Child Develop. & Psych.
Quantitative Research
- How heavily scientists rely on data - many scientists prefer quantitative data as they're easy to work with - con: individual distinctions are lost when data are reduced to numbers
Put the following into order of growth within an embryo: webbed toes, knees, legs, and feet
- Legs - Knees - Feet - Webbed toes
What did Freud believe about the development in the first 6 years of a child's life?
- Occurs in 3 stages - Children derive erotic pleasure from whatever body part is central at each stage
B.F. Skinner
- Psychology should focus on the scientific study of behavior - recognized operant conditioning
Ultrasound
- aka sonogram - an image of a fetus produced by using high frequency sound waves - similar to x rays but uses sound waves rather than radiation
Effects of food insecurity
- directly affects low birthweight - increases chronic illnesses
How did Erikson describe the developmental stages?
- divided into 8 developmental stages
Pavlov
- experiment w/ dogs & drooling at the sound of a bell
Benefits of kangaroo care?
- faster weight gain - less medical complications
Dizygotic (DZ) Twins
- fraternal twins - Twins who are formed when 2 separate ova are fertilized by 2 separate sperm at roughly the same time - DZ twins have about 1/2 of their genes in common
What forms in the middle 3 months (4th-6th mo)?
- heartbeat becomes stronger - digestive & excretory systems, fingernails, toenails, teeth buds, and hair grows - brain becomes 6x bigger and develops new neurons & synapses
Monozygotic (MZ) twins
- identical twins - Twins who originate from 1 zygote that splits apart very early in development. Other monozygotic multiple births (triplets, etc) can occur. - identical genetic instructions for everything affected by genes
Consequences of low birthweight
- later to smile, hold a bottle, walk, and to communicate - cognitive, visual, and hearing impairments - heart disease & diabetes prone as an adult
Hispanic paradox
- low SES correlates with low birthweight - but most babies to immigrants are healthier than those richer and of the same ethnicity
Factors increasing birth complications
- low birthweight/preterm birth - genetic abnormalities - tetrogen exposure - mom is unsually young/old/small/ill
What grows/improves within fetuses during the final 3 months of pregnancy?
- lungs begin to expand & contract as the fetus exercises its breathing muscles by swallowing amniotic fluid - heart valves, arteries, and veins go through a final maturation to prevent bleeding
Correlation
- most common mistake is to believe that correlation = causation as correlations usually does not answer q's - Correlation exists between 2 variables if one variable is more or less likely to occur when the other does - positive if both variables increase/decrease together - negative if one goes up and the other goes down - zero if no connection is evident - many correlations are unexpected
Cross-sectional Research
- most convenient, quickets, and cheapest way to study developmental change overtime - Group of ppl of one age are compared with a similar group of people of another age - does not always reliably indicate the processes of development
Lev Vygotsky
- pioneer of the sociocultural perspective - studied cognitive competencies of ppl of different backgrounds - founder of the sociocultural theory
Maternal malnutrition effects
- slow fetal growth - most likely to have an underweight baby
Longitudinal Research
- to discover whether age itself, not historical trends, causes developmental change - collect data repeatedly on the same individuals great in studying development over many years - need to wait decades for conclusions but waiting can have disastrous consequences
Cognitive Development
-----> 1 of the 3 domains of human development Includes all the mental processes that a person uses to obtain knowledge or to think about the environment Ex: perception, imagination, judgment, memory, education, and language; babies starting to speak to express connections between objects & words
Psychosocial Development
----> 1 of 3 domains of human development Includes development of emotions, temperament, and social skills. Family, friends, the community, the culture, and the larger society are particularly central to the psychosocial domain Ex: Cultural differences in "appropriate" sex roles or in family structures are part of this domain; babies wouldn't have been able to speak unless people talked to the baby
Biosocial Development
---> 1 of the 3 domains of human development Includes all the growth&change that occur in a person's body&the genetic, nutritional, and health factors that affect that growth and change. Ex: motor skills (everything from grasping a rattle to driving a car); babies starting to speak b/c of brain&vocal chords maturation
Ethnic Group
People whose ancestors were born in the same region & who often share a language, culture, and religion. SOcial construction affected by the social context
What is social learning connected to?
