any further adjustments to the edited manuscript (see 2.88, 2.91) A warning that the author's review of the edited manuscript constitutes the last opportunity to make any substantive changes, additions, or deletions and that quoted matter and citations should be checked if necessary A reminder to review the editing carefully, since even editors are fallible and the correction of any errors missed in editing and not caught until proofs may be deemed "author's alterations" and charged to the author (see 2.136) A reminder to retain a copy of the reviewed and corrected manuscript (to refer to at the proofreading stage) The deadline for return of the edited copy A brief discussion about the index, if any—whether the author is to prepare it, whether instructions are needed (see chapter 16), or whether a freelance indexer is to be engaged at the author's expense A request for confirmation of the author's contact information and availability for the rest of the publishing process sending edited manuscript to the author: An electronically edited book manuscript—because of its length and, often, its complexity—may be sent to the author as hard copy (or as a PDF file that the author is asked to print out). The author reads and marks this printout as necessary, then returns it to the editor, who incorporates the author's marks into the electronic manuscript. The author may instead review the electronic manuscript (using the same word-processing software that the editor has used)—a procedure that saves printing and shipping costs. An editor working with an author in this manner needs to make sure the author does not make any undocumented changes—inadvertently or otherwise. (One strategy is to lock the document for editing such that any changes the author makes will be visibly tracked.) Alternatively, especially for article-length works, an author may be asked to review and annotate a PDF version of the edited manuscript on-screen (see 2.133). A pencil-edited manuscript should be scanned or photocopied before being sent to the author; likewise, authors are advised to photocopy or scan paper manuscripts with their handwritten comments before sending them back to the editor. Any manuscript that has been pencil edited—as well as electronically edited printouts that have been marked up by hand—is one of a kind; if lost, the work must be done over. Checking the author's review of the edited manuscript: When the manuscript comes back from the author, the editor goes through it once again to see what the author has done, checking that all queries have been answered and editing any new material. (If the author has rewritten extensively, another editing pass and author review may be needed.) Except for style adjustments, the author's version should prevail; if that version is unacceptable for any reason, a compromise should be sought. As a part of this process, the editor updates the electronic files (see 2.89) or, if a manuscript is to be updated or typeset from a pencil-edited paper copy, clarifies or retypes the new material and crosses out the queries (see

Back Matter

presents sources or source notes, appendixes, and other types of documentation supporting the text but outside its central focus or narrative

manuscript formatting

tab versus indent Tabs are entered with the Tab key. Indents are applied using a word processor's indentation feature. Tabs can usually be identified on-screen by the right-pointing arrows that will appear in most word-processing programs when nonprinting characters are revealed; aside from the position of the text, indents are generally signaled on a graphical ruler or by a dialog box for paragraph formatting. (In word processing, a "paragraph" is any string of text that begins on a new line and is followed by a hard return, including not only the blocks of text traditionally referred to as paragraphs but also items in a list, headings, etc.) There are three basic types of indent: First-line indent. A first-line indent (also called a paragraph indent) is normally applied to each new paragraph of regular text. As its name suggests, only the first line is indented (from the left margin). A first-line indent can be applied either using a word processor's indentation feature or with a tab. Choose one method and use it consistently. Left or right indent. A left indent applies an equal indent relative to the left margin for each line in a paragraph, including the first line and any runover lines, and can be used to set off prose and poetry extracts. Never use tabs to achieve left indents. Indents from the right margin are usually not needed at the manuscript stage. Hanging indent. A hanging indent (also called flush-and-hang), in which every line but the first is indented from the left margin, is used for the items in a list, including a bibliography or reference list or an index. Never use tabs to achieve hanging indents. In some cases, it will be necessary to use a first-line or hanging indent in combination with a left indent (as for a new paragraph in a block quotation or for a poetry extract; see 2.19, 2.20). For the purposes of the manuscript, the typical default value for tabs or indents can normally be used (usually half an inch). Avoid using two or more consecutive tabs. With the exception of a tab at the beginning of a new paragraph or a tab after a number or symbol in a vertical list (see 2.21), tabs should never appear within a paragraph. paragraph format: Each new paragraph should begin with a first-line indent, applied either with the Tab key or with your word processor's indentation feature (see 2.11); do not use the Space bar. Never use the Enter key or the Tab key in the middle of a paragraph; let the word processor determine the breaks at the ends of lines. Be sure to eliminate any extra character space or tab after the final punctuation at the end of a paragraph; the hard return should follow the punctuation immediately. When a paragraph is interrupted by a prose or poetry extract, list, equation, or the like, the text after the interruption begins flush left (i.e., with no first-line indent) unless it constitutes a new paragraph. For prose extracts, see 2.19; for poetry, see 2.20; for lists, see 2.21. See also 2.24. hyphenation: The hyphenation function on your word processor should be turned off. The only hyphens that should appear in the manuscript are hyphens that would appear regardless of where they appeared on the page (e.g., in compound forms). Do not worry if such a hyphen happens to fall at the end of a line or if the right-hand margin is extremely ragged. By the same token, do not attempt to manually break excessively long words (e.g., long URLs) with a hyphen. See also 2.96. dashes: For an em dash—one that indicates a break in a sentence like this—either use the em dash character on your word processor or type two hyphens (leave no space on either side). The 3-em dash, used in some bibliographies for a repeated author name, is usually best left to the manuscript editor; if it must be used, insert either three consecutive em dashes or six unspaced hyphens (see also 14.67). (For more on the em dash, see 6.85-92, 6.93-94.) Ensuring proper use of the en dash—a shorter dash that has special significance in certain types of compounds and in number ranges—is usually considered the manuscript editor's responsibility; authors can generally avoid the en dash and use hyphens instead. (For more on the en dash, see 6.78-84.) Italics, underline, boldfaced: Though underlining will generally be construed by publishers to mean italics, italics should be used instead wherever italics are intended. (In an electronically redlined manuscript, underlining may denote editorial changes; see 2.84 and fig. 2.4.) An author who intends underlining rather than italics to appear in certain instances in the published work must make these instances clear in a letter to the publisher (or a note to the manuscript editor). Use boldface only for words that must appear thus in the published version (but see 2.18). special characters: As far as your software allows, use the character that you intend rather than any keyboard substitute. For example, if you want a prime symbol, use the prime symbol from your word processor's list of special characters rather than an apostrophe. Since the advent of the Unicode standard for character encoding (see 11.2), many software environments include a wide array of special characters without the need for special fonts or other add-ons. Nonetheless, if you run up against a character that is not available to you, enclose a descriptive shorthand in angle brackets; for example, <bhook>aci might indicate that the publisher should render the Hausa word ɓaci. In either case, include a list of special characters used in your manuscript. See tables 11.1 and 11.2, which list some special characters and their names and hexadecimal code points for Unicode. Your list should show how each character is supposed to look; if a character is unavailable to you, copy the correct character from the applicable code chart from the Unicode website or elsewhere or draw it in by hand. If you plan to use a special font that may not support Unicode, consult your publisher first. For quotation marks and apostrophes, see 6.115, 6.117. format for chpt. titles: Titles for chapters and other parts of a manuscript usually begin on a new page. Use upper- and lowercase letters rather than full capitals. The titles should match the entries in the table of contents. "Chapter 1," "Chapter 2," and so on should appear above the titles to numbered chapters. (For an overview of the parts of a book or a journal, see chapter 1.) Format for Subheads: Set each subhead on a new line, flush left. Each level of subhead must be clearly distinguished so that the different levels can be identified and carried over for publication. Levels can be distinguished by font size (e.g., larger for first-level subheads, smaller for second-level heads, etc.). A word processor's style palette can be useful in applying such distinctions and in managing subhead levels. (Authors are encouraged to consult their publishers' manuscript preparation guidelines for the preferred approach.) Use upper- and lowercase letters rather than full capitals. Chicago prefers headline-style capitalization for subheads (see 8.159), with no period added at the end. An exception is made for run-in heads, which are usually italicized and followed by a period and capitalized sentence-style (see 8.158). See also 1.56 format for prose extracts: Prose extracts (also called block quotations) should be indented from the left margin using your word processor's indentation feature, never with tabs. The first line should not have an additional paragraph indent. If there is more than one paragraph within the extract, however, each new paragraph should begin with an additional first-line paragraph indent, which can be added using the Tab key or your word processor's indentation feature. See 2.11. Use a hard return only at the end of the extract and after any paragraphs within the extract. Prose extracts should have the same line spacing as the surrounding text (see 2.8); they do not need to appear in a smaller font. The text that follows an extract should get a first-line indent only if it constitutes a new paragraph; if it continues the text that introduced the extract, it should start flush left (see 2.12). See also 13.22-24. For ellipses, see 13.50-58. format for poetry extract: A poetry extract should be indented but not centered (even if it might appear centered in the printed version). Use your word processor's indentation feature to assign both a left indent and a hanging indent to each line. Let runover lines wrap to the next line normally; use a hard return at the end of each full line of poetry but never in the middle of a line, and do not use the Tab key to indent runovers. See 2.11. Runover lines must be clearly distinguished from indented lines of poetry. If certain lines of a poem are to receive a deeper indent than others, increase the left indent value accordingly. For poetry with unusual spacing or indentation, append a photocopy or scan of the original printed poem. Indicate a stanza break with an extra hard return. The source, if given after the extract, should appear in parentheses on a separate line, indented like the first line of the poem. (In the published version, the source may appear flush right.) Poetry extracts should have the same line spacing as the surrounding text (see 2.8); they do not need to appear in a smaller font. The text that follows a poetry extract should get a first-line indent only if it constitutes a new paragraph; if it continues the text that introduced the extract, it should start flush left (see 2.12). See also 13.25-29. For ellipses, see 13.57. Format for lists and outlines: Items in an unnumbered list should be formatted using your word processor's indentation feature to assign both a left indent and a hanging indent. Let runover lines wrap to the next line normally; do not use the Tab key to indent runovers. See 2.11. In addition, in a numbered or lettered list (including a multilevel list or outline), each number or letter should normally be followed by a period or other punctuation and a tab. Bullets in a bulleted list are likewise followed by a tab. Alternatively, you may use your word processor's list and outline features, which will apply the necessary indents, tabs, and numbers, letters, punctuation, or symbols automatically. (These automatically generated numbers or letters or symbols may need to be converted to regular text to ensure compatibility with the software used for publication, a task that is normally considered to be the manuscript editor's or publisher's responsibility.) The text that follows a list should get a first-line indent only if it constitutes a new paragraph; if it continues the text that introduced the list, it should start flush left (see 2.12). See also 6.127-32. format for footnotes and endnotes: To take advantage of automatic renumbering, create notes that are linked to the text by using the footnote or endnote function on your word processor. The text of the notes should have the same line spacing as the rest of the manuscript; do not insert an extra hard return between notes (see also 2.8). Unless your publisher requests otherwise, in the manuscript notes may appear either as footnotes or as chapter or book endnotes (starting over at 1 for each chapter), regardless of how they are to appear in the published version. Do not mix footnotes and endnotes unless such a system is truly necessary (see 14.49). Avoid appending note references to chapter titles (see 1.49). Notes to tables should be numbered separately (see 2.31). For note form, see 14.24-60. For some considerations related to citation management software, see 14.5. Format for glossaries and lists of abbreviations: Each entry in a glossary or list of abbreviations should begin on a new line, capitalized only if the term is capitalized in the text. Separate each term from the definition that follows with a period, a colon, or an em dash (choose one and use it consistently; see also 1.61, 2.14). In a glossary, begin the definition with a capital letter, as if it were a new sentence; in a list of abbreviations, the expanded term should be capitalized or lowercased as it would be in text. Unless all definitions consist of incomplete sentences, each glossary entry should end with a period. Any term or abbreviation that is consistently italicized in the text (not just on first use) should also be italicized in the glossary or list of abbreviations. (Abbreviations of consistently italicized terms should generally themselves be italicized; see also 14.60.) Entries should have the same line spacing as the rest of the manuscript (see 2.8) and may be formatted in flush-and-hang style or with ordinary first-line paragraph indents (see 2.11). Avoid multiple columns. See also 1.44 and 1.61. Format for bibliographies and reference lists: Each entry in a bibliography or reference list should begin on a new line. Use your word processor's indentation feature to assign a hanging indent to each line. Never use the Tab key to indent runover lines. See 2.11. Use the same line spacing as for the rest of the manuscript (see 2.8). For capitalization, use of italics, and other matters of bibliographic style, see chapter 14. For some considerations related to citation management software, see 14.5. Format for abstracts and keywords: Authors may be required to submit an abstract and keywords, not only for the book as a whole but for individual chapters as well. Abstracts and keywords are typically submitted as a separate file; some publishers provide a template. A book abstract normally consists of a single paragraph, not longer than 500 words, with no tables, lists, illustrations, or notes; chapter abstracts are usually somewhat shorter. (Publishers will often specify a word limit for each.) The book abstract should give a clear summary of the book's main arguments and conclusions. Chapter abstracts should give a clear overview of each chapter. Keywords, typically a set of five to ten key terms, accompany the book abstract, with additional sets for any chapter abstracts. Keywords are designed to enhance a book's visibility to search engines by repeating significant terms found in the abstract, though they can also include a synonym or other related term that users might be expected to enter in a search. Each keyword should consist of a single word (e.g., Olympics) or an accepted compound of no more than a few words (e.g., table tennis). Authors should take care in writing an abstract and choosing keywords; though they usually do not appear in the book itself (except in the sciences), they often form the basis of the promotional copy or descriptive metadata shared with libraries and booksellers. See also 1.76. Journal publishers usually have their own set of requirements for abstracts that authors can consult; see also 1.93. Formatting and submitting illustrations, captions, and tables: Publishers usually prefer separate files for illustrations. Many publishers also prefer tables in separate files, but those created using a word processor may not need to be; consult your publisher. The approximate placement of illustrations or tables submitted as separate files should be called out in the text, keeping in mind that the exact locations of figures in a manuscript will be determined during typesetting (see 2.30). Captions for all illustrations should be furnished in a separate file; any list of illustrations should follow the table of contents (see 1.39). For a more detailed overview of illustrations and tables, see chapter 3.

How to Mar proofs

2.120: Where to mark proofs: Corrections to proofs must always be written in the margin, left or right, next to the line concerned. A mark must also be placed in the text—a caret for an addition, a line through a letter or word to be deleted or replaced—to indicate where a correction is to be made. Never should a correction be written or marked only between the lines, where it could be missed. If a line requires two or more corrections, these should be marked in the margin in the order in which they occur, separated by vertical lines (see fig. 2.7). A guideline or an arrow should be used only when a correction cannot be written next to the line in which it occurs. 2.121: Circling comments and instructions on proofs: As with queries and instructions handwritten on a paper manuscript (see 2.93), verbal instructions written on proofs—such as "see attached typescript" or "ital" or "rom"—should be circled. Such circling indicates that these are instructions and that the words and abbreviations themselves should not be incorporated into the actual work. 2.122: Communicating extensive changes on proofs: Wherever the marks required to fix a line or two threaten to become illegible, cross out the whole passage and rewrite it correctly in the margin. If there is not enough room in the margin, make a separate document and include it with the proofs; the insertion point should be indicated in both places. To avoid repagination of print works, every effort must be made to match the word count of new material to that of the old. For material to be transposed from one page to another, circle or otherwise mark the passage and make a note in the margin; clearly mark the new location and make a note in that margin as well. Most types of global changes should be marked individually to ensure that each change is made correctly (see also 2.113 2.123: Making marks legible on proofs: All corrections must be written clearly (such that they can be spotted at a glance) in upper- and lowercase letters. Red proof markings are often preferred for visibility, but any color will do as long as the proofreader's corrections are distinct from any made by the publisher or typesetter. Either a pen or a pencil may be used; in either case, the proofreader must be prepared to eradicate unwanted marks. Messy corrections may lead to further errors; indistinct corrections may be overlooked. If a small number of late-stage, hand-marked corrections to proofs must be transmitted to the typesetter electronically, the marks must be dark enough to scan or fax clearly, and they must not extend to the edges of the paper lest they be cut off on the recipient's copy. 2.124: Marking copy for deletion on proofs To remove a letter, a word, or more, draw a diagonal line through a letter or a straight line through a word or phrase and write the delete mark (see fig. 2.6) in the margin. No part of the text should be obliterated, and a punctuation mark that is to be removed should be circled rather than crossed through, so that it is still visible. The form of the delete mark in the margin need not be exactly as shown in figure 2.6, but it should be made in such a way as not to be confused with a d, an e, or an l. The delete mark is used only when something is to be removed. When something is to be substituted for the deleted matter, only the substitution is written in the margin next to the line or lines that have been struck through. The mark for "delete and close up" should be used only when a letter or a hyphen is deleted from within a word or, in the case of longer deletions, when the material that remains is to be joined with no intervening space. See figure 2.7. 2.125: Adding or deleting spaces on proofs All words in the same line should be separated by the same amount of space, though the spacing will vary from line to line in justified setting (where type is aligned along both the left and the right margins). When spaces within a line are unequal, insert carets in the problem areas of the text and write the equal-space mark (eq #) in the margin. To delete space between letters or words, use the close-up mark (see fig. 2.6) in the text as well as in the margin. To call for more space between words or letters, insert a vertical line in the text where the space is to be inserted and make a space mark (#) in the margin. The space mark is also used to show where more vertical space (or leading, a term derived from the lead that was used in hot-metal typesetting) is needed between lines. See also 2.98. 2.126: Marking changes to paragraphing or indents on proofs To indicate a new paragraph, insert an L-shaped mark in the text to the left and partly under the word that is to begin a new paragraph and write the paragraph mark (¶) in the margin. To run two paragraphs together, draw a line in the text from the end of one paragraph to the beginning of the next and write "run in" in the margin. To indent a line one em space (see 6.120) from the left or right margin, draw a small square (□) to the left of the material to be indented and repeat the square in the margin. To indent two or more ems, draw a rectangle divided into two or more squares. To repeat the indents for more than one consecutive line, draw a line down from the square to the level of the baseline of the last affected line. 2.127: Marking adjustments to position or alignment on proofs If a line of type, a title, an item in a table, or any other text appears too far to the left or right, use the marks for moving type right (⊐) or left (⊏). If text that is supposed to be centered appears not to be, use both marks (⊐⊏)—one on each side—to indicate centering. Use the marks for moving type up (⊓) or down (⊔) when something appears vertically out of place. All these marks must be inserted in the text as well as in the margin. To indicate that an indented line of type should start flush left (at the left-hand margin), insert a move-left (⊏) mark at the left of the first word in that line and write "fl" (flush left) in the margin, circled (see fig. 2.7). To indicate that an element should appear flush right—or that a line of type should be justified at the right margin—do the same thing but with the move-right (⊐) mark and marginal "fr" (flush right) or "justify." Finally, to indicate inaccurate alignment in tabular matter, use the mark for vertical alignment (║) or horizontal alignment (═), as the case may be. To apply any of these marks to more than one consecutive line (or column), make the mark long enough to encompass each affected line. 2.128: Marking items to be transposed on proofs: To move letters, words, or phrases from one place to another, circumscribe them in a way that precisely demarcates the items (including any punctuation) to be interchanged and write and circle "tr" (transpose) in the margin (see fig. 2.7). For transposition of larger chunks of text or other elements, it may be best to draw a bracket or other mark around each item and include a circled instruction in the margin. 2.129: Marking items to be spelled out on proofs When an abbreviation or numeral is to be spelled out, circle the item and write the spell-out mark (circled "sp") in the margin. If there is any ambiguity about the spelling, write the full word in the margin. See also 2.93. 2.130: Using "stet" to revert corrections or deletions on proofs To undelete or restore something that has earlier been marked for deletion or correction, place a row of dots in the text under the material that is to remain, cross out the marginal mark or correction, and write "stet" ("let it stand")—or to avoid any ambiguity, "stet as set"—in the margin, circled. 2.131: Marking changes to capitalization and font on proofs To lowercase a capital letter, draw a slash through the letter and write "lc" in the margin. To capitalize a lowercase letter, draw three lines under it and write "cap" in the margin. For small capital letters, draw two lines under the letters or words and write "sc" in the margin. For italics, draw a single line under the letter or words and write "ital" in the margin. To change italics to roman, circle the italicized letter or words and write "rom" in the margin. For boldface, draw a wavy line under the letter or words and write "bf" in the margin. To remove boldface, circle the boldface letter or words and write "not bf" in the margin. Remember to circle all marginal instructions (see 2.121). See also figs. 2.6 and 2.7. 2.132: Marking changes to punctuation and accents on proofs: To change a punctuation mark, circle it and write the correct mark in the margin. To add a mark, insert a caret and write the mark in the margin. Lest they be missed or misinterpreted, all punctuation marks in the margin should be clarified thus: a comma should have a caret over it; an apostrophe or a quotation mark should have an inverted caret under it; a parenthesis should have two short horizontal lines through it; a period should be circled; semicolons and colons should be followed by a short vertical line; question marks and exclamation points should be accompanied by the circled word "set"; and hyphens, en dashes, and em dashes should be differentiated by their appropriate symbols (see fig. 2.6). If an accent or a diacritical mark is missing or incorrect, the entire letter should be crossed out in the text and written in the margin with its correct accent; never must the accent alone appear in the margin. For clarity, the name of any unusual accent or diacritical mark (e.g., "breve") should also be written and circled in the margin (see 11.2). 2.133: Proofreading tools for PDF: The proofreading symbols and related markup developed for paper and pencil have been adapted for PDF readers by Adobe and others. The advantages of proofreading online—including searchable text and comments, typed annotations, automatic time and user stamps, no shipping costs, and quick turnaround—have influenced some publishers to incorporate PDF tools into their proofreading workflow. (Those who prefer to proofread on paper can still do so as long as they have access to a printer and are willing to transfer their marks to PDF later on.) With PDF proofreading tools, any annotation or other markup added to a page will automatically generate a corresponding item in a separate list that identifies the annotation by type and records the name of the reviser, the date and time the annotation was entered or last revised, the page number, and the text of the annotation, if any. Tools typically include options for striking out, inserting, or replacing text, adding highlighting or underscoring, inserting notes, and drawing lines and other shapes. As on paper, such markup overlays the text, leaving the original unchanged. It is important to avoid redundant markup (e.g., the use of one tool to draw a line through a word and a different tool to insert a correction in the same place); choose a single tool wherever possible, adding at most a virtual note to ensure that the intent of the markup is understood (e.g., "Correct spelling to 'felicidad' and put word in italics as shown"). All annotations should be apparent on the page, but the list can help ensure that none are missed. Whoever is responsible for making the changes can go systematically through the document and use the available tools to mark each item in the list as corrected (or not), further annotating any of the items as needed