Perceptions & Interpretations of experience
In a nutshell, what does the information processing explore?
The processes of thought. Like how the mind work before responding
Apprenticeship in thinking
Vgotsky's term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in ppl by more skilled members of society --> everyone develops with the guidance of someone more skilled
How are instructions transmitted to each cell to form the right amino acids to build proteins?
Via pairs of 4 chemicals called bases 1. Adenine 2. Thiamine 3 Cytosine 4. Guanine A-T, G-C
Examples of a teratogen with a threshold effect
Vitamin A
What do humanists emphasize?
What all people have in common
Reinforcerment
When a behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person
Trisomy
a condition with 3 chromosomes at a particular location instead of the usual two
What do behaviorist (or learning theorists) believe in?
development occurs in small increments: A person learns to talk, read, or anything else bit by bit over a log time ---> there is no specific stages of development as it is cumulative
Science of human development
seeks to understand how & why ppl of all age & kind change over time - 3 crucial elements: science, people, and change
Effect of every psychoactive drug
slows fetal growth
Psychoanalytic or social learning: adult behavior arises from observation
social learning
Which gene triggers the development of the male sexual organs?
the SRY gene
Before birth, what develops first and in what pattern?
the head develops first in a cephalocaudal pattern
What does the psychoanlytic theory stress?
the selfish id & infantile sexuality
What does the universal theory draw on?
theology, political science, and history (humanism) OR archaeology, ethology, and biology (evolutionary theory)
Distinguishing features of those with down syndrome
thick tongue, round face, slated eyes, distinctive hands/feet/fingerprints, heart abnormalities, and language difficulties
According to cognitive theory, what do you need to understand in order to understand human behavior?
thinking
Id
unconscious drives, in-born & animal-like, mostly sexual & aggressive
Babinski Reflex
when a newborn's feet are strokes, the toes fan upwards
John B. Watson's belief
If psychology = a true science, then psychologists should only examine what they can see and measure: behavior, not irrational thoughts and hidden urges
In which is difference the greatest: brain/behavioral variations among same genders or opposite genders
among the same gender
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant
Anoxia
Lack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can cause brain damage or death ---> may cause cerebral palsy
Dangers of misusing terms like culture, ethnicity, and race
Leads to difference-equals-deficit error
Theory
A comprehensive set of ideas
Candidate genes for alcoholism have been identified on every chromosome but where?
On the Y chromosome
unconditional postive regard
people should regard each other with appreciation without conditions
What does every additive trait slightly depend on?
All the genes a child happens to inherit
One assessment of infant health?
Apgar scale
First major cognitive theorist
Jean Piaget
3 Levels within the Ecological-systems Approach
-Describes 3 nested lvls. that affect each person 1. Microsystems 2. Exosystems 3. Macrosystems
3 Domains of study for developmentalists
-Impossible to study all dynamic changes that ovvur over the years, so scientists studies 1 aspect of development at a time 1. Biosocial 2. Cognitive 3. Psychosocial -Each domain includes several academic disciplines: biosocial includes biology & medicine, cognitive includes psychology & Education, psychosocial includes sociology & anthropology. The two newest disciplines, neuroscience & genetics, contribute to every domain
2 types of conditioning according to behaviorists
1. Classical 2. Operant
Chromosome
1 of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that virtually each cell of the body contains and that, together, contain all the genes. Other species have more or fewer chromosomes
What are the 2 types of cognitive adaptation Piaget describes?
1. Assimilation 2. Accommodation
Which 3 underlying forces are thought to influence every aspect of thinking & behavior?