the mechanics of editing on paper

2.90: Keeping a clean copy of paper manuscripts An editor working on paper should always keep a clean copy of the unedited manuscript to refer to—or as a backup in case any reediting is necessary. If the paper copy is a printout of an electronic manuscript, it is enough to archive a copy of the latter. 2.91: Marking manuscripts on paper Editing a manuscript on paper—whether it is to be typeset from scratch or used to update the author's electronic manuscript—requires a technique similar to the one used for marking corrections on proofs (see 2.119-33). To allow for the more extensive changes typical of the editing stage, however, paper manuscripts are usually double-spaced so that editing can appear above the word or words it pertains to, rather than in the margin. (Manuscripts that consist of photocopies of tightly spaced previously published material are edited in the manner of page proofs.) All editorial changes should be made in a color that will reproduce clearly if the edited manuscript is photocopied or faxed, and the author should be asked to respond to the editing in a color distinct from that used by the editor. For marking queries, see 2.92. For a sample of a correctly marked manuscript, see figure 2.5. 2.92: Marking author queries on paper manuscripts Chapter Contents / Manuscript Editing / The Mechanics of Editing on Paper In manuscripts edited on paper, queries are best written in the margin. When the author has responded, they can simply be crossed out. Chicago discourages the use of sticky notes for queries: they cannot be easily photocopied, and they may have to be detached in the process of updating the electronic files or (for paper-only manuscripts) typesetting the final pages (and thus may no longer be in place when the pencil-edited manuscript is sent back to the author with the proofs). For more extensive queries that require more space than the margin affords, a separate sheet, keyed by letter or symbol to a specific place in the manuscript, may be prepared 2.93: Three uses for circling: Circling has three meanings on a manuscript. (1) Circling a number or an abbreviation in the text means that the element is to be spelled out. If a number can be spelled out in different ways, or if an abbreviation could possibly be misconstrued, the editor should write out the form required. (2) Circling a comma or a colon means that a period is to replace the comma or colon; when a period is inserted by hand, it should be circled so it will not be missed by whoever is updating or typesetting the manuscript. (3) Circling a marginal comment shows that the comment is not to be set in type (or incorporated into the manuscript) but is either a query to the author or an instruction for typesetting or updating the manuscript. 2.94: Inserting, deleting, and substituting: A regular caret (⋀), used to indicate an insertion point for added text but also used to indicate subscripts (and, similarly, to indicate an added comma), should be carefully distinguished from an inverted caret (⋁), used to mark superscripts, apostrophes, and the like. But, in general, do not use a caret to indicate added text that is being substituted for deleted text; simply cross out the deleted text and write the text to be substituted above it. 2.95: Adding, deleting, or transposing punctuation: Special attention should be paid to punctuation when words are transposed or deleted; the new position of commas, periods, and the like must be clearly shown. Likewise, any punctuation at the beginning or end of text marked for transposition must be clearly marked for deletion or inclusion, as the case may be. More generally, any added or changed punctuation should be clearly marked—for example, by circling an added period, placing a caret over an added comma, or placing an inverted caret under added quotation marks. If necessary, write (and circle) "colon," "exclamation point," or whatever applies, either in the margin or close to the punctuation change. 2.96: Marking dashes and hyphens: Two hyphens with no space between or on either side clearly signal em dashes and need not be marked on a paper-only manuscript. Actual em dashes, which may be mistaken for en dashes in some typefaces, should be marked; 2- or 3-em dashes, even if consistently typed, should also be marked, as should en dashes, which might be mistaken for hyphens. Alternatively, a global instruction may be issued—for example, "all hyphens between inclusive numbers are to be set as en dashes." End-of-line hyphens should be marked to distinguish between soft (i.e., conditional or optional) and hard hyphens. Soft hyphens are those hyphens that are invoked only to break a word at the end of a line; hard hyphens are permanent (such as those in cul-de-sac) and must remain no matter where the hyphenated word or term appears. See also 2.13. 2.97: Capitalizing, lowercasing, and marking for italics or boldface To indicate that a lowercase letter should be capitalized, triple underline it; to make it a small capital, double underline it. To lowercase a capital letter, run a slanted line through it. To mark for italics, underscore the word(s) to be italicized with a straight line; for boldface, make the underscoring wavy. For manuscripts that are to be typeset from scratch, there is usually no need to underline words that appear in italics in the manuscript, as long as the typesetter is instructed to italicize them. (Italics in some fonts are difficult to distinguish at a glance; underlining may reduce the incidence of missed italics.) If an author has used both underlining and italics, special instructions are needed (see 2.15). For mathematical copy, see 2.98: Marking paragraph indents, flush left or right, and vertical spacing Use a three-sided rectangular mark to indicate that text or other elements should be moved to the left (⊏) or to the right (⊐). A line may be drawn from the open side of the mark to the element to be moved (see fig. 2.5). To indicate paragraph indents, use the symbol ¶. To mark vertical space, use a rectangular mark that "points" up (⊓) or down (⊔); adjust the width to accommodate the element. To indicate a blank line, write "one-line #" and circle it. (In typographic usage the sign # means space, not number.) 2.99: Marking the components of a paper manuscript The components of a paper manuscript—chapter number and title, subheads, prose extracts, poetry, and so forth—are marked with labels or descriptions that are circled and placed at the beginning of the element or in the margin next to it. For example, a circled "A" may be used to indicate a first-level subhead (see fig. 2.5). The handwritten labels are similar to the ones that can be used for generic markup in an electronic manuscript (see 2.81). See also 2.93.

inflection

is a process of word formation,[1] in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and definiteness.[2] The inflection of verbs is called conjugation, and one can refer to the inflection of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, determiners, participles, prepositions and postpositions, numerals, articles etc., as declension.

roman numerals for front matter

The front matter of a book is paginated with lowercase roman numerals (see 1.4). This traditional practice prevents renumbering the remainder of a book when, for example, a dedication page or additional acknowledgments are added at the last moment. By convention, no folio appears on blank pages or on "display" pages (i.e., such stand-alone pages as those for the half title, title, copyright, dedication, and epigraph), and a drop folio (or no folio) is used on the opening page of each succeeding section of the front matter (e.g., table of contents, foreword, preface

publishing history

The publishing history of a book, which usually follows the copyright notice, begins with the date (year) of original publication, followed by the number and date of any new edition. In books with a long publishing history, it is acceptable to present only the original edition and the latest edition in the publishing history. (A previous publisher's name need not be given unless the licensing agreement requires that it appear in the new edition.) Items in the publishing history may appear on separate lines; periods separate multiple items on the same line. First edition published 1906. Seventeenth edition 2017. Revised edition originally published 1999 University of Chicago Press edition 2010

symposium

a meeting for discussing a particular subject; a collection of writings on a subject

participial adjectives

an adjective that is a participle in origin and form, such as burned, cutting, engaged.

title page

The title page (p. iii or sometimes pp. ii and iii) includes the following elements: Full title of the book Subtitle, if any Name of the author, editor ("Edited by"), or translator ("Translated by") Edition number, for a new edition (see 1.25, 1.26) Name and location (city or cities) of publisher No colon or other punctuation is needed between title and subtitle if they are differentiated by type size or style. The author's name should appear in the form preferred by the author or by which the author is generally known; Chicago usually omits any academic degrees or affiliations (but see 1.66). A publisher's logo may appear on the title page. Some publishers include the date of publication, which should correspond to the copyright date if possible (see 1.22). Self-publishers can follow this traditional arrangement as long as they publish under their own company name or imprint; if not, information about the publisher can be omitted (though some commercial self-publishing platforms may add their own imprints).

Preprints and "in press" articles and articles published ahead of print

Manuscripts are sometimes released before publication: authors themselves may circulate drafts within a research community, or they may circulate versions submitted to a journal. They may post drafts on a preprint server—as is standard practice in the physics community—or on their own web pages. Some journals post "in press" or "forthcoming" articles on their website that have been accepted but not yet edited. These versions of an article are not to be confused with the final, edited electronic articles published in advance of the print issue (see 1.112). To facilitate publication of the latter, some journals in the sciences have adopted a continuous publishing model, according to which articles are published in final form individually, independent of any future print issue in which they may appear (see also 1.82).

Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

Publishers that have registered their books with Crossref or one of the other international DOI registration agencies should list the DOI that refers to the book as a whole on the copyright page (see fig. 1.1). A DOI is a permanent identifier that can be used to find a book or other resource in any of its available formats, either as a link (in the form of a URL that begins https://doi-org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/) or using a metadata search tool like the one available at Crossref.org. (Crossref recommends always presenting the DOI as a link.) Like an ISBN, the DOI should also appear on the book jacket or cover and should be included as part of a book's metadata (see 1.75). See also 14.8.

folio

. The page number, or folio, is most commonly found at the top of the page, flush left verso, flush right recto. The folio may also be printed at the bottom of the page, and in that location it is called a drop folio. Drop folios usually appear either centered on each page or flush left verso and flush right recto. A page number that does not appear is sometimes referred to as a blind folio. Not paginated are pages that are inserted into printed books after pages have been made up—for example, color illustrations or photo galleries printed on a different type of paper

separate acknowledgements

If the author's acknowledgments are long, they may be put in a separate section following the preface; if a preface consists only of acknowledgments, its title should be changed to Acknowledgments. Acknowledgments may instead be put at the back of a book, preceding other back matter, a common practice especially for books targeted to the general reader. Acknowledgments that apply to all volumes of a multivolume work may be presented only in the first. See also 4.102-3.

divisions of poetry / letters

In a book of previously unpublished poetry, each poem usually begins on a new page. Any part titles provided by the poet should then appear on separate pages (rectos) preceding the poems grouped under them. In a collection of previously published poems, more than one poem, or the end of one and the beginning of another, may appear on the same page. Letters and diaries are usually presented in chronological order, so they are seldom amenable to division into chapters or parts. For diary entries, dates may be used as headings, and in published correspondence the names of senders or recipients of letters (or both) may serve as headings. The date of a letter may be included in the heading if it does not appear in the letter itself. Such headings in diaries and correspondence do not usually begin a new page.

Half title

The half title (p. i in a printed book, no folio) normally consists only of the main title (less any subtitle) and is usually counted as the very first page in a printed-and-bound book. All other information—including author name, publisher, and edition—is omitted.

sentences

5.217: Simple sentence A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clause {no man is an island}. A sentence can be simple despite having internal compound constructions serving as subjects, main verbs, objects of prepositions, and others {time and tide wait for no man}. 5.218: Compound sentence A compound sentence contains two independent clauses (called coordinate clauses) with no dependent clause {the rain was heavy, and my umbrella was not much help}. Grammarians are divided on the question whether one type of sentence should be labeled compound or simple: She arrived early and stayed late. Traditional grammarians have tended to call this a simple sentence with a compound predicate (where arrived and stayed are coordinate verbs). Transformational grammarians have tended to call it a compound sentence with an elided subject in the second clause {she arrived early[,] and [she] stayed late}.

Exclamations

An exclamation expresses the extent to which a speaker is moved, aroused, impressed, or disgusted by something. It can take the form of a simple interjection {by golly!} {pishposh!}. Or it can follow a sentence structure consisting of what or how followed by a subject and verb {what an extraordinary novel this is!} {how well she writes!}. Exclamations are sometimes elliptically expressed {what finery!} {how pretty!} {how ugly!}. In formal, literary English, exclamations can be signaled by inverted word order {little did I expect such unfair treatment}.

Publication formats for journal

The majority of scholarly journals are offered either in print and electronic formats or electronically only. Even the few remaining print-only journals generally rely on a mostly electronic workflow. Electronically published journals usually contain all the material included in any printed counterpart except, in some cases, advertising. Electronic journals typically present articles and other content in one of two ways (and often both): (1) as PDF files that correspond to the pages of the journal's print issues (if any); or (2) as full-text HTML suitable for viewing in a web browser and containing features and supplementary materials not available in the print edition (see 1.78, 1.114). Some journals also offer their content in EPUB or other e-book formats. (For definitions of PDF, HTML, EPUB, and related terms, see 1.118.) Although a printed article should include all elements that are essential to understanding, interpreting, and documenting the text, many journals publish special materials electronically that are not available in the print version. These features—usually referred to collectively as supplementary data or supporting information—may include very large tables, supplemental reading lists, multimedia components, large data sets that can be exported to third-party software for analysis, or color versions of figures published in black and white in the printed journal; some of this material may constitute the basis of an online-only appendix (see also 1.114). In addition, some journals release unedited versions of manuscripts that have been accepted for publication (see 1.113). With the exception of these "in press" or "forthcoming" versions, any electronic-only articles, appendixes, and other features must be listed in the print version (either in the table of contents or on the first page of the applicable article), and differences between the print and electronic versions must be made apparent in the latter. See also 3.26. The issues of a journal are usually identified by volume number and date. The journal as a whole is identified by an International Standard Serial Number (ISSN); electronic journals are assigned a separate ISSN distinct from any counterpart for print. Journal articles are identified in three ways: (1) by page ranges, either print pages or e-pages; (2) by the Copyright Clearance Center code, which includes the ISSN and other information, including an article number (see 1.103); and (3) by Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs). A DOI is a unique, persistent identification string assigned to an article and sometimes to its components—including tables, figures, and multimedia objects that might be sold or packaged separately. (The metadata identifying such components must make it clear that they are part of a larger work; see also 1.92.) A DOI can form the basis of a persistent link when it is appended to https://doi-org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/ (a practice recommended by the DOI registration agency Crossref for DOIs wherever they are listed). See also 14.8. A volume of a journal usually comprises the issues published in a calendar year, though some journals (e.g., Modern Philology) prefer the academic year beginning in the autumn. The issues within a volume are typically numbered with arabic numerals, each new volume beginning with issue number 1. In some journals, however, the cover month, cover date, or season (Spring, Summer, etc., usually capitalized) is used in lieu of an issue number. In others, issue numbering does not start over with each volume, or the journal is numbered consecutively by issue only, with no volume number. For a journal published quarterly, a volume has four issues; for one published monthly, twelve issues. Some journals, however, publish two or more volumes in one year, depending on the frequency and length of issues. Page numbers in a printed journal usually start with 1 in the volume's first issue and run continuously to the end of the volume. An issue always begins on a right-hand page (recto) and ends on a left-hand page (verso); thus the last page of an issue is an even number (though the preceding recto may be counted as the last page of content) and the first page an odd one. If issue 1 ends with page 264 (or 263, if the content ends on the preceding recto), then issue 2 starts on page 265. To help readers identify and cite articles, electronic journals with printed counterparts should list the page ranges that correspond to the printed version alongside information for the article wherever it appears (e.g., in the table of contents, at the head of the article itself, and in the citation data for the article). See figure 1.11. This should be done even for articles that are published in an electronic format that does not feature page breaks. Articles published electronically ahead of print may need to employ "dummy folios" (e.g., 000-000) until the print issue has been paginated. Articles that do not appear in the print version of a journal can use a separate page-numbering system (e.g., E1, E2, etc.), again running continuously to the end of the volume. See also 1.82. To facilitate publication and citation of articles independent of print issues, some journals have adopted a continuous publishing model, according to which each article is assigned a unique citation ID (which can be derived from the DOI for the article; see 1.79) rather than a traditional page range. PDF versions of articles are each paginated starting with the number 1, and individual pages can be cited according to citation ID number plus page number (e.g., 1234, p. 1; 1234, p. 2; etc.); such pagination is considered final and is used instead of the traditional pagination scheme in any print version of the journal. See also 14.174. Running heads or feet typically bear the title of the journal (either spelled out or in abbreviated form); the author's surname or, for more than one author, a shortened version of the author list (such as Aldrich et al.); and the title of the article, usually shortened, or the name of the journal section (such as Brief Reports), or both. Arrangement of these pieces of information across rectos and versos varies among journals. For full-text, scrollable electronic articles, which will not have running heads per se, such information may be presented at the head of each article. Articles that have been downloaded for individual use typically show a URL and date of download in the header or footer of each page. The majority of journal content is consumed in the form of individual articles retrieved by readers through internet or library searches. To facilitate this process, accurate and complete article metadata must be incorporated into the electronic records that a journal publisher shares with libraries and other content providers. Metadata for a journal article includes such elements as the title of the journal and ISSN, volume and issue number, author and author affiliations, article title, page range, publication date, and article DOI. Some of these data elements are printed in the journal issue or on its cover and are displayed along with the article online. Metadata for journals is typically recorded using a standard XML-based syntax and may be retrieved from a separate database or derived from the electronic markup of a journal's articles and other components. In addition to the items mentioned above, article metadata can include information about format (e.g., print, HTML, PDF, or e-book), language, content (including abstract and keywords), subject headings, access rights, sources of funding, and other pertinent details. Other types of metadata can help a publisher track the versions of a document through the proofreading and testing stages or facilitate linking of source citations in a reference list. For more information, including information about best practices, consult the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, an organization responsible for developing standards related to electronic resource description. See also 1.93, 1.117. Many journals—in the sciences especially but also in the social sciences—publish abstracts along with their articles. These summaries, typically limited to a few hundred words or less, are usually supplied by the author and appear at the beginning of an article. Because abstracts are also generally made available as stand-alone items to allow subscribers and nonsubscribers alike to preview an article before they read or purchase it, they normally do not contain cited references or figure callouts or any other direct links to the article itself. The content of an abstract is extremely important because it can influence decisions made by researchers and other potential readers. Some journals have strict guidelines for what an abstract must include and how it should be structured—especially those that publish the results of original research. Abstracts are not usually required for letters, reviews, and other such materials (see 1.94). Abstracts are typically supplemented by keywords—words or phrases that are intended to increase the visibility of an article to search engines and to facilitate indexing (see 1.111). Though keywords normally repeat key terms found in the title, abstract, and text, synonyms or other variations may be added to anticipate search terms. Keyword metadata can be supplied by the author or derived from a controlled vocabulary such as the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) used by the National Library of Medicine. See also 1.92. An article should include—on the first page or, in the full-text electronic version, at or near the top of the article—the title of the article, the author's or authors' name(s), and the copyright line for the particular article (see 1.103). Depending on the journal or on the needs of a given article, the first page may also include the affiliation of each author (and any relevant financial interests or potential conflicts of interest), an address for correspondence and reprints, dates of submission and acceptance of the article and date of electronic publication (most commonly in scientific journals), an abstract and keywords (see 1.93), an acknowledgment note, and sometimes an editor's note. A general section heading such as Articles, Review Essay, or Symposium or a specific heading such as Medical Microbiology may appear above the article title. cross references and links: Full-text electronic journal articles typically include links to elements within the document (e.g., tables and illustrations, reference list entries, and notes) and often also to outside resources such as the sources cited in the reference list and field-specific indexes or databases. They may also include links to supplementary materials not available in the print version (see 1.78). Articles are also typically accompanied by other linked items, including an article-specific list (or menu) that allows readers to move directly to other sections of the article (or to the PDF version) and a standard menu that allows them to move to the issue's table of contents, to the previous or next article in the issue, to the journal's home page, to search options and cited-by data, and to tools for citing and sharing the article. The display may also include thumbnail versions of the article's tables and illustrations. subheads: An article, like a chapter in a book, may be divided into sections and subsections headed by subheads, sub-subheads, and so on (see 1.55-58). The number of subhead levels required may vary from article to article. journal reviews: Many journals include a book review section. Such sections, usually headed Reviews or Book Reviews, vary greatly in length from journal to journal. Within a section, each review carries a heading that lists information about the book being reviewed. The heading includes the author's name, the title of the book, place and date of publication, publisher's name, number of pages (including front matter), and price. If the book is part of a series, the series title may be given. Some journals include reviews of other journals or of films or other media. The name of the reviewer usually appears at the end of the review but occasionally follows the heading; alternatively, reviews are given a separate title in the manner of regular articles, and the name of the reviewer follows the title at the head of the review. Book notes use the same form of headings as book reviews, but the text is much shorter and reviewers may be listed by their initials. Some journals also publish a list of books or other materials received for review from publishers. contributors: Basic information about contributors such as their professional affiliations typically appears with each article, usually at the head of the article or elsewhere on the first page. This information is also generally included as part of an article's metadata (see 1.92) and may be offered along with the abstract as part of an article's online summary. Some journals offer an index of past contributors to the journal as a whole. Journals may also feature a special section with additional information about contributors, such as their publications or fields of study journal editorials: An editorial is not a regular feature in most academic journals but appears on a particular occasion. When there is a change of some sort—a new editor, modifications in editorial policy or style, features added or dropped, or graphic redesign of the journal (see 1.115)—an editorial announces and explains the change. A journal may provide an annual editorial summing up the year's activity. Some journals publish invited editorials, written by someone who is neither the journal's editor in chief nor a member of its editorial board, that comment on a particular article or group of articles. A special issue usually includes an introduction by the special issue's editor(s). The heading Editorial or Introduction is used, and the editor's name appears at the end of the piece publication history: For all articles that are published electronically before they are published in print, the date of electronic publication should appear as part of the article's history, in both the print and the electronic versions, on the first page or otherwise near the head of the article. Some journals also include the date the article was received and the date it was accepted for publication. These dates provide important context for interpretation of the article; in the sciences, especially, what is known—or at least what has been reported—can change rapidly.

epilogue/afterword

An epilogue or an afterword is a comparatively brief section that comments on the text, sometimes obliquely, or brings a narrative up to date. Such a section is sometimes added to a new edition of a book and may be written by a different author; in either case it is then usually called an afterword (cf. 1.40). An epilogue or afterword generally follows any conclusion and may begin either recto or verso, but for a book divided into parts or for an afterword added to a new edition, it should usually begin recto (see also 1.53); it is set in the same size and style of type as the rest of the text.