1. Inner drives 2. Deep motives 3. Unconscious Needs
Name the 2 psychosexual stages after their first six years
1. Latency stage --> after the phallic stage 2. Genital stage --> lasting throughout childhood
3 Basic Types of Research Design
1. Observation 2. The experiment 3. The survey
Name the 3 psychosexual stages within a child's first six years
1. Oral stage --> infancy 2. Anal stage --> early childhood 3. Phallic stage --> Preschool stage
How to strengthen ethnic identity
1. Other members of the same group are nearby 2. Other groups exclude the person - Ethnic identity becomes more specific and more salient when others of the same ethnic group are nearby and when members of other groups focus on differences
Name Maslow's hierarchy regarding humanism and people's needs
1. Psychological: needing food, water, warmth, and air 2. Safety: feeling protected from injury and death 3. Love & belonging: having loving friends, family, and a community 4. Esteem: being respected by the wider community as well as by oneself 5. Self-actualization: becoming truly oneself, fulfilling one's unique potential while appreciating all of humanity
The 3 sets of reflexes for survival
1. Reflexes that maintain oxygen supply 2. Reflexes that maintain body temperature 3. Reflexes that manage feeding
What's so important about the phallic stage?
1. Source of pride & fear among boys 2. Reasons for sadness & envy among girls
Benefits of early prenatal care
1. Told which substances to avoid 2. Learn what to eat/do 3. Early diagnosis for bad stuff 4. Protect fetal growth, eases birth, and helps parents cope
Name the 8 developmental stages according to Erikson
1. Trust V. Mistrust 2. Autonomy V. Shame/Doubt 3. Initiative V. Guilt 4. Industry V. Inferiority 5. Identity V. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy V. Isolation 7. Generativity V. Stagnation 8. Integrity V. Despair
3 Possible Problems in Research
1. correlation 2. quantification 3. ethics
Preterm
A birth that occurs 3+ weeks before the full 38 weeks of the typical pregnancy --> 35 or fewer weeks after conception --> no longer calle premature
How many genes do humans have? And what are these genes for?
18k - 23k Each is to make a specific protein
What did Erikson recognize within each developmental crisis?
2 polarities & a wide range of outcomes between those opposites - development at each stage leads to neither extreme but to something in between as the resolutions of each crisis depends on the interaction between the individual & the social experiment
How many types of amino acids do genes direct the creation of?
20 types of amino acids
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
23 pairs
XY
23rd chromosome pair that consists of 1 X-shaped chromosome from the mom & 1 Y-shaped chromosome from the dad - XY zygote becomes a male
XX
23rd chromosome pair that consists of 2 X-shaped chromosomes - one each from the mom & dad - become females
Extremely low birthweight (ELBW)
A body weight at birth of less than 2 lbs, 3 oz
Very low birthweight 9VLBW)
A body weight at birth of less than 3 lbs, 5 oz
Dunedin study
4/1/72 - 3/31/73 Parental treatment & variant of MAOA (a gene). Boys who were mistreated were 2x likely to be overly aggressive/violent/antisocial IF AND ONLY IF they had the gene for lower lvls of MAOA
At what week does the embryo have all of the basic organs and body parts (minus sex organs)?
8 weeks
Low birthweight (LBW)
A body weight at birth of less than 5.5 lbs
How does the Ecological-systems Approach reflect the dynamic interaction among the 3 levels(microsystems, exosystems, and macrosystems)?