Journal article version of record

Many journals consider the electronic version of an article to be the version of record; the print version, which should contain all elements that are essential to the article, may nevertheless include only a subset of the material available electronically. Whenever the electronic version is considered the version of record, it is extremely important to document any changes to the file after the electronic publication date. Release of electronic articles before they are published in print means that errors may turn up well before the print issue has been assembled; consequently, a print issue may include an erratum that concerns an article in the same issue. In this case, the erratum should state that the article is in the current issue and should specify the date of electronic publication. Some journals use a system like Crossref's CrossMark to track versions and any corrections or retractions. For more information on best practices related to version control for journal articles, consult Journal Article Versions (JAV): Recommendations of the NISO/ALPSP JAV Technical Working Group, published by the National Information Standards Organization (bibliog. 2.7). See also 1.90, 1.91. supplemental journal content: In addition to certain articles published ahead of print (see 1.113), journals often publish material not available in print or not applicable to print (e.g., multimedia components, large data sets); such material is usually referred to collectively as supplementary data or supporting information. Such supplemental content must be listed in any print version, and the electronic version must in turn make it clear that such material is available only online (see 1.78). At the same time, publishers must provide this content in a way that ensures its ongoing availability and accessibility, whether or not the electronic version is considered the version of record (see 1.112). By implementing standard practices for document structure and markup and for the inclusion and identification of supplemental media such as video and audio files, publishers can help ensure the permanence and accessibility of their material in libraries and other archives. Publishers should remain abreast of the latest standards for archival practices by consulting such groups as the International Organization for Standardization and the Digital Library Federation.

Components of a copyright page/ publisher's adress/ copyright notice / copyright dates of previous editions / Copyright renewal or other changes

The Copyright Act of 1989 does not require that published works carry a copyright notice in order to secure copyright protection; nevertheless, most publishers continue to carry the notice to discourage infringement. The copyright notice is just one of several items typically included on the copyright page (p. iv). Books published by the University of Chicago Press include the following: -Publisher's address -Copyright notice—including, if applicable, copyright dates of previous editions and indication of copyright renewal or other changes, and followed by the statement "All rights reserved" and related language -Publication date, including publishing history Country of printing -Impression line, indicating number and year of current printing -International Standard Book Number (ISBN) for each available format (e.g., cloth, paper, e-book) -For continuously published resources, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), one for each available format, in addition to the ISBN -A Digital Object Identifier (DOI), for books that have one -For translations, indication of original-language title, publisher, and copyright -Acknowledgments, permissions, and other credits, including acknowledgment of grants, if applicable and space permitting -Cataloging-in-Publication (CIP) data -Paper durability statement For an example, see figure 1.1. Information included by other publishers may vary from this list. Self-published authors are encouraged to include, at a minimum, a copyright statement and a list of any assigned ISBNs, together with any other information that applies. The address of the publisher—and sometimes the addresses of overseas agents—is typically, though not always, given on the copyright page. An address may be abbreviated, consisting, for example, only of a city and perhaps a postal code. The URL for the publisher's home page may also be included. Self-published authors may want to include contact information to facilitate correspondence from readers. The usual notice consists of three parts: the symbol ©, the first year the book is published, and the name of the copyright owner. This may be followed by the phrase "All rights reserved" (and any additional language required by the publisher) and a statement of publication date or publishing history (see 1.25, 4.41). (See fig. 1.1 for an example of Chicago's copyright notice.) The year of publication should correspond to the copyright date. If a book is physically available near the end of a year but not formally published until the beginning of the next, the later date is preferred as both copyright and publication date. Books published by the University of Chicago Press are usually copyrighted in the name of the university ("© 2017 by The University of Chicago"). Some authors, however, prefer to copyright their works in their own names ("© 2012 by Alison A. Author"), a preference discussed in 4.42. For information on copyright notices for journals, see 1.103; for a full discussion, see 4.39-46. Each substantially new edition of a book (as distinct from a new impression, or reprinting, and not including paperback or electronic versions that do not constitute a new edition; see 1.26) gets a new copyright date, and the copyright dates of at least the most recent previous editions should appear in the copyright notice (see fig. 1.2). If the new edition is so extensive a revision that it virtually constitutes a new publication, previous copyright dates may be omitted. See also 1.25, 4.41. The date of copyright renewal or a change in the name of the copyright owner is sometimes reflected in the copyright notice if the work is reprinted. Copyright renewal is shown in the following manner: © 1963 by Maurice Sendak. © renewed 1991 by Maurice Sendak. To indicate a change in copyright ownership (e.g., if copyright is assigned to the author or someone else after the initial copyright has been registered and printed in the first impression), the name of the new copyright owner is substituted for that of the previous owner. The copyright date remains the same unless the copyright has been renewed. Copyrights remain legally valid even if renewal or reassignment information cannot, for some reason, appear in a new edition or printing The country in which a book is printed is usually identified on the copyright page (see fig. 1.1). In addition, if a book is printed in a country other than the country of publication, the jacket or cover must so state: for example, "Printed in China." This information may be removed for publication in electronic formats but need not be The copyright page, if space permits, may include acknowledgments of previously published parts of a book, illustration credits, and permission to quote from copyrighted material (fig. 1.4), unless such acknowledgments appear elsewhere in the book—as in an acknowledgments section (see 1.41, 1.42) or in source notes (see 2.46, 14.54). The illustration on the title page is a detail from a photograph of Nietzsche in Basel, ca. 1876. Photo Stiftung Weimarer Klassik. GSA 101/17. For more on illustration credits, see 3.29-37. For a full discussion of permissions, see chapter 4. Some publishers also credit the designer of the cover or interior on the copyright page (see also 1.73). Acknowledgment of grants and subsidies Publishers should acknowledge grants of financial assistance toward publication on the copyright page. Acknowledgments requiring more space or greater prominence may appear elsewhere, in a separate section in the front or back matter. Wording and placement, including the use of any logo, should be as specified (or at least approved) by the grantors. Financial assistance made to authors is usually mentioned as part of the author's acknowledgments (see 1.41, 1.42).

Proofreading

2.100: What is proofreading? Proofreading is the process of reading a text and scrutinizing all of its components to find errors and mark them for correction. Each major stage of a manuscript intended for publication—especially the final version the author submits to the publisher and, later, the copyedited version of the same—is generally reviewed in this way. Proofreading here, however, applies to the review of the manuscript after it has been converted to a format for publication but before it is published. Usually, this format consists of the typeset and paginated pages of a book or journal article (referred to as proofs or proof and read either on paper or as PDF) or the full text of a book or journal article intended for publication in one or more electronic formats other than PDF (see 1.118). Also subject to proofreading are covers and jackets or other packaging as well as the abstracts and other components that are published along with the work or as part of one or more electronic formats. For an illustration of how the stages described in this chapter fit into the overall publishing process for books and journals, see the outline at 2.2. For proofreaders' marks, see 2.119; for PDF markup, see 2.133. For proofing and testing electronic formats, see 2.137-40. 2.101: Who should proofread? For the majority of publications, authors are considered the primary proofreaders, and it is they who bear final responsibility for any errors in the published work. To help mitigate this responsibility, a professional proofreader may be hired by either the author or the publisher. (Self-publishing authors can also benefit from the services of a proofreader, whether or not they have also hired a professional editor.) Moreover, the manuscript editor and book designer and other publishing personnel are generally responsible for ensuring that the author's corrections (and those of any other proofreader) are successfully incorporated into the work before it gets published and that all related materials (promotional copy, website apparatus, etc.) are free of errors and inconsistencies. 2.102: Proofreading schedule Since many people are involved in the production of a book, a few days' delay in returning proofs to the publisher or typesetter can cause a major delay in publication. When the time scheduled for proofreading appears to conflict with the demands of accuracy, or if any other problem arises that might affect the schedule, the proofreader should immediately confer with the publisher. For journals, where there is little room for delays of any kind, proofreading deadlines are generally nonnegotiable. See also 2.2. 2.103: Keeping a record of each proofreading stage: A record must be kept by the publisher of when each stage of proof has been corrected and by whom. For printed books, the best record for the first proofreading stage is a master set. The master set is either (a) a laser printout read and marked for corrections by the author and marked with additional corrections by the publisher and any others who have read or reviewed the master set or copies thereof, or (b) a PDF version of the same. Some publishers send a duplicate set of page proofs to the author and then transfer the author's corrections to the master set. For PDF, it is important to name the different iterations of the file appropriately and collate all corrections on the master file. At the next stage, revised proofs are usually reviewed by the publisher, who retains this new master set or file and a record of each additional round of corrections until the work has been published. (Each new round of corrections should be reflected in the file name for the PDF—e.g., by "rev01," "rev02," etc.) For electronic publications, the author and other proofreaders should each be required to sign off before a corrected version is delivered for further review. Likewise, for covers and jackets or other packaging, each person assigned to proofread should be required to sign off on the proofreading copy before a corrected version is routed for further review. 2.104: First proofs and "galley" proofs: The author and sometimes a designated proofreader read the first proofreading copy (first proofs or first pages), usually against the edited manuscript (see 2.110). For books, an index may be prepared from this first set of page proofs, either by the author or by a professional indexer (see chapter 16). For some complex book-length works, first proofs are issued in the form of "galleys." Strictly speaking, the term galley proofs is an anachronism, dating from the era when printers would arrange type into "galleys" from which long, narrow prints were prepared to proofread or edit type before the arduous task of composing it, by hand, into the form of book pages. Today, if a complex project presents a danger of extensive corrections at the page-proof stage, a publisher might request galley proofs (loosely paginated and with or without illustrations in place), since corrections to galleys will not entail having to redo page references in an index. These galleys are generated from the same electronic files as first proofs would be. (As an alternative to the galley stage, publishers might choose to undertake a proofreading of the final electronic manuscript.) The index is prepared not from the galleys, since pagination is not final, but from the "first" proofs that are issued at the next stage. 2.105: Revised proofs: After corrections to the first proofs have been made, the results must be checked for accuracy. This usually involves comparing revised proofs for all pages against the first pages (now known as "foul" proofs). These revised proofs should also be checked for any other differences between them and the first proofs and to make sure hyphenation errors or other page makeup problems have not been introduced. If the typesetter has circled or bracketed or otherwise indicated any changes to page makeup resulting from the corrections, the proofreader can check revised proofs more efficiently. Any corrections that have resulted in repagination may require adjustments to page references in the index. To maintain a proper record, nothing must be marked on the pages or in the PDF file for the foul proofs at this stage; any further corrections must be marked only on the revised printout or revised PDF. Any additional rounds of revision should be kept to a minimum. index proof; Most indexes are prepared from the paginated first set of proofs (unless they reference paragraph numbers rather than page numbers, in which case they can be prepared from the final manuscript). Indexes must be proofread quickly, in the same time that the revisions to the first proofs are being checked. For the sake of efficiency, editors rather than authors usually proofread indexes. For a full discussion of indexes, see chapter 16. 2.107: Prepress and press proofs 2.108: Book cover and jacket proofs: Whereas most publishers (and authors) will live, if not happily, with the inevitable typo inside a book, an error on the cover is a more serious matter. Proofs of die copy—author's name, title, publisher's imprint, and any other matter to be stamped on the spine or cover of a hardbound book—should be checked with extreme care. Likewise, proofs of jacket copy and paperback cover copy should be read and checked word for word (if not letter by letter), with special attention paid as follows: The cover should be consistent with the interior of the work in content and style. For example, the author's name and the title of the work—everywhere they appear, including cover, spine, and jacket flaps—must match those on the title page of the book (though the subtitle may be omitted from the cover or jacket). An author's full name is sometimes shortened in the running text of flap copy. Biographical material on the author should be checked against any biographical material inside the book, though the wording need not be identical. If the work is part of a series or a multivolume set, the series title or volume number must match its counterpart inside the book. The price (if it is to appear), the ISBN, and any necessary credit line for a photograph of the author or for artwork used on the cover or jacket must be verified. Jacket and cover proofs and each stage of revisions thereto should be reviewed by everyone involved in the production of the book—including authors, editors, designers, and marketing personnel. 2.109: Journal cover proofs: Although the elements that appear on the covers of academic journals vary considerably, the following suggestions should apply to most journals: The front cover (called cover 1) must be checked carefully to ensure that elements that change with each issue, such as the volume and issue numbers and the month, date, or season of publication, are accurate and up to date. The spine must be similarly checked. If the contents of the issue are listed on cover 1, they must be checked against the interior to be sure that authors' names and article titles match exactly and, for journals that publish various types of articles, that articles have been listed in the correct section of the journal. If inclusive page numbers appear on the spine, these must be verified. The inside of the front cover (cover 2) often includes subscription prices and information on how to subscribe, names of editors and members of the editorial board, or copyright information; all such information must be checked. Covers 3 (inside of back cover) and 4 (back cover) may contain advertisements, instructions to authors on submitting articles, or a list of articles to appear in future issues. They all must be verified by the proofreader. 2.110: Proofreading against copy: In proofreading parlance, copy refers to the edited manuscript. Proofs should be checked against the version of the manuscript that contains the author's final changes and responses to queries (see 2.72). In the event that the page proofs were typeset from a paper-only manuscript, the proofreader must read word for word against the edited manuscript, noting all punctuation, paragraphing, capitalization, italics, and so forth and ensuring that any handwritten editing has been correctly interpreted by the typesetter. Likewise, any element in an otherwise electronic manuscript that has been set from edited hard copy (e.g., math or tables) should be proofread carefully against the hard copy. Whether type has been set from electronic files or from paper, the proofreader must mark only the proofs, never the manuscript, which is now known as "dead" or "foul" copy. To assign responsibility for error correctly (see 2.135), the manuscript as earlier approved by the author must be kept intact. For checking revised proofs, see 2.105. 2.111: Proofreading for spelling errors: The proofreader should remain alert for the kinds of errors that are typically missed by computerized systems for checking spelling—from common typos such as it's where its is meant or out where our is meant, to more subtle errors like lead for led or breath for breathe, as well as other misspellings. The manuscript editor's style sheet (see 2.55) may be a useful reference. Note that a change to the spelling of a particular term should never be indicated globally; instead, each change must be marked throughout the proofs (if possible, the PDF should be searched to find and evaluate other instances of the term). 2.112: Proofreading for word breaks: End-of-line hyphenation should be checked, especially in proper names and terms in any language that may be outside the range of the dictionaries that automatically assign line breaks during typesetting. The first set of proofs is usually the first time that words have been divided, conditionally, at the ends of lines. Chicago recommends the word breaks given in Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (see bibliog. 3.1). For words or names not listed in a dictionary, a liberal approach is advisable, since formal usage varies widely and any change requested may entail further breaks or create tight or loose lines (lines with too little or too much space between words). Such problems may be avoided if a list of nondictionary words and their preferred hyphenation (or an editor's style sheet if it includes this information) is submitted to the typesetter along with the manuscript. When it is a question of an intelligible but nonstandard word break for a line that would otherwise be too loose or too tight, the nonstandard break (such as the hyphenation of an already hyphenated term) may be preferred. No more than three succeeding lines should end in a hyphen (see 7.47). See also 2.13, 7.36-47. For dividing URLs at the ends of lines, see 7.46. for typeface and font: Each element in proofs—for example, chapter numbers and titles, subheads, text, extracts, figure captions—should be checked to ensure that it is presented in a consistent typeface and style in accordance with the design for the publication. Heads and subheads, in particular, should be checked for the typographic style assigned to their level (see 2.18, 2.59), and all set-off material (excerpts, poetry, equations, etc.) should be checked for font, size, and indentation. All material in italics, boldface, small capitals, or any font different from that of the surrounding text should be looked at to be sure the new font starts and stops as intended. Note that the conversion of manuscript files into other formats for publication can result in unexpected errors, such as the dropping or transmutation of a special character throughout the work or the inadvertent incorporation of a comment or other "invisible" electronic material into the text (see 2.87). For a systemic error, it may be preferable to indicate a single, or "global," instruction for making the change—to avoid cluttering the proofs with corrections of each instance. When a systemic problem is identified—especially one for a printed work that will affect pagination across more than a few pages and therefore the index—the publisher should be alerted immediately in case new first proofs are needed. 2.114: Checking and proofreading page numbers and running heads Page numbers and running heads must be checked to ensure that they are present where they are supposed to be and absent where they are not (see 1.5-9, 1.10-16, 2.76), that the correct page number appears following a blank page, and that the typesetter has followed instructions as to what should appear on a recto, a verso, or a two-page spread. Running heads must be both proofread and checked for placement. For running heads to endnotes, the page numbers may need to be verified or supplied by checking the pages of text that correspond to the notes (see 1.15). 2.115: Checking and proofreading illustrations and tables: The proofreader must verify that all illustrations appear in the right location in the text, in the right size, right side up, not "flopped" (turned over left to right, resulting in a mirror image) or distorted, and with their own captions. Captions should be read as carefully as the text, and any locators should be checked to make sure they accurately refer to the parts or location of the illustrations to which they refer (see 3.24). Tables must be proofread both for content and for alignment. Where an illustration or a table (or more than one of either) occupies a full page, no running head or page number should appear (unless the page number appears as a drop folio); but if several full pages of illustrations or tables appear in sequence, the proofreader may request that page numbers (if they are absent), and sometimes running heads as well, be added to better orient readers (see 1.16). For a table presented as a two-page broadside, the proofreader should make sure it falls on facing pages (i.e., verso and recto; see also 3.87). If there are lists of illustrations and tables, all captions and titles should be checked against the lists, and page numbers must be verified or added. 2.116: Proofreading for overall appearance: For printed works, each page or, better, each pair of facing pages should be checked for length (see 2.117), vertical spacing, position of running heads and page numbers, and so forth. Conformity to the design specifications must be verified. Such apparent impairments as fuzzy type, incomplete letters, and blocks of type that appear lighter or darker than the surrounding text may be due to poor photocopying or a faulty printout. If in doubt, the proofreader may query "Type OK?" or "Too dark?" More than three consecutive lines that end with a hyphen or begin or end with the same word should be pointed out and, if possible, appropriate adjustments indicated. A page should not end with a subhead. Nor should a page begin with the last line of a paragraph unless it is full measure; a short line in this position is sometimes called a widow. A page can, however, end with the first line of a new paragraph, or what is sometimes referred to as an orphan. The last word in any paragraph must not be hyphenated unless at least four letters (in addition to any punctuation) are carried over to the final line. A word may break across a spread (verso to recto) but usually should not break at the end of a spread (recto to verso). To correct any of these occurrences, page length may be adjusted. 2.118: Proofreading for sense: The proofreader must query—or correct, if possible—illogical, garbled, repeated, or missing text. Any rewriting, however, must be limited to the correction of fact or of gross syntactical error, since all source checking and substantive and stylistic changes should have been done at the editing stage. Changes that would alter page makeup across more than a couple of pages in printed works should be avoided, since repagination not only is expensive but, for books, can affect the index.