A fourth system, the mesosystem Encompasses the connections between the other systems Ex: Interface between school&family. Like parent-teacher conferences, promotion standards, curriculum choices, and school schedules ----> recognizes he connection between education of the population & economic growth
Race
A group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance, typically skin color. Social scientists think race is a misleading concept, as biological differences are not signified by outward appearance - race is not genetic. Ex: Greek & Italian Americans were considered Black in the 19th century and White in the 20th
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A group within most educational & medical institutions who ensure that research follows established ethical guidelines. Unlike in prior decades, most research in human development cannot begin without IRB approval
Scientific Observation
A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic & objective manner - in a natural settings, in a lab, or in searches of archival data Requires researchers to record behavior systematically & objectively, using behavioral definitions (noting instances of hitting rather than aggression) and timed data) what happens every 10 sec. rather than just what captures attention) - observation is limited; cannot prove what CAUSES human behavior
Postpartum Depression
A new mom's feelings of inadequency & sadness in the days and weeks after giving birth --> also known as baby blues --> postpartum psychosis = most severe form
Carrier
A person whose genotype includes a gene that's not expressed in the phenotype. Carried gene occurs in 1/2 of the carrier's gametes & is passed on to half of their children. If such a gene is inherited from both parents, the characteristic appears in the phenotype Ex: punnet square & the whole XX and Xx thing
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
A person's position in society as determined by income, occupation, education, and place of residence - also called social class (middle class, working class) - reflects family income, but not income alone - affects every aspect of development
Ecological-systems Approach
A perspective on human development that considers all the influences from the various contexts of development that surround each person -like how a naturalist examines the ecology of each organism & the interrelationships between it and its environment - renamed the "bioecological theory" to reflect the natural settings&biological processes that the theory includes
Information Processing Theory
A perspective that compares human thinking processes to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output --> not a single theory but a framework characterizing a large number of research programs
What is a protein?
A protein is composed of a sequence of chemicals, a long string of building blocks called amino acids
Ecletic Perspective
Approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory
Cohort-sequential Research
A research design in which researchers first study several groups of ppl of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal) approach - Also called cross-sequential research or time-sequential research - results in complex statistical analysis - lets researchers compare findings for a group of 25 yr. olds with findings for the same individuals at ages 20, 15, 10, and 5 - as well as with findings for groups who are currently 20, 15, 10, and 5 - allows scientists to disentangle age&historical context
Survey
A research method in which info is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written q's, or some other means - quick & direct way to get data - Getting legit data is the hard part as people will lie/change their minds & the wording and sequence of the q's may influence the answers
Code of Ethics
A set of moral principles/guidelines that members of a profession/group are expected to follow
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
A situation in which a seemingly healthy infant, usually between 2-6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep ---> sleeping position matters - Susan Beal & South Australian babies research
Hypothesis
A specific prediction that can be tested
Culture
A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions - Each family, community, and college has a particular culture, and these cultures may clash - People oftentimes use this word to refer to large groups of other people like "Asian culture." Invites prejudice as there are many cultures within large groups. - Ex.: Koreans & Japanese are aware of notable differences between them. Also, individuals within those cultures sometimes rebel against theory own culture's expected beliefs/norms
Developmental Theory
A systematic statement of general principles that provides a coherent framework for understanding how & why people change as they grow older -provide a framework for organizing & understanding observations&behavior as they allow q's to form
Biopsychosocial
A term emphasizing the interaction of the 3 developmental domains (biosocial, cognitive, and psychosocial). All development is biopsychosocial, although the domains are studied separately - basically expresses the interaction of the domains - doesnt imply that biological changes precede the other changes as sometimes the opposite sequece seems more accurate
What appears first in an embryo?
A thin line (primitive streak) appears down the middle of the embryo, becoming the neural tube and eventually the central nervous system (brain/spine)
Sensitive Period
A time when a certain type of development is most likely, although it may still happen later with more difficulty Ex: Early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning, nutrition, and emotional cotrol
Critical period
A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen for normal development to occur Ex: human embryo must grow limbs between 28-54 days or it will be too late
Dynamic Systems
A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences. The crucial understanding is that development is never static but is always affected by, and affects, many systems of development -Basically, each small part of a person is connected to many systems within that person and affects many other people, and thus many other systems as time goes on
Scientific Method
A way to answer q's using empirical research & data-based conclusions 1) From a theory, prior research, or an observation, pose a question 2) Develop a hypothesis 3) Test the hypothesis 4) Draw a conclusion using evidence to support/refute the hypothesis 5) Report the results by sharing the data, conclusions, and alternate explanations
When 2 gametes combine, what is created?
A zygote, a single cell of 46 chromosomes that begins a human life - 23 chromosomes from mom & 23 from father
Which is more difficult: assimilation or accommodation?
Accommodation but it produces intellectual advancement
What is a central concept of sociocultural theory?