electronic markup

2.81: Generic markup for electronic manuscripts Each element of a manuscript—chapter display, subheads, text, prose extracts, poetry, notes, captions, and so forth—must be identified using consistent markup. The most basic (if least efficient) way to do this is with generic labels modeled on the descriptive identifiers used on pencil-edited manuscripts (see 2.99). Such labels are enclosed in angle brackets (< >), curly brackets ({ }), or some other delimiters such that they can be systematically identified and replaced for publication by formal typesetting markup. (This generic application of delimiters must not be mistaken for the tags used in formal markup languages such as XML.) Except for labels meant to be replaced with a character or string of characters, they are usually applied at the beginning and end of each element to which they apply. Publishers differ not only in what type of markup they recommend but also in what elements they mark up. Some require that every element be labeled, including body text; others regard body text as a default. Most do not require any markup for character-level formatting (e.g., italics, small capitals, boldface) because a word-processing software's built-in formatting attributes can be manipulated as necessary. Editors may need to invent markup for unusual elements. Consistency and accuracy are crucial. Moreover, editors must supply a complete list of markup with the manuscript. Some samples are as follows: 2.82: Word-processing styles: Manuscript editors may be expected to use a word-processing template loaded with paragraph and character styles defined for a book or article manuscript and supplied by the publisher. The advantage of such an approach is that manuscript editors (and authors, including self-published authors) can work in a familiar software environment while facilitating the more detailed markup required for publication in electronic formats. Word-processing styles are applied to each element of a manuscript, from chapter title to the title of a book in a reference list entry to the reference list entry itself. Each style carries a unique name and can be applied to any paragraph or string of characters within a paragraph. (A paragraph is any string of text followed by a single hard return.) Paragraph-level style names should be descriptive, corresponding to the type of element (e.g., "chapter number" or "A-head") rather than to its format or appearance. Character-level styles, by the same token, should specify the intent of the style rather than its format—for example, "emphasis" rather than "italic" or "exponent" rather than "superscript."1 Appropriate font size, line spacing, italics, and other formatting attributes can and should be defined for each style in the manuscript to facilitate editing and author review. On the other hand, accuracy and consistency in applying styles is more important than any formatting in the manuscript. The publisher will map the styles to a design template for the printed work or to XML, which can be used to accommodate presentation in multiple formats, including print. If there are any text elements that do not lend themselves easily to the styles in a given template, it may be necessary to define new styles or to query the publisher. (Authors reviewing the edited manuscript should be advised not to modify styles.) An annotated list of styles should accompany the manuscript sent to production. See also 2.83. 2.83: Formal markup languages: A manuscript edited on paper or in a word processor may have to be converted and marked up at some point according to the rules defined for a formal markup language such as XML, especially if it is to be published as an e-book or as a web-presentation or app (see 1.117-25). Such a conversion can be facilitated during the editing stage by the use of word-processing styles (see 2.82). Styles are mapped to corresponding tags, and additional markup is added to delineate the structure of the manuscript, facilitate linking, and so forth. Each element, including each document or subdocument, is identified by a pair of opening and closing tags according to the rules of the particular markup language. Tags are nested; for example, the body of the document, enclosed between an opening and a closing tag, will include all sections and subsections of the document, and each of those parts in turn will be delimited by a pair of tags that identify the element and its place in the hierarchy. Tags are also used to delimit any element that may have a special function (such as a cross-reference that will be hyperlinked in electronic formats) or that will need to be differentiated from the surrounding text (such as an emphasized term or a book title). Such tagging is structural as well as semantic: each element is identified according to what it is rather than by how it is to be presented (but see 2.82, note 1). Details about presentation, including appearance and function, are specified in a style sheet for each format of publication. If editing takes place after conversion to a formal markup language, the editor usually helps to ensure that the tags have been applied correctly (see also 2.137-40). The successful implementation of such a workflow, on the other hand, requires significant technical expertise.

Tracking Changes and Inserting Queries

2.84: Tracking changes (redlining) To show their work and thus facilitate the author's review, many editors use the change-tracking feature in their word processor to produce what is sometimes referred to as a redlined version (a name that invokes, in another medium, the editor's red pencil). The principle is simple: as long as the tracking feature is turned on, text that is added is underlined, like this; text that is deleted is struck through, like this. (Added or deleted text can be displayed in a variety of other ways depending on software and settings.) Author queries are inserted using the word-processor's commenting feature (see 2.87). For a demonstration, see fig. 2.4. (Comments and changes usually appear in color by default; editors sending black-and-white printouts to their authors for review must take care that everything remains legible.) For any change that might be ambiguous or hard to interpret (e.g., a struck-through hyphenated term), it can be helpful to include an explanatory comment to the author at least at the first occurrence. By the same token, it is best to avoid making changes that might be missed; when in doubt, strike out the entire term and replace it by the corrected or preferred version. For example, to indicate a preference for the closed-up version of the name of the famous educator and writer, show Du BoisDuBois rather than Du Bois, the latter of which may be mistaken for a hyphenated term. See also 2.85. For marking changes on PDF files, see 2.133. 2.85: Making silent changes (not tracking): Whether to track all editing, mechanical as well as substantive, depends on a number of factors, including the editor's and publisher's preferences. In order to avoid irritating or distracting the author, some editors will prefer to track only the first instance of a global change (such as capitalization of a certain term) and alert the author to the change in a comment (see 2.87). Certain adjustments should almost never be shown—for example, changes to margins or a global application of "smart" quotation marks and apostrophes (see 6.115, 6.117). In general, most of the things listed in the cleanup checklist at 2.80 may be done silently. If a section of the manuscript such as a bibliography has been heavily edited, the editor may send a clean version of that section for the author to approve, with or without a version showing the edits for reference. But if changes have not been tracked for any reason, the editor must delineate for the author the nature of the editing either in a comment or in the cover letter with the edited manuscript (see 2.70). 2.86: Document comparison software Document comparison software can highlight the differences between two versions of a document automatically. Best results are had with shorter documents in which the latest version is compared against an earlier version that has already been cleaned up and formatted (see 2.80). Comparing an edited document against the author's original manuscript may result in too many changes being reported, or worse, the results may be unintelligible. Editors should turn to document comparison software only in specific instances—for example, to make sure they are working on the latest version of a document. For communicating changes to the author, which usually requires a more predictable presentation in which some types of changes are made silently while others must be spelled out as clearly as possible, editors should track their changes as they edit (see 2.84). 2.87: Inserting comments and queries: author queries should be inserted using the commenting feature available in most word processors. See fig. 2.4 for an example. Chicago no longer recommends using footnotes or bracketed text to insert queries. As a matter of principle, it is best to avoid adding content that is not intended for publication to the run of text. (Exceptions can be made for structural signposts such as image callouts or similar elements intended to be incorporated into the markup for the published version; see 2.30. Another exception is made by some publishers for embedded notes, which in certain applications do not support comments; alternatively, such comments may be placed in the text at the note reference marker.) See also 2.69. 2.88: Author's review of the redlined manuscript: Authors who review changes and queries online should be asked to use a compatible version of the software used to edit the manuscript. (Authors who cannot accommodate this request may have to review a printout instead or annotate a PDF file; see 2.71.) To guard against unwanted changes—inadvertent or otherwise—the editor may want to protect the manuscript with a password such that any changes the author makes will be visibly tracked. (Editors are advised to take care not to lose the password; it will be needed in order to unlock the files returned by the author and prepare the final manuscript.) Editors should include detailed instructions for making changes and adding or responding to queries. With password protection, authors can usually be asked simply to type any additions into the manuscript and delete any of the editor's changes or other unwanted text. For comments and replies to queries, however, authors should generally be advised to use the commenting feature lest any of their comments inadvertently make it into the text (see also 2.87). 2.89: Accepting or rejecting tracked changes and deleting queries After the author has returned the redlined manuscript, the editor should go through each tracked change carefully and accept it or reject it, as the case may be, using the available word-processing tools. New material inserted by the author should be edited as necessary, and any other type of change should be checked for continuity with the surrounding text. It may be wise to read through each author comment or query first in order to spot any potential problems. After all comments and queries have been read and all changes have been incorporated, any remaining comments and queries should be deleted. Because of the potential for errors introduced at this stage, a spelling check should be run again as a final step. The final manuscript should have no remaining tracked changes or comments, with the exception of any comments intended for the publisher (though it may be better to send these in a cover letter).

adjectives

5.68: Adjectives defined An adjective is a word (more particularly, a type of word sometimes called an adjunct) modifying a noun or pronoun; it is often called a describing word. An adjective tells you what sort, how many, how large or small, whose, etc. It may modify an understood as well as an expressed noun {he is a good as well as a wise man [man is understood after good]}. An adjective may add a new idea to a noun or pronoun by describing it more definitely or fully {red wagon} {human error}. Or it may be limiting {three pigs} {this time}. Most adjectives derive from nouns, as plentiful derives from plenty or as stylish derives from style; some derive from verbs, roots, or other adjectives. Often a suffix creates the adjective. Among the suffixes that often distinguish adjectives are -able {manageable}, -al {mystical}, -ary {elementary}, -ed {hammered}, -en {wooden}, -esque {statuesque}, -ful {harmful}, -ible {inaccessible}, -ic {artistic}, -ish {foolish}, -ive {demonstrative}, -less {helpless}, -like {childlike}, -ly {ghostly}, -ous {perilous}, -some {lonesome}, and -y {sunny}. But many adjectives do not have distinctive endings and are recognizable only by their function {old} {tall} {brilliant}. 5.69: Proper adjectives A proper adjective is one that, being or deriving from a proper name, always begins with a capital letter {a New York minute} {a Cuban cigar} {a Canadian dollar}. (But see 8.61.) A proper name used attributively is still capitalized, but it does not cause the noun it modifies to be capitalized. A place-name containing a comma—such as Toronto, Ontario, or New Delhi, India—should generally not be used as an adjective because a second comma may be considered obligatory {we met in a Toronto, Ontario, restaurant}. The comma after Ontario in that sentence is awkward. Compare the readability of a New Delhi, India, marketplace with a New Delhi marketplace or a marketplace in New Delhi, India (substituting a prepositional phrase for the proper adjective). 5.70: Articles defined An article is a limiting adjective that precedes a noun or noun phrase and determines its use to indicate something definite (the) or indefinite (a or an). An article might stand alone or be used with other adjectives {a road} {an elaborate design} {the yellow-brick road}. 5.71: Definite article A definite article points to a definite object that (1) is so well understood that it does not need description (e.g., the package is here is a shortened form of the package that you expected is here); (2) is a thing that is about to be described {the sights of Chicago}; or (3) is important {the grand prize}. The definite article belongs to nouns in the singular {the star} or the plural number {the stars}. 5.72: Indefinite article An indefinite article points to a nonspecific object, thing, or person that is not distinguished from the other members of a class. The thing may be singular {a student at Princeton}, or uncountable {a multitude}, or generalized {an idea inspired by Milton's Paradise Lost}. 5.73: Indefinite article in specific reference In a few usages, the indefinite article provides a specific reference {I saw a great movie last night} and the definite article a generic reference {the Scots are talking about independence [generalizing by nationality]}. 5.74: Choosing "a" or "an" With the indefinite article, the choice of a or an depends on the sound of the word it precedes. A precedes words with a consonant sound, including /y/, /h/, and /w/, no matter how the word is spelled {a eulogy} {a historic occasion} {a onetime pass}. An comes before words with a vowel sound {an insurance agent} {an X-Files episode} {an hour ago}. The same is true for abbreviations. If the first letter or syllable is sounded as a consonant, use a {a BTU calculation} {a PDF file}. If the first sound is a vowel, use an {an MBA degree} {an ATM}. See also 7.32-33, 10.9. 5.75: Articles with coordinate nouns With a series of coordinate nouns, an article may appear before each noun, but it is not necessary {the rosebush and hedge need trimming}. If the things named make up a single idea, it's especially unnecessary to repeat the article {in the highest degree of dressage, the horse and rider appear to be one entity}. And if the named things are covered by one plural noun, the definite article should not be repeated {in the first and second years of college}. But if you want to distinguish concepts or add emphasis, then do repeat the article {the time, the money, and the effort were all wasted}. 5.76 Because articles have a demonstrative value, the meaning of a phrase may shift depending on the article used. For example, an officer and gentleman escorted Princess Grace to her car suggests (though ambiguously) that the escort was one man with two descriptive characteristics. But an officer and a friend escorted Princess Grace to her car suggests that two people acted as escorts. Similarly, do you like the red and blue cloth? suggests that the cloth contains both red and blue threads. But do you like the red and the blue cloth? suggests that two different fabrics are being discussed. The clearest way to express the idea that the cloth contains both red and blue is to hyphenate the phrase as a compound modifier: red-and-blue cloth; and with two kinds of cloth, the clear expression is either to repeat the word cloth (the red cloth and the blue cloth) or to use cloth with the first adjective rather than the second (the red cloth and the blue). 5:77 The absence of an article may alter a sentence's meaning—e.g., the meaning of the news brought us little comfort (we weren't comforted) changes if a is inserted before little: the news brought us a little comfort (we felt somewhat comforted). An article that is implied but omitted is called a zero article, common in idiomatic usage. For example, in the morning you may make the bed, but at night you go to bed (not the bed)—and notice in the morning versus at night. The zero article usually occurs in idiomatic references to time, illness, transportation, personal routines, and meals {by sunset} {has cancer} {travel by train} {go to bed} {make breakfast}. 5.91: Coordinate adjectives A coordinate adjective is one that appears in a sequence with one or more related adjectives to modify the same noun. Coordinate adjectives should be separated by commas or by and {skilled, experienced chess player} {nurturing and loving parent}. If one adjective modifies the noun and another adjective modifies the idea expressed by the combination of the first adjective and the noun, the adjectives are not considered coordinate and should not be separated by a comma. For example, a lethargic soccer player describes a soccer player who is lethargic. Likewise, phrases such as white brick house and wrinkled canvas jacket are unpunctuated because the adjectives are not coordinate: they have no logical connection in sense (a white house could be made of many different materials; so could a wrinkled jacket). The most useful test is this: if and would fit between the two adjectives, a comma is necessary.

numbers

Chicago advises spelling out whole numbers from zero through one hundred and certain round multiples of those numbers (see 9.4). Thirty-two children from eleven families were packed into eight vintage Beetles. Many people think that seventy is too young to retire. The property is held on a ninety-nine-year lease. According to a recent appraisal, my house is 103 years old. The three new parking lots will provide space for 540 more cars. The population of our village now stands at 5,893. Many publications, including those in scientific or journalistic contexts, follow the simple rule of spelling out only single-digit numbers and using numerals for all others (but see 9.7). Most of the exceptions to the general rule (9.2) also apply to this alternative rule. Round multiples of hundreds, thousands, and hundred thousands, however, are typically expressed as numerals when the alternative rule is in force (cf. 9.4). 9.4: Hundreds, thousands, and hundred thousands The whole numbers one through one hundred followed by hundred, thousand, or hundred thousand are usually spelled out (except in the sciences or with monetary amounts)—whether used exactly or as approximations. Most provincial theaters were designed to accommodate large audiences—from about seven hundred spectators in a small city like Lorient to as many as two thousand in Lyon and Marseille. A millennium is a period of one thousand years. The population of our city is more than two hundred thousand. Some forty-seven thousand persons attended the fair. but The official attendance at this year's fair was 47,122. In a context with many large numbers—especially if round numbers occur alongside numerals that are not round—it may be best to opt for numerals for all such numbers. 9.5: Number beginning a sentence When a number begins a sentence, it is always spelled out. To avoid awkwardness, a sentence can often be recast. In the first example, some writers prefer the form one hundred and ten; Chicago's preference is to omit the and. One hundred ten candidates were accepted. or In all, 110 candidates were accepted. If a year must begin a sentence, spell it out; it is usually preferable, however, to reword. Avoid and in such expressions as two thousand one, two thousand ten, two thousand fifty, and the like (see also 9.29). Nineteen thirty-seven was marked, among other things, by the publication of the eleventh edition of Bartlett's Familiar Quotations. or, better, The year 1937 . . . If a number beginning a sentence is followed by another number of the same category, spell out only the first or reword. One hundred eighty of the 214 candidates had law degrees; the remaining 34 were doctoral candidates in fish immunology. or, better, Of the 214 candidates, 180 had law degrees; the remaining 34 were doctoral candidates in fish immunology. 9.6: Ordinals The general rule applies to ordinal as well as cardinal numbers. Note that Chicago prefers, for example, 122nd and 123rd (with an n and an r) over 122d and 123d. The latter, however, are common especially in legal style (see 14.269-305). The letters in ordinal numbers should not appear as superscripts (e.g., 122nd, not 122nd). Gwen stole second base in the top half of the first inning. The restaurant on the forty-fifth floor has a splendid view of the city. She found herself in 125th position out of 360. The 122nd and 123rd days of the strike were marked by a rash of defections. The ten thousandth child to be born at Mercy Hospital was named Mercy. 9.7: Consistency and flexibility Where many numbers occur within a paragraph or a series of paragraphs, maintain consistency in the immediate context. If according to a given rule you must use numerals for one of the numbers in a given category, use them for all in that category. (An exception should be made at the beginning of a sentence; see 9.5.) In the same sentence or paragraph, however, items in one category may be given as numerals and items in another spelled out. According to the general rule, in the first example, the numerals 50, 3, and 4 would normally be spelled out (see 9.2); in the second and third examples, 30,000 and 2,000, respectively, would normally be spelled out (see 9.4; see also 9.8). According to the alternative rule, in the fourth and fifth examples, 9 and 1, respectively, would normally be spelled out (see 9.3). 9.8: Millions, billions, and so forth: Whole numbers used in combination with million, billion, and so forth usually follow the general rule (see 9.2). See also 9.4. For monetary amounts, see 9.20-25; for the use of superscripts in scientific contexts, see 9.9. The city had grown from three million in 1960 to fourteen million in 1990. The survey was administered to more than half of the city's 220 million inhabitants. The population of the United States recently surpassed three hundred million. To express fractional quantities in the millions or more, a mixture of numerals and spelled-out numbers is used. In the second example below, the number fourteen is expressed as a numeral for the sake of consistency (see 9.7). By the end of the fourteenth century, the population of Britain had probably reached 2.3 million. According to some scientists, the universe is between 13.5 and 14 billion years old. 9.9: Powers of ten Large round numbers may be expressed in powers of ten, especially in scientific writing. This system is known as scientific notation. For further examples, consult Scientific Style and Format 102 = 100 103 = 1,000 106 = 1,000,000 109 = 1,000,000,000 1012 = 1,000,000,000,000 5.34 × 108 = 534,000,000 Inversely, very small numbers may be expressed in negative powers of ten. 10−2 = 0.01 10−3 = 0.001 10−6 = 0.000001 10−9 = 0.000000001 10−12 = 0.000000000001 5.34 × 10−8 = 0.0000000534 9.10: "Mega-," "giga-," "tera-," and so forth: According to the International System of Units (Système international d'unités, abbreviated internationally as SI), very large quantities may be indicated in some contexts by the use of the prefixes mega- (million), giga- (billion), tera- (trillion), and so on, as part of the unit of measure. Inversely, very small numbers may be expressed by milli- (thousandth), micro- (millionth), nano- (billionth), and so on. These expressions are often formed with symbols (e.g., M, for mega-, as in MB, megabytes). In astrophysical contexts, the abbreviations Myr and Gyr, standing for megayear (one million years) and gigayear (one billion years), are sometimes used. See also 9.9. For a complete list of SI prefixes, see 10.56. See also 9.11. 3 terahertz = 3 × 1012 hertz 7 Gyr = 7 × 109 years 9.18: Percentages Except at the beginning of a sentence, percentages are usually expressed in numerals. In nontechnical contexts, the word percent is generally used; in scientific and statistical copy, the symbol % is more common. Fewer than 3 percent of the employees used public transportation. With 90-95 percent of the work complete, we can relax. A 75 percent likelihood of winning is worth the effort. Her five-year certificate of deposit carries an interest rate of 5.9 percent. Only 20% of the ants were observed to react to the stimulus. The treatment resulted in a 20%-25% increase in reports of night blindness. (See also 9.17.) but Thirty-nine percent identified the "big bang" as the origin of the universe; 48 percent said they believed in human evolution. (See also 9.7.) Note that percent, an adverb, is not interchangeable with the noun percentage (1 percent is a very small percentage). Note also that no space appears between the numeral and the symbol % 9.26: Page numbers, chapter numbers, and so forth Numbers referring to pages, chapters, parts, volumes, and other divisions of a book, as well as numbers referring to illustrations or tables, are set as numerals. Pages of the front matter are usually in lowercase roman numerals; those for the rest of the book are in arabic numerals (see 1.5-9). For the use of en dashes with number ranges, see 6.78. For documentation style, see chapters 14 and 15. See also 8.180. The preface will be found on pages vii-xiv and the introduction on pages 1-35. See part 3, especially chapters 9 and 10, for further discussion; see also volume 2, table 15 and figures 7-9. Upon completion of step 3, on page 37, the reader is asked to consult appendix B, table 7. Biblical references are given in numerals only; chapter and verse are separated by a colon with no space following it. For abbreviations, see 10.44-48. Acts 27:1 Exodus 20:3-17 Psalm 121; Psalms 146-50 2 Corinthians 11:29-30 Gen. 47:12 9.31: Month and day: When specific dates are expressed, cardinal numbers are used, although these may be pronounced as ordinals. For the month-day-year date form versus the day-month-year form, see 9.35; see also 6.38. August 12, 2014, was a sad day for film buffs. The Watchmaker's Digest (11 November 2011) praised the new model's precision. When a day is mentioned without the month or year, the number is usually spelled out in ordinal form. On November 5, McManus declared victory. By the twenty-fifth, most of his supporters had deserted him. 9.37: Numerals versus words for time of day: Times of day in even, half, and quarter hours are usually spelled out in text. With "o'clock", the number is always spelled out. In the third example, the "a" before "quarter" is optional. Her day begins at five o'clock in the morning. The meeting continued until half past three. He left the office at a quarter of four (or a quarter to four). We will resume at ten thirty. Cinderella almost forgot that she should leave the ball before midnight. (See also 9.38.) Numerals are used when exact times are emphasized. Chicago recommends lowercase a.m. (ante meridiem) and p.m. (post meridiem), though these sometimes appear in small capitals, with or without periods. (Note that the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. should not be used with morning, afternoon, evening, night, or o'clock.) The first train leaves at 5:22 a.m. and the last at 11:00 p.m. She caught the 6:20 p.m. flight. Please attend a meeting in Grand Rapids, Michigan, on December 5 at 10:30 a.m. (EST). 9.39: The twenty-four-hour system