Active apprenticeship b/c each person depends on others to learn ---> this process is informal, pervasive, and social
Methylation
Additional DNA & RNA that are not genes but that are critical to life which enhances, transcribes, connects, empowers, and alters genes
How does the baby begin the whole labor process?
After 38 weeks, fetal brain signals the release of hormones (specifically oxytocin), which prepares the fetus for delivery & starts labor
When does differentiation begin?
After about the 8-cell stage, duplication & division continue and this third process begins
Behavioral Teratogens
Agents & conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning
Teratogen
Agents/conditions (including viruses, drugs, and chemicals) that can impair prenatal development & result in birth defects or even death
What did Maslow say in his book?
All people have the same basic needs/drives which can be arranged in an hierarchy
Norm
An average/usual event or experience; a common behavior that results from biological/social pressure - reflects facts & can be calculated Ex: Norm for age of walking, norm for greeting a stranger, norm for western brides to wear white but norm to wear red in Asia
Social Learning Theory
An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other ppl have over a person's behavior - Even w/o specific reinforcement, every individual learns many thigs through observation & imitation of other ppl - also known as observational learning
Social Construction
An idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms (childhood, adolescence, yuppie)are social constructions, connected to biological traits but strongly influenced by social assumptions -
Cognitive disequilibrium
An imbalance that creates confusion Ex: When a new experience is jarring/incomprehensible
Genotype
An organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential
Reflex
An unlearned, involuntary action/movement in response to a stimulus --> occurs without conscious thought
What stage is keeping careful track of money classified as? (psychsexually)
Anal
Rooting reflex
Babies turn their mouths toward anything that brushes against their cheeks and start to suck --> reflexive search for a nipple
Small for gestational age (SGA)
Baby whose birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception. Ex: a 5 lb newborn is considered SGA if born on time but not SGA if born 2 months early ----> also called small-for-dates
Empirical
Based on observation, experience, or experiment NOT theoretical
Bandura
Believed ppl act on the environment as they create it, preserve it, transform it, and even destroy it in a socially embedded interplay
What does the genotype instigate?
Body & brain formation
What's going on with the embryo in the 5th week?
Buds that'll become arms & legs start to emerge.
What are each of the eighth developmental stages characterized by according to Erikson?
By a particular challenge, or developmental crisis
How do you make a protein?
By stringing together the right amino acids in the right order
Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)
Caused by alcohol, a behavioral teratogen --> leads to hyperactivity, poor concentration, impaired spatial reasoning, and slow learning
Stem Cells
Cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form - basically the 1st cells
Mirror Neurons
Cells in an observer's brain that are activated by watching an action performed by someone else as they would be if the observer had personally performed that action - can explain cultural transmission&social organization -aids language learning - may help ppl empathize with one another
Chronosystem
Change over time occurs not only within each person but also in families, communities, nations, and the entire world - literally means "time system"
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Chemical composition of the molecules that contain the genes, which are the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins
What happens when some teratogen causes no physical effects but affect the brain? What happens to the kid?
Child becomes hyperactive, antisocial, or even learning disabled
23rd Pair
Chromosome pair that determines sex in human - Other 22 chromosomes are autosomes, inherited equally by males & females
What is cognitive growth dependent on?
Clashing & Challenging concepts ---> cognitive growth is an active process
Difference between classical & operant conditioning
Classical = associations between one stimulus and another Operant = consequences an individual experience
How do scientists study change over time?
Design cross-sectional, longitudinal, or cohort-sequential research
Down Syndrome
Condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes rather than the usual 46, with 3 rather than 2 chromosomes at the 21st site.
What did Freud see as a major factor to consider within each psychosexual stage?
Conflicts Ex: Mothers trying to wean their babies (oral), teachers expecting students to be independent from their parents (phallic)
Ego
Conscious self --> keeps Id & Superego in balance
Genetic Counseling
Consultation & testing by trained experts that enable individuals to learn about their genetic heritage, including harmful conditions that they might pass along to any of their children
Focus of developmental science
Continuity&discontinuity, consistences&transformations, sudden eruptions& gradual shifts
Parental Alliance
Cooperation between a mom and a dad based on their mutual commitment to their kid. The parents support each other in their shared parental roles
Some teratogens cause damage only during a ______.