subheads levels nd placement

Subheads within a chapter should be short and meaningful and, like chapter titles, parallel in structure and tone. The first sentence of text following a subhead should not refer syntactically to the subhead; words should be repeated where necessary. For example: SECONDARY SPONGIOSA The secondary spongiosa, a vaulted structure . . . not SECONDARY SPONGIOSA This vaulted structure . . . Many works require only one level of subhead throughout the text. Some, particularly scientific or technical works, require further subdivision. Where more than one level is used, the subheads are sometimes referred to as the A-level subhead (the first-level heading after the chapter title), B-level, C-level, and so on (or A-head, B-head, C-head, etc.). Only the most complicated works need more than three levels. The number of subhead levels required may vary from chapter to chapter. A lower-level subhead may follow an upper-level subhead with no intervening text, but when a section of text is subdivided, there should ideally be at least two subsections (e.g., two or more A-level subheads in a chapter or two or more B-level subheads under an A-level subhead). Occasionally, however, a single subdivision may be called for—for example, to emphasize a unique case or a special consideration. A single subdivision may also be needed for specialized sections like chapter endnotes (see 1.62). Subheads, which usually do not need to begin a new page, are generally set on a line separate from the following text, the levels differentiated by type style and placement. The lowest level, however, may be run in at the beginning of a paragraph, usually set in italics or boldface (as in the print edition of this manual) and followed by a period. It is then referred to as a run-in subhead (or run-in sidehead). Run-in heads are usually capitalized sentence-style (see 8.158). Unless sections in a chapter are cited in cross-references elsewhere in the text, numbers are usually unnecessary with subheads. In general, subheads are more useful to a reader than section numbers alone. In scientific and technical works, however, the numbering of sections, subsections, and sometimes sub-subsections provides easy reference. There are various ways to number sections. The most common employs double or multiple (also called multilevel) numeration. In this system, sections are numbered within chapters, subsections within sections, and sub-subsections within subsections. The number of each division is preceded by the numbers of all higher divisions, and all division numbers are separated by periods, colons, or hyphens. Thus, for example, the numbers 4.8 and 4.12 signify, respectively, the eighth section and the twelfth section of chapter 4.1 The series 4.12.3 signifies the third subsection in the twelfth section of chapter 4, and so on. The system employed by this manual is chapter number followed by paragraph number for easy cross-referencing. A system of multiple numeration may also be used for illustrations, tables, and mathematical equations (see, respectively, 3.11, 3.50, and 12.24-25). Where a break stronger than a paragraph but not as strong as a subhead is required, a set of asterisks or a type ornament, or simply a blank line, may be inserted between paragraphs. A blank line has the disadvantage that it may be missed if the break falls at the bottom of a page, a problem exacerbated by electronic formats with reflowable text. This quandary can be solved by differentiating the first few words of each paragraph that follows a break—for example, with small capitals. Whatever strategy is used to signal such a break, the same one should be used in each publication format

Compiling a Manuscript from Previously Published Material

: : Manuscripts for an anthology or other work comprising previously published material are said to have been compiled. If the compiler retypes the original source or scans it using optical character recognition (OCR), the resulting text should be incorporated into a manuscript that follows the formatting requirements outlined in paragraphs 2.7-25. Manuscripts consisting of retyped text or text prepared with OCR must be proofread word for word against the original material before the final manuscript is submitted to the publisher for editing; in addition, publishers may request copies of the originals. If the original material is submitted on paper only, make sure the material is entirely legible (publishers may prefer legible single-sided photocopies or scans to pages from the original source). Unless there is ample space to insert corrections above the printed lines, any corrections should be written in the margins (see 2.119-33). See also 4.105. Permissible changes to previously published material: The compiler of previously published material may make the following changes to the published material without editorial comment: notes may be renumbered; cross-references to parts of the original work that are no longer relevant may be deleted; obvious typographical errors and inadvertent grammatical slips may be silently corrected. See also 13.7-8. If wholesale changes have been made—for example, in spelling or capitalization conventions or notes style—the compiler should note such changes in a preface or elsewhere. For deletions indicated by ellipsis points, see 13.50-58. Footnotes or endnotes in previously published material: Footnotes that appear as such in the original pages may be presented as footnotes or endnotes in the published version. If a compiler's or volume editor's notes are being added along with the original footnotes or endnotes, the new notes should be intermingled with but distinguished from the original notes (see 14.51); if the original material is being submitted to the publisher on paper only, it may be preferable to produce a separate electronic document for the notes. Source notes for previously published material: Each selection of previously published material should be accompanied either by a headnote (a brief introduction preceding the selection) or by an unnumbered footnote on the first page of text. Include the source, the name of the copyright owner if the selection is in copyright (see chapter 4, esp. 4.2-49), and the original title if it has been changed. See also 14.54. If a selection has previously appeared in various places and different versions, the source note need not give the entire publishing history but must state which version is being reprinted. illustrations: Compilers should contact their publisher about how to obtain illustrations from previously published material in a format suitable for printing. Photocopies of illustrations are not acceptable for reproduction. The compiler should procure glossy prints or the original publisher's scans. If these are unavailable, it may be possible to reproduce an illustration from the original publication.

Superlative adjectives

Are used to compare at least 3 things or 3 groups of things. For example, I am in the smallest class in the school. The car at the end of the street is the nicest. The suffix -est usually signals the superlative form of a common adjective having one or two syllables {lighter-lightest}. These forms are called synthetic superlatives An adjective with three or more syllables takes most instead of a suffix to form the superlative {quarrelsome-most quarrelsome} {humorous-most humorous}. These forms are called periphrastic superlatives. Some adjectives with two syllables take the -est suffix {holy-holiest} {noble-noblest}, but most two-syllable adjectives take most {most fruitful} {most reckless}.

comparative adjectives

Are used when comparing two nouns. For example, The brown cat is older, than the black cat. My house is bigger than my sister's house. The man is bigger than the woman.

Text

The text proper comprises the narrative—including arguments, data, illustrations, and so forth—often divided into chapters and other meaningful sections

Running heads defined/ for front matter/for text/ for back matter/ for end notes/ ommision of running heads

Running heads—the headings at the tops of pages—function, like page numbers, as signposts. Especially useful in scholarly books and textbooks, they are sometimes omitted for practical or aesthetic reasons—in a novel or a book of poems, for example. Running heads are sometimes placed at the bottom of the page, where they are referred to as running feet, or, more rarely, in the left- and right-hand margins. In endnotes and other places where the information conveyed by these signposts is essential to readers, placement at the tops of pages is preferred. In this manual, running head is used for this element wherever it appears. For preparation of running-head copy, see 2.76. In electronic formats, running heads may be supplanted by other navigational features (see 1.123). Running heads are never used on display pages (half title, title, copyright, dedication, epigraph) or on the first page of the table of contents, preface, and so forth (see also 1.16). Any element in the front matter that runs more than one page usually carries running heads, and the same running head appears on verso and recto pages. Chapter openings and other display pages carry no running heads (see also 1.16). The choice of running heads for other text pages is governed chiefly by the structure and nature of the book. Longer titles or heads may need to be shortened; see also 2.76. For a book without named chapters or other structural divisions (a novel, for example), the book title can be used for the running head on both verso and recto, or running heads can be omitted. In electronic formats, the title metadata may be used to supply the running heads by default (see also 1.75). Running heads for back matter follow the same pattern as those for front matter and text (but see 1.15). If there is an appendix, Appendix (or Appendix 1 or Appendix A, etc.) appears verso, the appendix title recto. If there is more than one index, the running heads must differentiate them (e.g., Index of Names, Index of Subjects). The running heads for a section of notes in the back of the book should give the inclusive page numbers or (much less useful for readers but more expedient for the publisher) the chapter where the relevant note references are found in the text. If chapter numbers are used, it is essential that the running heads in the text also include chapter numbers (see 1.12). Thus, two facing running heads might read: Besides display pages in the front matter (see 1.11), running heads are omitted on part titles, chapter openings, and any page containing only illustrations or tables. (For the omission of page numbers, see 1.7, 1.8.) Pages that include lines of text in addition to an illustration or table should include running heads. Running heads may also be included in long sequences of illustrations or tables to keep readers oriented.

determining page 1

The first page of the first chapter or the introduction (see 1.47) is usually counted as arabic page 1. Where the front matter is extensive, however, a second half title, identical to the one on page i, may be added before the text. The second half title should be counted as page 1, the first of the pages to be counted with an arabic page number (though the page number does not appear). The page following the second half title (its verso) is usually blank, though it may contain an illustration or an epigraph. A second half title is also useful when the book design specifies a double-page spread for chapter openings; in such a case, chapter 1 starts on page 2. If a book begins with a part title, the part title page is treated as arabic page 1 in the same manner as a second half title. See also 1.5, 1.6.

who/whom

he CMOS hint I found most helpful: if you can insert the nominative pronoun, he/she/they use 'who', and 'whom' if you can insert objective pronoun: her/him/them. A nominative pronoun, such as I/we, or he/she, functions as subject of a verb. ... The objective pronoun, such as me/us, him/her, functions as object of a preposition or as direct or indirect object of a verb

Indexes

Indexes to printed journal volumes: At the end of a volume, some journals publish an index to the articles and other pieces published in that volume. The index appears in the volume's last issue. Names of authors, titles of articles, and titles and authors of books reviewed are indexed. More detailed subject indexes, on the other hand, are becoming rare. In the sciences especially, subject indexes have been superseded by searchable field-specific bibliographic databases (see 1.111). electronic indexes Many journals have dispensed with subject indexes; readers have come to rely instead on indexed searches provided by the publisher or by a third-party bibliographic database or search engine to lead them to individual articles. In the sciences, journal subject indexes have been largely superseded by field-specific resources such as PubMed, the National Library of Medicine's bibliographic database of journal articles. PubMed allows readers to search the entire field of biomedicine for electronically indexed articles—with the help of a standard keyword vocabulary—rather than searching individual journals at a publisher's website. (Readers who reach an article through a database or search engine rather than by subscribing to the journal may need a subscription or otherwise pay to gain access to the full article.) See also 1.92, 1.93.

Page numbers for multivolume works

Pagination for works that run to more than one volume may depend on the index and the projected number of volumes. If an index to two volumes is to appear at the end of volume 2, consecutive pagination saves index entries from having to refer to volume as well as page number. In rare cases where back matter, such as an index, must be added to volume 1 later in the production process, lowercase roman folios may be used; these should continue the sequence from the front matter in that volume (including a final blank page)—if, for example, the last page of the front matter is xii, the back matter would start with page xiii. Multivolume works that run into the thousands of pages are usually paginated separately to avoid unwieldy page numbers. Index entries and other references to such works must include volume as well as page number. In either scenario—consecutive or separate pagination across volumes—the front matter in each volume begins anew with page i.

leaves

Publishers refer to the trimmed sheets of paper that you turn in a printed-and-bound book as leaves (or, especially in older books, folios, a term that can also refer to page or leaf numbers; see 1.6, 14.155). A page is one side of a leaf. The front of the leaf, the side that lies to the right in an open book, is called the recto. The back of the leaf, the side that lies to the left when the leaf is turned, is the verso. Rectos are always odd-numbered, versos always even-numbered. Electronic formats may or may not distinguish between recto and verso.

covers and jackets

The traditional clothbound hardcover book—so-called for the integument of cloth stretched over a cardboard cover—may include a paper dust jacket (see 1.71). Underneath the jacket, on the cloth itself, the spine is generally imprinted with the author's (or editor's) full name, or the last name only if space is tight; the title of the book (and any edition number); and the publisher's name. The subtitle is usually omitted. The publisher's name is often shortened or replaced by an emblem or device known as a colophon or logo. (For another meaning of colophon, see 1.67.) Considering a book as it stands upright on a shelf, spine copy on American publications is most commonly printed vertically (and read from the top down), but when space allows (as with longer books with wider spines), it may be printed horizontally (for easier reading on the shelf). The front panel may be blank, but it sometimes bears stamped or printed material, such as the title and author's name or the publisher's colophon or some other decoration. The back panel is usually blank, though a product code may be necessary for books with no jacket (see 1.74). The spine of paperback covers (and other flexible covers) usually carries the author's or editor's name, the publisher's name or colophon or both, and the title. The front cover carries the author's or editor's name, the title and (usually) the subtitle, and sometimes the name of a translator, a contributor of a foreword, an edition number, or the like. The back cover usually carries promotional copy, such as a description of the book or quotations from reviews or signed blurbs, a brief biographical statement about the author (see 1.66), the series title if the book is part of a series, and, sometimes, information about the publisher. (Some paperbacks include gatefolds, also called French flaps—extensions to the front and back covers that are folded into the book just like the dust jacket to a hardcover book; see 1.71.) See also 1.74. Hardcover books are often protected by a coated paper jacket (or dust jacket). In addition to the three parts to be found on the book cover itself, the jacket also has flaps that tuck inside the front and back covers. The front and spine carry the same kind of material as the front and spine of paperback covers (see 1.70). The material included on the back of a paperback cover is begun on the front flap of the hardcover jacket and completed on the back flap (where a biographical note on the author may appear; see 1.66). The back panel sometimes includes promotional copy from the publisher. See also 1.74. An alternative to the dust jacket is provided by the paper-over-board format (also called lithocase), which allows full-color images and type to appear directly on the hard outer cover—including on the inside front and back panels. An endpaper is one of two folded sheets of paper appearing at the beginning and end of a hardcover book (or, more rarely, a book with a sturdy paperback or other flexible binding). Half of each sheet is glued against the inside of the cover, one to the front and one to the back; the base of each is then glued, at the fold (near the spine), to the first and last page of the book. Endpapers help secure a book within its covers. The free half of each sheet is called a flyleaf. Endpapers, sometimes colored, are usually of a heavier stock than the book pages, and they sometimes feature printed text or illustrations. Endpapers are not counted in a book's pagination If a credit line is required for artwork included on a jacket or cover, it normally appears on the back flap of the jacket or the back cover of a paperback or other book without a jacket. Credit for artwork on a paperback cover or on the actual cover (as opposed to the jacket) of a hardcover book may also appear inside the book, usually on the copyright page, since the cover is a permanent part of the bound book. See 3.29-37 for styling of credit lines.

epigraph

An author may wish to include an epigraph—a quotation that is pertinent but not integral to the text—at the beginning of the book. If there is no dedication, the epigraph may be placed on page v (see 1.4); otherwise, it is usually placed on page vi, opposite the table of contents. Epigraphs are also occasionally used at chapter openings and, more rarely, at the beginnings of sections within chapters (see 1.49). The source of an epigraph is usually given on a line following the quotation, sometimes preceded by a dash (see 13.36). Only the author's name (in the case of a well-known author, only the last name) and, usually, the title of the work need appear; beyond this, it is customary not to annotate book epigraphs (but see 14.52)

Directive or imperative

A directive or imperative is a sentence that instructs somebody to do or not to do something. The word command is sometimes used as a synonym, but most grammarians consider the term command more appropriate for one of the eight main types of directives, all of which are in the imperative mood of the verb: (1) command {come here now!}; (2) prohibition {don't do that!}; (3) invitation {join us for dinner!}; (4) warning {watch out for rattlesnakes!}; (5) plea {stay here} {help!}; (6) request {put your book away}; (7) well-wishing {play well} {have a good time!}; and (8) advice {put on some insect repellent}. Several directives depart from these common patterns, as when the subject is expressed {sit you down} {you stay there}; when they begin with let {let's have a picnic} {let us wait}; or when they begin with do {do help yourself}.

International Standard Book Number (ISBN)

An ISBN is assigned to each book by its publisher under a system set up in the late 1960s by the R. R. Bowker Company and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISBN uniquely identifies the book, thus facilitating order fulfillment and inventory tracking. In addition to appearing on the copyright page (see fig. 1.1), the ISBN should also be printed on the book jacket or cover (see 1.74). Each format or binding must have a separate ISBN (i.e., for hardcover, paperbound, e-book format, etc.), and, if practical, the copyright page should list them all (but only if they are to be published simultaneously). Additional information about the assignment and use of ISBNs may be obtained from Bowker, the ISBN Agency for the United States, or from the International ISBN Agency. These agencies also provide ISBNs and other resources to self-published authors, including information about copyright, bar codes, and related matters. Some books that are part of a monograph series may be assigned an ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) in addition to an ISBN; for more information, contact the US ISSN Center at the Library of Congress or the ISSN International Centre. (For the use of ISSNs in journal copyright statements, see 1.103.) See also 1.75.

parts of speech

As traditionally understood, grammar is both a science and an art. Often it has focused—as it does here—on parts of speech and their syntax. Each part of speech performs a particular function in a sentence or phrase. Traditional grammar has held that there are eight parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Somewhat surprisingly, modern grammarians cannot agree on precisely how many parts of speech there are in English. At least one grammarian says there are as few as three. Another insists that there are "about fifteen," noting that "the precise number is still being debated." This section deals with the traditional eight; each part of speech is treated below. The purpose here is to sketch some of the main lines of English grammar using traditional grammatical terms.

recto verso

Page numbers as well as indications of recto (right-hand page) or verso (left-hand page) may be applicable only to printed-and-bound books. Starting pages that cannot be assigned page numbers until after page makeup begin on the first available recto or, in some cases, the first available page, whether recto or verso (see also 1.5). Every page is counted in the page sequence, even those on which no number actually appears, such as the title and half-title pages, copyright page, and blank pages (see 1.6). Books published electronically typically retain the order or presentation of elements, especially for the main text. Publishers refer to the trimmed sheets of paper that you turn in a printed-and-bound book as leaves (or, especially in older books, folios, a term that can also refer to page or leaf numbers; see 1.6, 14.155). A page is one side of a leaf. The front of the leaf, the side that lies to the right in an open book, is called the recto. The back of the leaf, the side that lies to the left when the leaf is turned, is the verso. Rectos are always odd-numbered, versos always even-numbered. Electronic formats may or may not distinguish between recto and verso.

page numbers

Printed books are paginated consecutively, and all pages except endpapers (see 1.72) are counted in the pagination, whether or not the numbers appear. The page number, or folio, is most commonly found at the top of the page, flush left verso, flush right recto. The folio may also be printed at the bottom of the page, and in that location it is called a drop folio. Drop folios usually appear either centered on each page or flush left verso and flush right recto. A page number that does not appear is sometimes referred to as a blind folio. Not paginated are pages that are inserted into printed books after pages have been made up—for example, color illustrations or photo galleries printed on a different type of paper (see 1.39). Reflowable electronic formats generally lack fixed page numbers, though many formats include location information to help orient readers in the tex

principles of manuscript editing

::Manuscript editing, also called copyediting or line editing, requires attention to every word and mark of punctuation in a manuscript, a thorough knowledge of the style to be followed, and the ability to make quick, logical, and defensible decisions. It is undertaken by the publisher—either in-house or through the services of a freelance editor—when a manuscript has been accepted for publication. (Self-publishing authors, too, can benefit from the services of a professional editor.) It may include both mechanical editing (see 2.49) and substantive editing (see 2.50). It is distinct from developmental editing (not discussed in this manual), which more directly shapes the content of a work, the way material should be presented, the need for more or less documentation and how it should be handled, and so on. Since developmental editing may involve total rewriting or reorganization of a work, it should be done—if needed—before manuscript editing begins. For a comprehensive overview of the editing process, see What Editors Do: The Art, Craft, and Business of Book Editing, edited by Peter Ginna (bibliog. 2.8). For more on developmental editing, consult Scott Norton's Developmental Editing: A Handbook for Freelancers, Authors, and Publishers (bibliog. 2.1). Mechanical editing: Mechanical editing involves the consistent application of a particular style to a written work—including text and documentation and any tables and illustrations. The central focus of part 2 in this manual, style is used here to refer to rules related to capitalization, spelling, hyphenation, and abbreviations; punctuation, including ellipsis points, parentheses, and quotation marks; and the way numbers are treated. Mechanical editing also includes attention to grammar, syntax, and usage. The rules set forth in a style manual like this one may be supplemented by a publisher's house style or the style of a particular discipline. Journal editors in particular follow a journal's established style, augmented by additional resources specific to the subject area. Books in a series or multivolume works should all follow one style consistently, as should separately authored chapters in a multiauthor book (but see 2.41). The style of any work, as well as occasional deviations from it, must be determined by author, editor, and publisher before editing begins. For substantive editing, see 2.50. See also 2.51, 2.55. substantive editing: Substantive editing deals with the organization and presentation of existing content. It involves rewriting to improve style or to eliminate ambiguity, reorganizing or tightening disorganized or loosely written sections, adjusting or recasting tables, and other remedial activities. (It should not be confused with developmental editing, a more drastic process; see 2.48.) In general, no substantive editing should be undertaken without agreement between publisher and editor, especially for book-length works; if major substantive work is needed, the author should be consulted and perhaps invited to approve a sample before the editing proceeds. A journal's manuscript editors, however, working on rigid schedules, may need to do substantive editing without prior consultation with authors if problems of organization, writing style, and presentation have not been addressed at earlier stages. editorial discretion: A light editorial hand is nearly always more effective than a heavy one. An experienced editor will recognize and not tamper with unusual figures of speech or idiomatic usage and will know when to make an editorial change and when simply to suggest it, whether to delete a repetition or an unnecessary recapitulation or simply to point it out to the author, and how to suggest tactfully that an expression may be inappropriate (or that an assertion might not be accurate). An author's own style should be respected, whether flamboyant or pedestrian. On the other hand, manuscript editors should be aware of any requirements of a publisher's house style, including any policies that are essential to the publisher—for example, those covering bias-free language (see 5.251-60). For communicating with the author and querying, see 2.68-72. est. editing time: It is important to come up with a realistic estimate for how long the job of manuscript editing should take. This estimate (which is typically determined by the publisher and agreed to by the manuscript editor or, in the case of self-publishers, negotiated between author and manuscript editor) is important not only in ensuring the quality of the editor's work but in determining a reasonable fee as well as a schedule for completing the work. Most estimates start with the length of the manuscript. Because of inevitable variations in typefaces and margins and other formatting characteristics from one manuscript to another, the length is best determined by a word count rather than a page count (a word count can be derived from a page count for paper-only manuscripts). A 100,000-word book manuscript, edited by an experienced editor, might take seventy-five to one hundred hours of work before being sent to the author, plus ten to twenty additional hours after the author's review. This rough estimate may need to be adjusted to take into account any complexities in the text or documentation, the presence and characteristics of any tables and illustrations, and the degree of electronic formatting and markup that an editor will need to remove or impose (see 2.80). If in doubt, edit a small sample to serve as the basis of an estimate. An additional factor is of course the publication schedule, which may determine how many days are available for the editing stage or, in turn, may need to be adjusted depending on the estimate of editing time. Also pertinent is information about the author's availability to review the edited manuscript, amenability to being edited, propensity to revise, and so forth. stages: Editors usually go through a manuscript three times—once to do the initial editing, easily the longest stage; a second time to review, refine, and sometimes correct the editing; and a third time after the author's review (see 2.72, 2.88). Editors working on electronic manuscripts may also be required to perform an initial, systematic cleanup (see 2.80)—though a publisher's manuscript editing or production department may perform such a cleanup before turning a manuscript over to an editor. Most editors begin the initial editing stage—sometimes in conjunction with the electronic cleanup—by looking through the entire document to assess the nature and scope of the work that will be required, to identify any matters that should be clarified with the author before editing begins, and to reduce the number of surprises that could cause delays if discovered later in the process. Then, some editors will prefer to edit the notes, bibliography, tables, figures, and other components separately from the text; others edit notes and other textual apparatus, or a part of it, along with the text. Whatever the procedure, all elements must be compared to ensure that the notes match their text references, citations correspond to the entries in the bibliography or reference list, tables correspond to any discussion of them in the text, and so on. dictionary and other reference work: A good dictionary is essential to a manuscript editor. Chicago recommends Webster's Third New International Dictionary and the latest edition of its chief abridgment, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary; both are revised and updated online under the imprint of Merriam-Webster (see bibliog. 3.1). Editors also need reference works that furnish reliable spellings and identifications of persons, places, historical events, technical terminology, and the like. For some basic reference works, see section 4 of the bibliography. For a complete discussion of names and terms, see chapter 8. If a system of documentation other than Chicago is to be used, the applicable style manual should be at hand (see bibliog. 1.1). style sheet: To ensure consistency, for each manuscript the editor must keep an alphabetical list of words or terms to be capitalized, italicized, hyphenated, spelled, or otherwise treated in any way unique to the manuscript. Changes that are made simply for consistency with house style need not be noted on the style sheet. It is enough to note, for example, "In all other respects, Chicago style is followed." (For paper-only manuscripts it is useful to add the page number of the first occurrence of each item.) Special punctuation, unusual diacritics, and other items should also be noted on the style sheet. Not only the author but also the publisher may need to refer to the style sheet at various stages of editing and production. fact-checking: In book publishing, the author is finally responsible for the accuracy of a work; most book publishers do not perform fact-checking in any systematic way or expect it of their manuscript editors unless specifically agreed upon up front. Nonetheless, obvious errors, including errors in mathematical calculations, should always be pointed out to the author, and questionable proper names, bibliographic references, and the like should be checked and any apparent irregularities queried. Editors need to be systematic about what they fact-check to avoid being distracted from the work at hand. It will sometimes be efficient to point out and correct obvious errors of fact that can be easily double-checked against reliable sources. For anything beyond that, however, fact-checking should be limited to what is needed to form an effective and judicious query to the author (see 2.69). For more information, consult Brooke Borel, The Chicago Guide to Fact-Checking (bibliog. 2.1) editing front matter: An editor should check any half title, title page, table of contents, and list of illustrations against the text and captions and against any applicable documentation included with the manuscript; discrepancies should be queried. If subheads are to be dropped from the table of contents, the author should be consulted (see also 1.38). For books, the editor should pay attention to the order of elements and may be asked to label the manuscript to ensure correct roman numeral pagination (see 1.7; see also 2.75). Publishers generally prepare the copyright page, though editors may be expected to review the author's biographical note and other elements (see 1.20; see also 1.66). titles: The editor of a book manuscript should ensure that part and chapter titles and their subtitles, if any, are consistent with the text in spelling, hyphenation, and italics. Chicago recommends that all titles be in headline style unless a work is part of a series or journal that follows some other capitalization style (see 8.159). Part and chapter titles must be checked against the table of contents, and any discrepancy must be queried. Each title should be identified on the manuscript according to the publisher's requirements (for electronic manuscripts, see 2.81-83; for paper manuscripts, see 2.99). See also 1.47-54. subheads: Subheads should be checked for consistency with the text in spelling, hyphenation, and italics, and for parallel structure and tone. The text that immediately follows a subhead should be adjusted as needed for proper wording relative to the subhead (see 1.55). If there is more than one level of subhead, the hierarchy needs to be checked for sense and each level clearly identified (for electronic manuscripts, see 2.81-83; for paper manuscripts, see 2.99). If there are more than three levels of subhead, determine whether the lowest level can be eliminated. For electronic manuscripts, it may be wise to apply the appropriate markup for the different subhead levels based on the author's typographic distinctions at the outset, lest these distinctions be eliminated by any cleanup routine (see 2.80). If subheads are to appear in the table of contents, they must be cross-checked for consistency. Chicago recommends that all subheads be in headline style unless a work is part of a series or journal that follows some other capitalization style (see 8.159). But if an author has consistently used sentence style for subheads (see 8.158), that style should not be altered without consultation with the author and publisher, since it may be more appropriate in a particular work. If the majority of subheads consist of full sentences, sentence style may be preferred; no period is added except in the case of a run-in head (see 1.56). See also 1.55-58. cross-references: All references to tables, figures, appendixes, bibliographies, or other parts of a work should be checked by the manuscript editor. If the author, for example, mentions a statistic for 2017 and refers readers to table 4, which gives statistics only through 2016, the editor must point out the discrepancy. Place-names on a map that illustrate the text must be spelled as in the text. Cross-references to specific pages—the numbering of which is subject to change in the published version—should be minimized or eliminated. See also 2.35. quotations and previously published material: Aside from adjusting quotation marks and ellipsis points and the like to conform to house style (see 13.7-8), the editor must do nothing to quoted material unless the author is translating it from another language (or modernizing it), in which case it may be lightly edited (see 11.16); transcribed interviews or field notes may also be subject to editing (see 13.48, 13.49). Misspelled words and apparent transcription errors should be queried. An author who appears to have been careless in transcribing should be asked to recheck all quotations for accuracy, including punctuation. The editor should ensure that sources are given for all quoted material, whether following the quotation or in a note. In editing previously published material, especially if it has been abridged, the editor should read for sense to ensure that nothing is out of order or has been inadvertently omitted. Discrepancies should be queried. If the previously published material has been provided on paper only, any ambiguous end-of-line hyphens should be clarified (see 2.96). See also 2.43. editing notes: Each note must be checked against the text to ensure that its text reference is correct and in the right place and that any terms used in the note are treated the same way as in the text. When notes are to be printed as footnotes, the author may be asked to shorten an excessively long note or to incorporate some of the note into the text. Lists, tables, and figures should be placed not in footnotes but in the text or in an appendix. Manuscript editors may sometimes request an additional note to accommodate a needed source or citation. More frequently, in consultation with the author, they will combine notes or delete unneeded ones. See 14.56-60. An editor working on paper must take special care in renumbering notes. See also 2.63. note citations, bibliographies, and reference lists: Citations in notes, bibliographies, and reference lists must be carefully checked for documentation style (chapters 14 and 15; but see 2.64). Further, every subsequent reference to a work previously cited in the text or in a note must be given in the same form as the first reference or in the same shortened form (see 14.29-36). In a work containing a bibliography as well as notes, each citation in the notes should be checked against the bibliography and any discrepancy resolved or, if necessary, queried in both contexts so that the author can easily compare them (see 2.69). A bibliography need not include every work cited in the notes and may properly include some entries that are not cited. If author-date style is used, the editor will have checked all text citations against the reference list while editing the text and will have queried or resolved discrepancies. Bibliographies and reference lists should be checked for alphabetical order and, where applicable, for chronological order. For bibliographies, see 14.61-71; for reference lists and text citations, see 15.10-31. Many editors find it helpful to edit the bibliography or reference list before the text and notes. Editors working on-screen may need to make sure that the source citations and related text are free of any underlying codes generated by the author in creating or organizing them (see 14.5). flexibility in style for source citations: Imposing house style on notes prepared in another style can be immensely time-consuming and, if the existing form is consistent and clear to the reader, is often unnecessary. This is especially true of books, many of which are intended to stand alone. Before making sweeping changes, the manuscript editor should consult with the author or the publisher or both. In journal editing, on the other hand, such flexibility is generally not allowed. For the published journal, citations are often linked to the resources themselves; the creation of such links can be facilitated by a consistent, predictable format across articles. editing illustrations and captions: Wording in diagrams, charts, maps, and the like should generally conform to the spelling and capitalization used in captions or the text. Captions in turn must conform to the style of the text. Source information should be edited in consultation with the publisher and in conformance with any letters of permission. (If permissions are outstanding, the publisher, not the editor, should take up the matter with the author.) Illustrations may be added, dropped, or renumbered during editing; it is therefore essential to make a final check of all illustrations against their text references and callouts (see 2.30) and against the captions and list of illustrations to be sure that they match and that the illustrations show what they say they do. For details on preparing illustrations and captions, see 3.3-46. For checking credits, see 3.29-37. tables: Tables are usually best edited together, as a group, to ensure consistent style and presentation. Tables should also be checked for consistent numbering and correspondence with the text—including text references and placement callouts (see 2.30). For specific guidelines on editing tables, see 3.81-88. index: The schedule for editing an index—which, if it depends on page number locators rather than paragraph numbers, is almost never prepared before book or journal pages have been composed—must usually correspond to the schedule for reviewing corrections to proofs. For a more detailed discussion, including an index-editing checklist, see 16.132-34. Contacting the author after an initial review of the manuscript: Editors of book-length works are urged to contact their authors early on, after an initial review of the manuscript. This is especially important if an editor has questions or plans to make significant changes that, in the event the author proves not to be amenable, might take time and effort to undo. Likewise, to expedite production, a journal's manuscript editors may notify authors right away of any plans for systematic changes. Most authors are content to submit to a house style; those who are not may be willing to compromise. Unless usage is determined by journal or series style, the author's wishes should generally be respected. For a manuscript that requires extensive changes, it may be wise, if the schedule allows, to send a sample of the editing for the author's approval before proceeding

The Mechanics of Electronic Editing / Preparation and Cleanup

:Saving the manuscript files and keeping backups: It is best to save and back up a manuscript in stages, creating separate copies of each significant version. The author's original, unedited copy should be archived (i.e., saved without further changes), as should every significant stage of the editing process. Each major stage should be saved with a different name—for example, by appending "author's original," "clean unedited," "first edit," "to author," and so forth to the file name. For complex projects, use different directories (i.e., folders) for the different stages. Exercise caution when saving files and working on new versions: avoid saving over—or inadvertently working on—an earlier version of a file. During editing, open documents should be saved frequently. Some editors archive daily or weekly versions so that an earlier stage of the editing can be consulted if necessary. Another strategy is to use a file-hosting service that allows access to previously saved versions or deleted files. All saved versions should always be backed up to a second location as protection against loss. Manuscript cleanup tools: Many publishers provide manuscript editors with a cleaned-up version of the author's electronic file(s)—formatted and ready to edit. The publisher usually specifies the required software and may expect the editor to use or apply a certain type of markup (see 2.81-83). (Publishers may instead give editors hard copy only, updating the electronic files from the pencil-edited copy as part of the production process; for paper editing, see 2.90-99.) Some editors, however, are required to clean up and format the author's electronic files themselves. Full-featured word processors provide a number of tools that can save time by automating certain tasks. At the very least, it is important to learn about search-and-replace options, including the use of pattern matching (with wildcards or regular expressions), and about macros, which can save keystrokes by replicating and repeating repetitive tasks (including tasks that involve searching and replacing). (Consult your word-processor's Help documentation for instructions and examples.) Some editors take advantage of third-party add-ins preloaded with cleanup macros, enhanced search-and-replace options, and other editing tools. 2.80: Manuscript cleanup checklist: Before editing the manuscript, the editor must be certain that the files represent the author's latest version (the presence of embedded revision marks may be a sign that this is not the case; see 2.39). The next step is to get the electronic files ready to edit—if the publisher has not done this already. The following checklist suggests a set of steps that can be adapted as necessary to become part of an editor's word-processing cleanup routine. Not all manuscripts will require each step, and the suggested order need not be adhered to. Some of the steps can be automated, but most of the checklist can also be accomplished manually—that is, applied on a case-by-case basis, as part of the first read-through (see 2.53). Always review—and be prepared to undo—any global change before saving a permanent version of a file. Modify this checklist as needed to accord not only with the requirements of a specific manuscript but also with those of the publisher. Automatic redlining should usually be turned off during these steps (see 2.84). Convert files for use in the editing software required by the publisher, if necessary. To avoid having to apply this checklist more than once, consider combining separate files into a single electronic file. (Care must be taken to produce a complete manuscript, in the proper order and with no inadvertent deletions; always double-check the beginning and ending of each component and any notes thereto both when combining multiple files and when breaking a single file into smaller components.) Another option is to use macros that work across multiple files in a single directory (see 2.79). If necessary, change the language settings of the manuscript and any subdocuments (e.g., from British English to American English, or vice versa). This will ensure, among other things, that the main dictionary gives appropriate suggestions. Scroll through the whole manuscript (with the editing software set to display formatting and any markup—including marks for such "invisible" elements as spaces and hard returns), looking for and fixing any obvious conversion errors (e.g., with special characters) and formatting problems (e.g., hard returns in the middle of a paragraph), with reference to the original manuscript as necessary. Identify any graphic elements and tables and handle appropriately—for example, moving figures or tables to separate files (see 2.26, 2.30). Apply appropriate markup, as required, to any elements that are easy to identify at the outset but whose visual cues may be lost as the text is formatted. Look for chapter titles, subheads (and subhead levels), epigraphs, text and poetry extracts, extra line space (which may signal a stanza break in poetry or require an ornament or other device in text), and so forth. See also 2.81-83. Delete or fix extraneous spaces and tabs, including instances of two or more consecutive spaces (between sentences or anywhere else) or spaces or tabs at the ends of paragraphs. Multiple spaces used to create first-line paragraph and other indents should be replaced either with tabs or with software-defined indents (be consistent). Change instances of multiple hard returns to single hard returns. Change underlining to italics. Some underlining, however, may be intended to represent true underscore—in, for example, a collection that transcribes handwritten letters; this should be preserved, with a note to the publisher explaining the exception. See also 6.2. Fix quotation marks and apostrophes; make sure that apostrophes at the beginning of words are correct (e.g., 'em not 'em for "them"). But first determine, as applicable, that left and right single quotation marks have not been used by the author to stand in for breathing marks or other orthographic devices in transliterated languages (see chapter 11). See also 6.115, 6.117. Fix commas and periods relative to quotation marks (see table 6.1). Regularize em dashes and ellipses. For proper use of em dashes, see 6.85-92. For ellipses, see 13.50-58. Replace hyphens between numerals with en dashes as appropriate. If you are using a macro to do this, it may be more efficient to let the macro run and to fix or add any exceptions during the first editing pass. For proper use of en dashes, see 6.78-84. Convert footnotes to endnotes, or vice versa. Delete any optional or conditional hyphens (i.e., software-dependent hyphens that allow words to break across the end of a line whether or not the hyphenation feature is turned on). Most word processors will allow you to search for these. Find any lowercase els used as ones and any ohs (capital or lowercase) used as zeros—or vice versa—and fix. This can be done by using pattern matching to search for two-character combinations containing either an el or an oh next to an expression that will find any numeral (see also 2.79). Fix any other global inconsistencies that might be amenable to pattern-matching strategies. For example, in a bibliography in which two- or three-letter initials in names have been closed up, you can search for and evaluate capital letter combinations and replace as necessary with the same combination plus a space (e.g., changing E.B. White to E. B. White). Adjust line spacing, font, and margins as desired. As a final step—assuming these steps have been applied before editing—save a copy of the resulting clean, unedited manuscript in case it becomes necessary to refer to it later (see 2.78).

journal design

A journal's design—physical, visual, and editorial—is determined when the journal is founded. At that time, a designer creates a design for the cover and the overall look of a journal and specifications for all of its regular features. Because the designer designs not for a specific text but for categories of text—article title, author's name, text, heads, subheads, and so on—the design of a journal should be simple and flexible as well as visually pleasing and easy to read. The design of the electronic version, which may be shared across journals offered via the same parent site, will have additional considerations based on the medium (see 1.117-25). It is the job of the manuscript editor and production personnel to fit the items for a particular issue into the overall design. A long-running journal may occasionally be redesigned typographically. More rarely in print but commonly in electronic formats, minor alterations in style may be introduced to accommodate changing technologies. A journal's editorial style governs such things as when to use numerals or percent signs, how to treat abbreviations or special terms, and how to organize tables. Consistency of design and style contributes to a journal's identity; readers know what to expect, and the substantive contribution of each article stands out more sharply when typographical distractions are at a minimum.

morpheme

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme is not necessarily the same as a word. The main difference between a morpheme and a word is that a morpheme sometimes does not stand alone, but a word, by definition, always stands alone (e.g. in, come, -ing, forming incoming).

possessive form

A possessive form is a word or grammatical construction used to indicate a relationship of possession in a broad sense. This can include strict ownership, or a number of other types of relation to a greater or lesser degree analogous to it. Most European languages feature possessive forms associated with personal pronouns, like the English my, mine, your, yours, his and so on. There are two main ways in which these can be used: Together with a noun, as in my car, your sisters, his boss.