Critical period
What did Erikson stress?
Cultural diversity,social change, and psychological crises throughout life
How does the ego defend itself form the superego & id?
Defense mechanisms - basically how it keeps the two in check - Parents held their kids develop a strong ego (hopefully)
Why are no traits determines by genes alone?
Development is an epigenetic process that entails cascades of interactions across multiple levels of causation, from genes to environment
What did sociocultural theories remind of us?
Development is embedded in a rich & multifaced cultural context, evident in every social interaction
Without genes, what would not occur?
Development would not occur
What do theories generate?
Discoveries
Freudian belief regarding personality
Divided into 3 parts: 1. Id 2. Ego 3. Superego
Which factors affect the threshold? (threshold effect)
Dose, timing, frequency, and other teretogen
Within hrs after conception, what does the zygote do?
Duplicate & divide
When is the Id dominant?
During infancy
When is the superego developed?
During the phallic stage
Why must counseling by individualized?
Each adult's perception are affected by their partner, present and future children, work, religion, and community
Importance of the final 3 months of pregnancy?
Each day of the final 3 mo. improves the odds, not only of survival but also of life without disability
What did Piaget believe about each of the 4 stages of cognitive development?
Each period fosters certain cognitive processes Ex: Infants think with their senses, ad abstract logic is absent in children but possible at puberty
Microsystems
Elements of the immediate surroundings Ex: Family system
Importance of accepting differences in sexual development
Esp. shown in sexual orientation acceptance - 50 yrs ago, homosexuals were considered deficient & gay suicide was very high.
What do genes affect?
Every aspect of behavior, including social interactions, intellectual abilities, even political values and reactions
Dangers of human sex differences in this field
Exaggerating human sex differences is a distortion that developmentalists seek to avoid
In females, what is the shape of the 23rd pair? What about in males?
Females = 2 X-shaped chromosomes Males = 1 X & 1 Y-shaped chromosomes
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
Fertilization that takes place outside a woman's body (like in a lab dish). Procedure involves mixing sperm with ova that have been surgically removed from the woman's ovary. - If a zygote forms, it is stuck back into the uterus, where it may develop into a baby
Germinal Period
First 2 weeks of prenatal development after conception --> characterized by rapid cell division & the beginning of cell differentiation
When is the critical time for body formation for embryos?
First days/weeks after conception
Kangaroo care
Form of newborn care in which moms (and sometimes dads) rest their babies on their naked chests for skin to skin contact --> very beneficial for infant's health
Psychsexual
Freudian belief that child development in their first 6 yrs occur in 3 stages
Genome
Full set of genes that're the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species
X-linked
Gene carried on the X-chromosome. If a male inherits an X-linked recessive trait from his mom, he expressed that trait b/c his dad has no counteracting gene. Females are more likely to be carried of X-linked traits but less likely to express them
Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)
General term for the techniques designed to help infertile couples conceive and then sustain pregnancy - woman can take drugs to cause ovulation, oftentimes leading to multiple births (aka twins)
What also effects teretogens?
Genes
Copy Number Variations
Genes with various repeats/deletions of base pairs - correlates with almost every disease/condition
Role of early amternal care has recently become apparent with what?
Kangaroo Care
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Genetic disorder in which a child's body is unable to metabolize an amino acid called phenlalanine. Unless the infant immediately begins a special diet, the resulting buildup of phenylalanine in body fluids causes brain damage, progressive mental retardation, etc.
Fragile X Syndrome
Genetic disorder in which part of the X chromosome seems to be attached to the rest of it by a very thin string of molecules. The cause is a single gene that has 200+ repetition of 1 triplet -cognitive deficits: most common form of inherited mental retardation
Cognitive Theory
Grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how ppl think overtime. Our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and ideas.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives & motives, often from childhood, underlie human behavior - Freud
Behaviorism
Grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior - Describe laws detailing how simple actions/environmental responses shape complex competencies - also known as learning theory b/c it describes the laws & processes by which behavior is learned
Are ethnic & cultural groups the same?