journal cover

A printed journal is usually bound in soft covers, like a paperback, and each issue generally uses the same overall design and color scheme. A journal's spine contains the title of the journal, the volume and issue numbers, and the date, month, or season and the year of publication. It may also note the beginning and ending page numbers of that issue. Each of the remaining four sides of the cover also contains important information, as follows: Cover 1, the front cover, displays the title of the journal; the volume and issue numbers; the date, month, or season and the year of the issue; the publisher's name; and sometimes the table of contents or an illustration. The title of a special issue, along with the name(s) of the editor(s) of the special issue, appears on cover 1. The front cover may be offered as an image on the home page for each issue. Cover 2, the inside front cover, usually contains the masthead with the names of the editor(s) and staff, the editorial board, the journal's International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), its dates or frequency of publication, subscription information, addresses for business and editorial correspondence, and the copyright line for the entire issue (see also 1.103). Cover 2 may also include information about postage; a statement about paper durability (see also 1.35); a statement about copying beyond fair use; information about obtaining back issues; mention of a submission fee, if that is part of the journal's practice; information about indexing of the journal's articles; a statement about advertising policy; a caption for any illustration that appears on cover 1; and the URL of the journal's home page. If the journal is sponsored by a scholarly society or other organization, cover 2 may supply the name and address of the society and the names of officers. Occasionally on cover 2 but more often in the front or back matter of each issue, there may be a statement of editorial policy for the journal indicating what kind of articles the journal publishes as well as information for contributors about how and in what form to submit a manuscript. Cover 3, the inside back cover, is often given over to advertising, or it may be used for information for contributors. If the table of contents begins on the back cover, it may be completed on cover 3. Cover 4, the back cover, carries the bar code for the journal issue in the lower right-hand corner. It may also carry the table of contents or titles of articles scheduled to appear in a forthcoming issue, or advertising. (If there is advertising on cover 4, the bar code may be put on cover 2 or cover 3.) If the table of contents begins on cover 1, it may be completed on cover 4. Many of the elements discussed in 1.84 can equally occur in the front matter, or preliminary ("prelim") pages. Some journals, because they have a sizable staff and a large number of editors on their advisory board, have space on cover 2 only for the masthead and advisory board editors; the other items then appear in the front matter

impression number and versioning

A printing of a book, or impression, traditionally consists of a set number of books, generally in the hundreds or thousands, printed at one time. Each such impression, starting with the first, may be identified on the copyright page. Chicago uses a system that comprises a series of digits listed after the publishing history. The first group of numerals, reading from right to left, represents the last two digits of succeeding years, starting with the date of the most recent impression. These are followed by a series of numbers that indicate current and possible future impressions. See figures 1.1 and 1.2. Such a system was designed to spare printers from having to generate new text. Some publishers prefer to signal each impression more explicitly (e.g., Second printing, May 2020). Impression lines can be useful in the case of a book in which corrections have been made to an earlier printing; in this case, a new impression might be said to constitute a new version of a book (as opposed to a new edition; see 1.26). For books that are printed in smaller digital print runs or on demand and for e-books, the traditional system based on large offset print runs will not apply. Digital printing systems can be programmed to generate a date stamp and other identifiers, such as the city in which the copy was printed, to keep track of different versions of a book. For e-books, a unique identifier such as the ISBN or DOI can be used in combination with a last-modified date to track revisions, according to a system defined for the EPUB standard (see 1.118). An alternative system, modeled on identifiers for software programs (and specified by some self-publishing platforms), uses version numbers. For example, 1.0 might indicate the original version; 1.0.1 might indicate a minor revision and 1.1 a more significant revision; and 2.0 would indicate a new edition. Such information is included in a book's metadata (see 1.75); the last-modified date or version number may also be listed on the copyright page or elsewhere. For information on evolving practices, consult the International Digital Publishing Forum.

synthetic language

A synthetic language uses inflection or agglutination to express syntactic relationships within a sentence. Inflection is the addition of morphemes to a root word that assigns grammatical property to that word, while agglutination is the combination of two or more morphemes into one word. The information added by morphemes can include indications of a word's grammatical category, such as whether a word is the subject or object in the sentence.[1] Morphology can be either relational or derivational

cross-checking the manuscript

Before submitting a manuscript for publication, an author must cross-check all of its parts to avoid discrepancies. The following list includes major items to check: All titles and subtitles (introduction, parts, chapters, etc.) against table of contents Subheads against table of contents (if subheads are included there; see 1.38) Illustrations against their captions, text references, and callouts Illustration captions against list of illustrations Tables against their text references and callouts Table titles against list of tables All internal cross-references or hyperlinks (see also 2.35) All URLs and other external links All quotations against their original sources Notes against their text references Notes against bibliography (see chapter 14) Parenthetical text citations against reference list (see chapter 15) Abbreviations against list of abbreviations In a multiauthor work, authors' names in table of contents against chapter headings and list of contributors All quoted matter should be checked against the original sources, for both content and source citations, before a manuscript is submitted for publication. This authorial task is crucial because manuscript editors will not have access to all the sources that the author has used. checking URL's Any URLs or other links to outside resources (e.g., database accession numbers)—including any mentioned in the text—should be double-checked just before a manuscript is submitted for publication. Those that no longer point to the intended source should be updated. At the same time, source citations that include links should be checked for completeness according to the guidelines in chapter 14; in most cases, readers should be able to find the resource with or without the link. See also 14.6-18. checking: cross references: All cross-references, whether to a chapter, a section, an appendix, or even a sentence of text, should be verified before a manuscript is submitted for publication. A chapter number or title may have been changed, or a passage deleted, after the original reference to it. Cross-references are best made to chapter or section numbers because these are known and can be entered at the manuscript stage. (Keep in mind, however, that references to whole chapters are often gratuitous and unhelpful; it's best to avoid peppering a manuscript with "see chapter 2 above" and "see chapter 4 below.") References to page numbers are generally discouraged because the pagination of a published work will not correspond to that of the manuscript, and the correct number will have to be supplied later in the process (usually by the author). Moreover, such cross-references may become meaningless in e-book versions that lack fixed page numbers (successful linking will require page number data from the printed version). Where absolutely necessary, use three zeros (e.g., "see p. 000") to signal the need to supply the final page number. Publishers' guidelines for preparing and submitting electronic files For book-length projects, publishers may prefer to get separate electronic files for each of the various elements—front matter through table of contents, preface, chapters, appendixes, and so on (some of which will include embedded notes). Appropriately named separate files—especially for complex works—can help publishers get a sense of and deal with a book's component parts. Some authors (and editors), however, will prefer to work in a single file to facilitate searching and to take advantage of the outline views and other navigational tools available in modern word processors. Authors should always consult their publishers' manuscript preparation guidelines before submitting a final manuscript, whether for a book or for a journal article. Illustrations, which publishers handle separately from the text, should always be in separate files; tables created in an author's word-processing software may not need to be (see 2.26).

dedication

Choice of dedication—including whether to include one—is up to the author. It may be suggested, however, that the word dedicated is superfluous. Editors of contributed volumes do not customarily include a dedication unless it is jointly offered by all contributors. Nor do translators generally offer their own dedication unless it is made clear that the dedication is not that of the original author. The dedication usually appears by itself, preferably on page v.

Past subjunctive mood

Despite its label, the past-tense subjunctive mood refers to something in the present or future but contrary to fact. It is formed using the verb's simple-past tense, except in the case of be, which becomes were regardless of the subject's number. For example, the declaration if only I had a chance expresses that the speaker has little or no chance. Similarly, I wish I were safe at home almost certainly means that the speaker is not at home and perhaps not safe—though it could also mean that the speaker is at home but quite unsafe. This past-tense-but-present-sense subjunctive typically appears in the form if I (he, she, it) were {if I were king} {if she were any different}. That is, the subjunctive mood ordinarily uses a past-tense verb (e.g., were) to connote uncertainty, impossibility, or unreality where the present or future indicative would otherwise be used. Compare If I am threatened, I will quit (indicative) with If I were threatened, I would quit (subjunctive), or If the canary sings, I smile (indicative) with If the canary sang (or should sing, or were to sing), I would smile (subjunctive).

Paper durability and environmental statements

Durability standards for paper have been established by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), which since 1984 has issued statements to be included in books and other publications meeting these standards. In 1992 the standards were revised by the National Information Standards Organization (NISO) to extend to coated paper. (The International Organization for Standardization offers a similar standard, ISO 9706, available from the ISO catalog.) Under this revision, coated and uncoated papers that meet the standards for alkalinity, folding and tearing, and paper stock are authorized to carry the following notice, which should include the permanent paper sign (a circled infinity symbol): ♾ This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper). Some publishers are entitled to include logos or statements certifying that they meet certain requirements for recycled paper or paper that has been sourced or manufactured according to certain standards intended to minimize environmental impact. For more information, contact the Forest Stewardship Council. Additional resources include the US-based Green Press Initiative and the Canadian-based Canopy. Any statements related to paper durability or manufacturing standards for a print book may be removed for publication in electronic formats but need not be.

What constitutes a new edition?

Edition (as opposed to impression, or printing) is used in at least two senses. (1) A new edition may be defined as one in which a substantial change has been made in one or more of the essential elements of the work (e.g., text, notes, appendixes, or illustrations). As a general rule, at least 20 percent of a new edition should consist of new or revised material. A work that is republished with a new preface or afterword but is otherwise unchanged except for corrections of typographical errors is better described as a new impression or a reissue; the title page may include such words as "With a New Preface." (2) Edition may be used to designate a reissue in a different format—for example, a paperback, deluxe, or illustrated version, or an electronic version of a printed work—or under the imprint of a different publisher. Information about the new edition or format is usually included on the copyright page (see 1.25; see also 1.23). An edition other than the first is also designated on the title page: Second Edition, Third Edition, and so forth. Such phrases as "revised and expanded" are sometimes included on the title page but need not be, since the nature and extent of the revision are normally described in the prefatory material or on the cover.

preparing the electronic manuscript files

File names for a book should correspond more or less to the parts of the manuscript as listed in the table of contents (see 1.4). File names that include an author name and a descriptive label will help publishers keep track of them. For books with more than a few parts, use file names that will line up in book order in an alphanumerically sorted directory. The numerals added to the beginning of each of the following file names will facilitate this: 01 Jones contents 02 Jones preface 03 Jones chap01 04 Jones chap02 . . . 12 Jones biblio File names usually also include extensions (e.g., .docx or .odf); whether or not these are visible, they should never be changed or deleted. A separate file for illustration captions might start with "00" (e.g., "00 Jones captions"). Electronic artwork files should usually be submitted as a separate group and named accordingly (e.g., "Jones fig 1.1," "Jones fig 1.2," etc.). File names for color illustrations may include the word color, especially if black-and-white illustrations have also been submitted. A complete list of all submitted files, including files for captions and illustrations, should accompany the manuscript. If PDF versions are required, these files should also be listed. If a hard copy is required, the manuscript should be arranged in the order specified in the table of contents. numbering manuscripts: Each page of a manuscript, whether electronic or hard copy, must be numbered. Manuscripts submitted as multiple files need not be numbered consecutively from page 1 through to the end of the book. Instead, to ensure that no two pages in the manuscript are numbered the same, add descriptive page headers next to the page numbers in each file (e.g., "Introduction: 1," "Introduction: 2," etc.; "chapter 1: 1," "chapter 1: 2," etc.). Arabic numerals may be used for the front matter even though these pages may take on roman numerals in the published work. (It is typically the job of the manuscript editor to indicate where roman numerals will apply; see 2.75.) Manuscripts submitted as one file, on the other hand, can be numbered consecutively across the book starting with page 1 (see also 2.37). In a paper-only manuscript, pages added after the initial numbering may be numbered with a or b (e.g., 55, 55a, 55b). Removing comments and revision marks: Authors should delete any comments embedded in their electronic manuscripts before submitting them for publication. This includes any text formatted as "hidden" and any comments inserted using the commenting feature in a word processor. Any outstanding queries should be addressed in a cover letter. Moreover, it is crucial that any revision marks (or "tracked changes") be removed before the manuscript is submitted—and that the final manuscript represent the very latest version. (Manuscript editors should always check for hidden text, comments, and revision marks and alert the author or publisher about any potential problems.) Backing up final manuscript: n addition to saving a separate electronic copy of each crucial stage of work on their manuscripts, authors are advised to save a backup copy of the version sent to the publisher for editing and publication. Prudence dictates retaining copies in at least two separate locations (e.g., on a computer hard drive and on a portable drive or with a secure file-hosting service). See also 2.5.

list of illustrations and tables

In a book with very few illustrations or tables or one with very many, all tied closely to the text, it is not essential to list them in the front matter. Multiauthor books, proceedings of symposia, and the like commonly do not carry lists of illustrations or tables. Where a list is appropriate (see 3.38), the list of illustrations (usually titled Illustrations but entered in the table of contents as List of Illustrations to avoid ambiguity) should match the table of contents in type size and general style. In books containing various kinds of illustrations, the list may be divided into sections headed, for example, Figures, Tables (see fig. 1.6), or Plates, Drawings, Maps. Page numbers are given for all illustrations printed with the text and counted in the pagination, even when the numbers do not actually appear on the text page. When a gallery of illustrations is printed on different stock and not counted in the pagination, its location is indicated by "Facing page 000" or "Following page 000" in the list of illustrations (see fig. 1.7) or, more commonly, in the table of contents (fig. 1.5). A frontispiece, because of its prominent position at the front of the book, is not assigned a page number; its location is simply given as frontispiece. Titles given in lists of illustrations and tables may be shortened or otherwise adjusted (see 3.40). For treatment of titles, see 8.157-67.

Journal copyright lines

In addition to the copyright line that appears on cover 2, each substantive article or element in the journal normally carries its own copyright line. This usually appears at the bottom of the first page of the article, below any footnotes on that page, or, for full-text electronic articles, at the head of the article or some other prominent location. It contains three basic parts: (1) information on the current issue, including the title of the journal, the volume and issue numbers and date of publication, and the inclusive page numbers of the article; (2) the actual copyright notice, containing the copyright symbol, the year, and the name of the copyright owner (usually either the publisher or the sponsoring society); and (3) a series of numbers (the Copyright Clearance Center code) containing the journal's unique identification number (its International Standard Serial Number, or ISSN), the year, the volume and issue numbers, the article number (assigned by the publisher), and the per copy fee for photocopying, payable through the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC; see below). The Journal of Modern History 86, no. 4 (December 2014): 743-779 © 2014 by The University of Chicago. 0022-2801/2014/8604-0001$10.00 All rights reserved. For some journals, Chicago also includes a fourth element—the article's DOI (see 14.8); the DOI is always listed along with the full-text version of an article and its summary. Most but not all US journals use the CCC, which provides systems through which copyright owners can license the reproduction and distribution of materials in both print and electronic form. Its relations with equivalent agencies in other countries enable the CCC to collect fees for uses in those countries. Note that fees apply only to copyrighted material and not to articles in the public domain. See also 4.55-57, 4.97.

Metadata, Abstracts, and Keywords

Metadata (literally, data about data) consists of a set of core elements that can be used to describe any resource. Metadata for a book includes such elements as title and subtitle, author and author biography, edition, publisher, publication date, ISBN, price, bar code, and a description of the book's content. Some or all of these elements are usually printed on a book's cover or jacket. To facilitate the cataloging and selling of books, these and other metadata elements can be entered into a publisher's database according to a standard syntax such as XML-based ONIX. This structured information can be used to automate the content on a publisher's product pages. It can also be shared with libraries, booksellers, and the like to facilitate online search and discovery. Metadata is utilized by all parties involved in the publishing and supplying of books, and some metadata originates outside the publisher—for example, the CIP data created by the Library of Congress (see 1.34). The creation and maintenance of accurate and complete metadata is in fact an essential component of any modern publisher's workflow. (Authors who self-publish their books through a commercial service are usually required to supply and maintain basic metadata using the service's account management tools.) In addition to the elements mentioned above, metadata usually includes a cover image and information about formats—specifying, for instance, a hardcover book or a particular e-book format—as well as language, extent (e.g., page count or, for an audiobook, duration), subject headings (using a standard classification system such as BISAC in the United States or Thema internationally) and keywords, intended audience, availability, and other vital statistics. More detailed information and guidance is available from The Metadata Handbook (bibliog. 2.7) and from the Book Industry Study Group. See also 1.76. Abstracts, long a feature of journal articles, are increasingly required for books. An abstract is a summary of a book's content written by the author and usually limited to a few hundred words or less. Publishers may require a summary of each chapter (including any introduction and conclusion) in addition to the abstract for the book as a whole. Authors should be advised to take care in writing abstracts; though they usually do not appear in the book itself (except in the sciences), abstracts often form the basis of a book's promotional copy or of the descriptive metadata shared with libraries and booksellers. Abstracts may be supplemented by keywords. A keyword is a word or phrase that identifies an important concept or name in the book. Publishers may ask authors to supply a set of keywords for each chapter as well as for the book as a whole. Keyword metadata supplements a book's other descriptive metadata to make it more visible to search engines. Authors who self-publish their books through a commercial service are typically given the option of entering a description and keywords along with the other metadata elements for their books. See also 1.75, 2.25.

Publisher's, translator's, and editor's notes

Notes on the text are usually treated typographically in the same way as a preface or foreword. A publisher's note—used rarely and only to state something that cannot be included elsewhere—should either precede or immediately follow the table of contents. A translator's note, like a foreword, should precede any element, such as a preface, that is by the original author. An explanation of an editor's method or a discussion of variant texts, often necessary in scholarly editions, may appear either in the front matter (usually as the last item there) or in the back matter (as an appendix or in place of one). Brief remarks about editorial method, however—such as noting that spelling and capitalization have been modernized—are often better incorporated into an editor's preface, if there is one.

journals source citations

Notes or author-date citations in journals One of the fundamental identifying marks of a journal is its documentation style—either notes (sometimes accompanied by a bibliography) or author-date citations. Notes, which still prevail in many humanities journals, may be footnotes or endnotes; if the latter, they appear at the end of the article, with the heading Notes. Author-date citations—used mostly by journals in science and the social sciences—consist of parenthetical text citations keyed to a reference list, which appears at the end of the article. For a discussion of Chicago's two preferred systems of documentation, see chapters 14 and 15. Some scientific journals use a system of numbered references cited in the text by reference number; depending on the system, the references are listed in alphabetical order or in the order cited in the text (see 14.3). internal and external links In full-text electronic articles (and sometimes in enhanced PDF versions), text citations typically link to references, notes, or items in a bibliography, as the case may be, allowing readers to move from the text citation to the cited item and back to the text. Reference lists and bibliographies may in turn link to resources outside the article—for example, to cited articles or to an outside index or database (see 1.111).

Cataloging-in-Publication (CIP) data

Since 1971 most US publishers have printed the Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication (CIP) data on the copyright pages of their books. CIP data is available for most books that are made available to libraries, including simultaneously published e-book versions of printed books. An example of CIP data may be found in figure 1.1. To apply for CIP data, and for up-to-date information about the program, consult the Library of Congress's online resources for publishers. Publishers who do not participate in the CIP program may still be eligible for cataloging by the Library of Congress through its Preassigned Control Number (PCN) program. Only US publishers are eligible for these programs. Similar cataloging programs are offered through Library and Archives Canada, the British Library (UK and Ireland), and the National Library of Australia. To date, books that have been self-published in the United States are not eligible for the CIP program through the Library of Congress but may be eligible for the PCN program. The CIP programs in Canada, the UK, Ireland, and Australia, on the other hand, do accept self-published works that meet certain eligibility requirements. Authors who want their works cataloged in national libraries can apply for these programs directly through the applicable library website, where they will also find any related requirements for depositing and registering their works (see also 4.47). Some self-publishing services will complete the necessary applications and fulfill any other requirements on the author's behalf.

preparing illustrations and tables

Text figures that are to be supplied in digital format or reproduced by scanning a hard-copy original—such as paintings, maps, and photographic prints—should be furnished according to the publisher's specifications. Publishers often prefer to do their own scans. Glossy prints must be clearly labeled, usually on the back of the print or on a self-sticking label, in a manner that does not impair their quality (see 3.16). For further discussion, see 3.15-20. numbering illustrations: Illustrations may be consecutively numbered, or, in scientific and technical books, heavily illustrated books, and books with chapters by different authors, double numeration may be used. In double numeration, provide the chapter number, followed by a period, followed by the figure number (e.g., fig. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . . , 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, . . . , etc.). In the event a figure is dropped or added, double numeration will simplify the work needed to renumber not just the illustrations but any applicable cross-references, especially in a heavily illustrated book. Illustrations are enumerated separately from tables. Plates to be grouped in a gallery are numbered separately from figures interspersed in the text (see 3.14). Even if numbers are not to appear with the illustrations in the published version, working numbers should be assigned for identification and should accompany the captions (see 3.13). For more details, see 3.8-14. numbering tables: Tables may be numbered consecutively throughout a book or, in a book with many tables or with chapters by different authors, double numeration may be used (e.g., table 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . . , 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, . . . , etc.). In a book with many tables, double numeration can simplify the task of renumbering in the event a table is dropped or added. Tables are enumerated separately from illustrations. Very simple tabular material (e.g., a two-column list) may be presented, unnumbered, along with the text. See also 3.50-51. Formatting text references and callouts to tables and illustrations A text reference is addressed to the reader ("see table 5," or "fig. 3.2") and will appear in the published version. A callout is an instruction, which will not appear in the published work, telling where a table or an illustration is to appear. In the manuscript, a callout should be enclosed in angle brackets or some other delimiter and placed on a separate line following the paragraph in which the table or illustration is first referred to ("<table 5 about here>"; "<fig. 3.2 about here>") or, if a later location is preferable, where the table or illustration is to appear. Tables and such illustrations as graphs and diagrams require both a text reference and a placement callout, unless they are to be grouped in a section separate from the regular text. Illustrations that are not referred to in the text still usually require placement callouts (see 3.8-14); unnumbered tables presented in the run of text do not require callouts (see 3.51). Formatting table notes and source notes Source notes appear at the foot of the table before any other notes. They are preceded by the word "Source" followed by a colon. Other notes to the table as a whole follow any source note and may be preceded by the word "Note" followed by a colon. Specific notes follow any other notes, and the notes to each table must be enumerated separately from any notes to the text (see 3.79). For a fuller discussion of notes to tables, see 3.76-80

Preparing a Manuscript for a Multiauthor Book or Journal

The specific responsibilities of the volume editor, contributors, and publisher (including manuscript editor) must be determined before a multiauthor manuscript is submitted. If there is more than one volume editor, the responsibilities of each must be spelled out. After ensuring that the contributors furnish their papers in a uniform style agreed to by all parties, the volume editor is usually responsible for the following: Getting manuscripts, including illustrations, from all contributors in a form acceptable to the publisher well before the date for submitting the volume Securing (or ensuring that the contributors have secured) written permission from copyright owners to reproduce material in copyrighted works published elsewhere, illustrations taken from another work, and the like (see chapter 4) Editing each contribution for sense and checking references and other documentation for uniformity of style (unless the publisher agrees to allow different documentation styles for separate chapters; see also 2.64), then sending edited manuscripts to the contributors for their approval before the volume is submitted to the publisher (an activity distinct from the manuscript editing that will be done later by the publisher) Providing a list of contributors with their affiliations and brief biographical notes to be included in the volume Providing a title page, table of contents, and any necessary prefatory material Sending the complete manuscript to the publisher in a form acceptable for publication (having first made sure that the manuscript includes only the latest version of each contributor's chapter) Adhering to the publisher's schedule, ensuring that contributors do likewise, keeping track of the contributors' whereabouts at all stages of publication, and assuming the responsibilities of any contributor who cannot fulfill them Most if not all of these responsibilities also apply to journal editors. add. responsibilities for volume editor: Depending on the arrangement with the publisher, the volume editor may also be responsible for the following: Sending a publishing agreement (provided by the publisher) to each contributor and returning the agreements, fully executed, to the publisher (see 4.58) Checking the edited manuscript and responding to all queries, or distributing the edited manuscript to the contributors and checking it after their review to ensure that all queries have been answered Proofreading the final version of the volume or delegating proofreading to the contributors and then checking their corrections Preparing the index

tabe of contents

The table of contents for a printed work usually begins on page v or, if page v carries a dedication or an epigraph, page vii. It should include all preliminary material that follows it but exclude anything that precedes it. It should list the title and beginning page number of each section of the book: front matter, text divisions, and back matter, including the index (see fig. 1.5). If the book is divided into parts as well as chapters, the part titles appear in the contents, but their page numbers are omitted, unless the parts include separate introductions. Subheads within chapters are usually omitted from the table of contents, but if they provide valuable signposts for readers, they may be included (as in the print edition of this manual). In a volume consisting of chapters by different authors, the name of each author should be listed in the table of contents with the title of the chapter (as for chapters 4 and 5 in this manual). In a book containing illustrations that are printed together in a gallery or galleries (see 3.6), it is seldom necessary to list them separately in a list of illustrations. Their location may be noted at the end of the table of contents (e.g., "Illustrations follow pages 130 and 288"). A table of contents may be omitted for books without chapter or other divisions.

Arabic numbers for text and back matter

The text, or the central part of a book, begins with arabic page 1. If the text is introduced by a second half title or opens with a part title, the half title or part title counts as page 1, its verso counts as page 2, and the first arabic number to appear is the drop folio 3 on the first page of text (see 1.46, 1.49). (Some publishers ignore the second half title in paginating their books, counting the first page of text as p. 1.) Page numbers generally do not appear on part titles, but if text appears on a part-title page (see 1.48), a drop folio may be used. Arabic numbering continues for the back matter. As in the front matter, the opening page of each chapter in the text and each section in the back matter carries either a drop folio or no page number. On pages containing only illustrations or tables, page numbers are sometimes omitted, except in the case of a long sequence of figures or tables. (When page numbers are retained, they are usually presented along with the running heads.) Page numbers are also omitted in the case of a blank page.

Introduction belonging to main text

Unlike the kind of introduction that may be included in the front matter (see 1.43), a text introduction is integral to the subject matter of the book and should not include acknowledgments or other material that belongs in the front or back matter. It is acceptable, however, to refer to the contents of the book ("In the first two chapters I discuss . . ."), though some authors and editors may prefer to limit such information to a preface. (These considerations do not apply in the case of a reprint or facsimile edition, where the front matter is furnished by a volume editor.) A text introduction carries arabic page numbers. A new introduction to a well-known work may be considered a text introduction even if it includes biographical or other material about the original author. If titled simply Introduction, it does not normally carry a chapter number and is usually considerably shorter than a chapter. Authors should consider adding a descriptive subtitle even to such shorter introductions, and an author who has titled chapter 1 Introduction should be encouraged to give the chapter a more evocative title.

Preparing a Final Manuscript for Production

ensuring correct markup: Ensuring correct markup for a manuscript entails double-checking that each of its component parts has been properly identified in the final, edited manuscript, according to whatever system of markup has been used at that stage. For a book, these parts will include title and table of contents, chapters and sections and subsections, individual subheads, paragraphs of text, extracts, lists, notes, illustrations and captions, tables, and so forth. (Journal articles and other smaller documents may include fewer component parts.) Character-level markup must also be checked. This includes the markup required for any numeral, symbol, letter, word, or phrase that might be differentiated from the surrounding text—for example, a word or phrase that might be italicized for emphasis or a cross-reference (like the ones at the end of this paragraph) that might be hyperlinked online. Checking markup is usually the manuscript editor's responsibility, at least initially. Manuscript editors are closest to the content and will be able to spot any missing or incorrectly identified elements, or items that are not accounted for in the publisher's design template or style sheets. Once a manuscript is in production, however, markup generally becomes the responsibility of the publisher's production department. (Self-published authors who do not engage the services of a manuscript editor or book designer will need to pay close attention to the details described in this section and to be aware of any formatting and submission guidelines provided by their self-publishing platform.) For electronic markup options, see 2.81-83; for paper manuscripts, see 2.99. For an overview of the parts of a book or a journal, see chapter 1. Type specifications and hand markup: An editor may occasionally need to mark up the hard copy of a manuscript with appropriate type specifications at the first occurrence of the element they apply to. For example, in the margin next to the first block of regular text, "text: 10/12 Times Roman × 26" (meaning 10-point type with 12-point leading, each line 26 picas wide); and next to the first extract, "extract: 9/11 Times Roman; indent 2 pi from left." As long as all extracts have been identified as "ext," all first-level subheads as "A," and so forth, markup can be kept to a minimum. For more on hand markup, see 2.90-99. ensuring correct pagination: Publishers may require editors to indicate on the manuscript where roman page numbers are to end and arabic numbers begin—whether or not the number will actually appear (i.e., whether the folio is to be "expressed" or "blind"; see 1.46). Furthermore, if there is a part title and the first chapter begins on page 3, "arabic p. 3" will have to be specified at the chapter opening. The editor might also be required to specify whether subsequent elements are to begin on a recto or on a verso (see 1.4). Repagination of typeset, printed books is expensive; the editor should check that all elements—in the front matter, the text, and the back matter—are in their correct order and that the order is reflected in the table of contents. For journals, see 1.81. preparing running heads: The editor may be required to provide a list of suggested copy for running heads (or feet) (see 1.10-16). The list must clearly indicate which heads are to appear on versos (left-hand pages) and which on rectos (right-hand pages). To fit on a single line, usually containing the page number as well (see 1.6), a chapter or article title may have to be shortened for a running head but must include the key terms in the title. (In some cases, the key terms will be in the chapter subtitle.) For certain languages other than English, it is important to retain any word that governs the case ending of another word in the running head. The author's approval may be needed; if possible, the editor should send the running-head copy to the author along with the edited manuscript. Running-head copy normally accompanies the manuscript to the typesetter and should be included with the other electronic files. If the running heads are to reflect the content of particular pages (rather than chapters or sections), the exact copy must be determined after (or as) the pages are typeset. For example, running heads to notes that include page ranges can be determined only from the typeset pages (see 1.15). These are typically indicated by the publisher on the first proofreading copy. To accommodate the potential for running heads in electronic formats, short forms for chapter and other titles can be specified as part of the markup (e.g., as an "alt-title") and used for running heads where needed or for other purposes. a production checklist: Manuscripts that are ready to be typeset or converted for publication are usually accompanied by a checklist of vital statistics that includes information about the project and how it is to be produced. Such a checklist, especially necessary for one-of-a-kind book-length works, might consist of the following information: Name of author(s) and title of work A list of component parts of the project: electronic files, printout, illustrations, and so forth Details about the software used to prepare the final manuscript and a list of file names An indication of how the electronic files have been marked up for production, a list of markup labels or styles, and any special instructions, including a list of any special characters or fonts A list of any material that is still to come An indication of how notes are to be set—for example, as footnotes, as chapter endnotes, or as endnotes to the book A list of elements to be included in the front matter, the text, and the end matter, and an indication of which elements must start recto (see 1.4) For book-length manuscripts, an indication of who will be receiving page proofs, and in what format (e.g., print or PDF)

the field of grammar

In its usual sense, grammar is the set of rules governing how words are put together in sentences to communicate ideas—or the study of these rules. Native speakers of a language learn them unconsciously. The rules govern most constructions in any given language. The small minority of constructions that lie outside these rules fall mostly into the category of idiom and customary usage. Grammatical theories have been in upheaval in recent years. It seems that the more we learn, the less we know. As the illustrious editor in chief of the Oxford English Dictionary wrote in 1991: "An entirely adequate description of English grammar is still a distant target and at present seemingly an unreachable one, the complications being what they are."1 In fact, the more detailed the grammar (it can run to many large volumes), the less likely it is to be of any practical use to most writers and speakers.

statements

Most sentences are statements having a declarative structure in which (1) the clause contains a subject and (2) the subject precedes the verb. Sometimes in speech and informal writing, the subject is merely implied {[he] missed the ball} {[I] think I'll go to the store}. In a few negative idioms, the subject may follow part of the verb phrase {scarcely had we arrived when we had to return}.

tables and illustrations in journal articles

Tables in electronic articles can be presented in multiple formats—for example, as an image of the typeset table, as a searchable hypertext version with links, or as a machine-readable version that allows readers to download the data and either repeat the analyses used in the article or use the data, perhaps in combination with data from other sources, for their own analyses. Table footnote citations can be linked to the table footnotes themselves; this is especially useful for navigation in very large tables. Links also allow readers to move freely from text to tables and back again, as well as from one table to another. Very large tables may be published in electronic form only; if there is also a print version of the article, both versions should make this difference explicit (see 1.78). For a full discussion of tables, see 3.47-8 An electronic article might display the same illustrations available in the print version of the article, though they may be presented in the text as thumbnail versions linked to larger, higher-resolution images. These images may contain additional navigational aids like the ones described for tables (see 1.106). A greater range of illustrations can be offered in electronic journals, which can include more illustrations than would be practical in print. Color can be used freely, without the costs associated with color printing (although color accuracy can vary considerably between display devices). High-resolution images can allow readers to see more detail, and electronic illustrations may include an audio component. Videos and animations allow readers to view movement and understand processes. Any differences between the content of the print and electronic versions should be noted explicitly in both formats (see 1.78, 3.26). For a full discussion of illustrations, see 3.3-46.

Series title or frontispiece

The verso following the half-title page (p. ii in a printed book) is usually blank. But if the book is part of a series, it may include the title and volume number of the series, the name of the general editor of the series, and sometimes the titles of previously published books in the series. (A series title may appear on the title page instead.) If the book is the published proceedings of a symposium, the title of the symposium and the date it was held and other relevant details may appear on page ii. Some publishers list an author's previous publications on page ii; Chicago generally lists these on the jacket or back cover (see 1.66). Alternatively, page ii might carry an illustration, called a frontispiece. If the frontispiece is printed on a different stock from the text, and thus is inserted separately, it will not constitute page ii, though it will still appear opposite the title page, which is normally page iii (see 1.19). Page ii might also be used for a title page across pages ii and iii.

Subheads as running heads

When subheads in the text are used as running heads on recto pages and more than one subhead falls on a single page, the last one on the page is used as the running head. When subheads are used as running heads on versos, however, the first subhead on the page is used as the running head. (The principle is the same as for dictionary running heads.)

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Depending on the presence or absence of an object, a verb is classified as transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb requires an object to express a complete thought; the verb indicates what action the subject exerts on the object. For example, the cyclist hit a curb states what the subject cyclist did to the object curb. (A few transitive verbs have what are called cognate objects, which are closely related etymologically to the verb {drink a drink} {build a building} {see the sights}.) An intransitive verb does not require an object to express a complete thought {the rescuer jumped}, although it may be followed by a prepositional phrase serving an adverbial function {the rescuer jumped to the ground}. Many verbs may be either transitive or intransitive, the different usages often distinguishing their meanings. For example, when used transitively, as in the king's heir will succeed him, the verb succeed means "to follow and take the place of"; when used intransitively, as in the chemist will succeed in identifying the toxin, it means "to accomplish a task." With some verbs, no such distinction is possible. For example, in I will walk; you ride, the verb ride is intransitive. In I will walk; you ride your bike, the verb ride is transitive, but its meaning is unchanged. A verb that is normally used transitively may sometimes be used intransitively to emphasize the verb and leave the object undefined or unknown {the patient eats poorly [how well the patient eats is more important than what the patient eats]}. The test for whether a given verb is transitive is to try it with various possible objects. For each sentence in which an object is plausible, the verb is being used transitively. If an object doesn't work idiomatically, the verb is being used intransitively.

Past-perfect subjunctive mood

Just as the past subjunctive uses a verb's simple-past-tense form to refer to the present or future, the past-perfect subjunctive uses a verb's past-perfect form to refer to the past. The past-perfect subjunctive typically appears in the form if I (he, she, it) had been {if he had been there} {if I had gone}. That is, the subjunctive mood ordinarily uses a past-perfect verb (e.g., had been) to connote uncertainty or impossibility where the past or past-perfect indicative would otherwise be used. Compare If it arrived, it was not properly filed (indicative) with If it had arrived, it could have changed the course of history (subjunctive).

Journal Home pages

Most journal home pages include all materials typically found on the covers and in the front matter of a printed journal (see 1.84, 1.85), starting with such essential information as the volume number and date of the current issue and a table of contents with links to the latest articles. A statement of copyright, frequency of publication, and ISSN (print and electronic) should also be made available from a journal's home page. In addition, journal home pages may also provide (or provide links to) some or all of the following resources: A fuller description of the journal and its editorial policies and information about staff members Information about the history of the journal and, if applicable, the sponsoring society More extensive information for authors about preparation and submission of electronic text, tables, math, art, and other files (e.g., video files or large data sets) Links to other home pages (e.g., the publisher's home page, the sponsoring society's home page, other relevant societies' home pages, and databases or other online resources associated with the journal or the field) Individual and institutional subscription forms Site license agreement and registration forms Links to tables of contents for previous issues of the journal Lists of articles scheduled for upcoming issues, or links to articles published electronically ahead of upcoming issues A journal-specific or broader search engine Information about indexing and abstracting services Society meeting abstracts and information about upcoming meetings Society membership information and application forms Information about special services for subscribers (e.g., tables of contents distributed by email before publication in print) Links to related products or features (e.g., books, newsfeeds, blogs) Mail-to links for questions about manuscript submission and review, subscriptions, back issues, advertising, copyright and permissions, books and new media for review, passwords and other technical issues, and other topics

Electronic workflows

Most modern publishers use an electronic workflow as the basis of their publications, and many publishers, in turn, offer their publications in more than one format. To achieve such flexibility, a system of electronic markup may be used to describe the structure and components of a document such that it can be readily converted to any of a number of formats, from the printed page to an e-book format or for presentation in a web browser or as an app. Many publishers rely at least at some stage on XML (extensible markup language), a widely adopted standard initially developed to facilitate HTML presentations and now also used to facilitate EPUB, a standard e-book format. XML is also the basis of the Journal Article Tag Suite (JATS) published by the National Information Standards Organization (NISO) and used by many journal publishers. Publishers who do not use a standard set of tags can develop a customized workflow tailored to their requirements. In any electronic workflow, the primary function of markup is to identify the parts of a work—from titles and subheads to text and illustrations and other components (see also 2.81-83). Then, after conversion for publication, both the parts and the whole take on a new appearance and acquire new functions in different contexts depending on publication format. Considerations related to these differences are the subject of this section. (An extensive overview of publishing workflows and technologies, including a discussion of markup and related concepts, is offered as a supplement to the online edition of this manual.)

Questions

Sentences that seek to elicit information are known as questions. They have an interrogative structure, which typically begins with a question word. There are three main types: (1) yes-no questions, which are intended to prompt an affirmative or negative response {will we be gone long?}; (2) wh- questions, so called because they characteristically start with who, what, when, where, why, which, or how (not quite a wh- word, but it counts) {which apples do you want?}; and (3) alternative questions, which prompt a response relating to options mentioned in the sentence {would you rather play golf or tennis?}. Four types of interrogative utterances aren't classifiable under the three categories given in 5.212. Two are yes-no questions. The first is the spoken sentence in which one's pitch rises at the end, in a questioning way—but the structure is that of a declarative sentence {he's going to Corpus Christi?}. To show vexation in such a question, the question mark may be paired with an exclamation point {she's going to Padre Island?!}. The second special type of yes-no question is the tag question, in which the interrogative inversion appears at the end of a statement {he has arrived, hasn't he?} {it's good, isn't it?}. A few tag questions are signaled by particular words without the interrogative inversion {it's raining, right?} {you're tired, eh?} {you want to go, yes?}. A third special type is the exclamatory question, in which the interrogative structure appears but when the statement is spoken, one's tone normally falls at the end {isn't it nice out here!} {how great is this!}. Finally, a rhetorical question is phrased in the interrogative structure but is meant as an emphatic or evocative statement, without the expectation of an answer {why should I care?} {who knows how long it might take?}.

division into parts / chapters

Some books benefit from division into parts (see fig. 1.5). Each part usually carries a number and a title and should contain at least two chapters (an exception may be made for a part that includes only an introductory or concluding chapter). Chapters are numbered consecutively throughout the book; they do not begin with 1 in each part. Parts are sometimes called sections, though section is more commonly used for a subdivision within a chapter. Part titles that do not include introductions usually begin recto, followed by a blank verso and a recto chapter opening. If a part includes an introduction—usually short, titled or untitled—it may begin on a new recto following the part title, or on the verso of the part title, or on the part title itself. A text introduction to a book that is divided into parts precedes the part title to part 1 and needs no part title of its own. Likewise, a conclusion needs no part title, though in a book with parts it should begin recto to avoid appearing to belong only to the final part. No part title is needed before the back matter of a book divided into parts, though one may be useful before a series of appendixes or a notes section. Most nonfiction prose works are divided into numbered chapters of a more or less consistent length. Authors should aim for short, descriptive titles, which tend to give readers a better overview of a book's contents than longer, more whimsical titles. Each chapter normally starts on a new page, verso or recto, and its opening page should carry a drop folio (see 1.5, 1.6)—or sometimes no folio—and no running head (see 1.10-16). The first chapter ordinarily begins on a recto (but see 1.46). Chapter openings usually consist of the chapter number (chapter is often omitted), the chapter title, and the chapter subtitle, if any; together, these are referred to as the chapter display. Note reference numbers or symbols traditionally do not appear anywhere in the chapter display of printed books; accordingly, a note that refers to the chapter as a whole remains unnumbered and precedes the numbered notes (whether it appears on the first page of the chapter or in the endnotes). A chapter epigraph, sometimes considered part of the chapter display, may include a note reference, though traditionalists may prefer an unnumbered note. See also 14.52. In multiauthor books, the chapter author's name is usually given at the head of each chapter. An affiliation or other identifying information may be put in an unnumbered footnote on the first page of the chapter (see 14.55) or in a list of contributors (1.64). An unnumbered footnote may also be used to disclose the source of a chapter or other contribution that is being reprinted from an earlier publication. (For certain e-book formats that do not support footnotes as such, a source note or note about the author may need to appear immediately after, or be linked from, the chapter title or author's name.) When both the author's affiliation and the source of the contribution are given in the note, it is customary, but not essential, that the affiliation come first.

The front matter

The front matter presents information about a book's title, publisher, and copyright; it acknowledges debts to the work of others; it provides a way to navigate the structure of the book; and it introduces the book and sets its tone.

linking verbs

The most common linking verb is the verb to be (in all of its forms, e.g., am, is, are, was, were, will be, was being, has been). Other common linking verbs relate to the five senses (to look, to feel, to smell, to sound, and to taste). To appear, to become, and to seem are common linking verbs too. There are two kinds of linking verbs: be-verbs and intransitive verbs that are used in a weakened sense, such as appear, become, feel, look, seem, smell, and taste. The weakened intransitive verbs often have a figurative sense akin to that of become, as in He fell heir to a large fortune (he didn't physically fall on or into anything) or The river ran dry (a waterless river doesn't run—it has dried up). Some verbs only occasionally function as linking verbs—among them act {act weird}, get {get fat}, go {go bald}, grow {grow weary}, lie {lie fallow}, prove {prove untenable}, remain {remain quiet}, sit {sit still}, stay {stay trim}, turn {turn gray}, and wax {wax eloquent}. Also, some passive-voice constructions contain linking verbs {this band was judged best in the contest} If a verb doesn't have a subjective complement, then it doesn't qualify as a linking verb in that particular construction. For instance, when a be-verb conveys the sense "to be situated" or "to exist," it is not a linking verb {Kansas City, Kansas, is across the river} {there is an unfilled receptionist position}. Likewise, if a verb such as appear, feel, smell, sound, or taste is followed by an adverbial modifier instead of a subjective complement {he appeared in court} or a direct object {the dog smelled the scent}, it isn't a linking verb.