HAHAHAHA no. Some people of a particular ethnicity may not share a culture
Ex. of additive genes
Height, hair curliness, and skin color
How, according to Freud, do people develop their personality patterns?
How people experience and resolve these conflicts - especially when it's related to weaning, toilet training, an sexual pleasure
By full term, how's the brain development doing for the fetus?
Human brain growth is so extensive that the cortex forms several folds in order to fit into the skull
According to Piaget, why does intellectual advancement occur?
Humans at every age seek cognitive equilibrium
What do theories produce?
Hypotheses
The impact of teratogens depend on what? And what is this an example of (it's a concept from chp 1)?
Impact depends on the interplay of many factors, both destructive & protective An example of the dynamic systems prespective
What happens to those born with only one sex chromosome, 3+ sex chromosomes, or just an odd number of sex chromosomes?
Impaired cognitive & psychosocial development as well as sexual maturation --> sometimes unaffected by it but is usually infertile
Intro-cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)
In IVF, to improve the odds of fertilization, a sperm can be inserted directly into each ovum
Experimental/Control Group
In a well-designed experiment, at least 2 groups of participants are studied. One group = experimental group, which gets the particular treatment (the independent variable). The other = control group (comparison group), which gets nothing
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition/situation the experimenter adds. Depends on the IV
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the variable that's introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable - also called "experimental variable"
Cognitive Equilibrium
In cognitive theory (Piaget), a state of mental balance in which ppl are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas
Nature
In development, nature refers to the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception
Nurture
In development, nurture includes all the environmental influences that affect the individual after conception. This includes everything from the mother's nutrition while pregnant to the cultural influences in the nation
Threshold Effect
In prenatal development, when a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain lvl (the threshold)
Self-efficacy
In social learning theory, the belief of some people that they are able to change themselves & effectively alter the social context --> basically, the belief that person achievement depends on personal actions
Zone of Proximal Development
In sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or "zone," surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close to acquiring but cannot yet master without help
Induced labor
Labor is started, speeded, or strengthened with a drug
Examples of classical conditioning (besides the doggy experiment)
Infants learning to smile at their parents b/c they associate their parents with food and play
Epidural
Injection in a part of the spine of laboring women to alleviate pain - decreases the readiness of new born infants to suck immediately after birth
For information-processing scientists, what does cognition begin with?
Input picked up by the 5 senses; proceeds to brain reactions, connections, and stored memories; and concludes with some form of output --> output = moving a hand, making a sound, or staring a sec longer at one stimulus than at another
Dominant - recessive pattern
Interaction of a heterozygous pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reflects 1 allele (the dominant gene) more than the other (recessive gene) - nonadditive form
Human Genome Project
International effort to map the complete human genetic code. - completed in 2001, though analysis is ongoing
Easiest way to achieve cognitive equilibrium?
Interpret new experiences through the lens of preexisting ideas Ex: Infants grab new objects in the same way as they grasp familiar objects, children interpret their parents' behavior by assuming adults think like children
How is prenatal development divided?
Into 3 main period: 1. Germinal Period 2. Embryonic Period 3. Fetal Period
Developmental Study
Is a science. Depends on theories, data, analysis, critical thinking, and sound methodology just like every other science
Operant Conditioning
Learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person/animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated) - also known as instrumental conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Learning process in which a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus that had no special meaning before conditioning - respondent conditioning - Ex: Pavlov's experiment with the dog
Why do genetic effect increase with age?
Lifelong, ppl choose friends/environments that encourage their genetic predispositions (called niche picking)
Proximodistal
Literally means near-to-far
Exosystems
Local institutions Ex: School & work place
Kangaroo care was originally used on who>
Low birthweight newborns
Before birth, what is formed last and in what pattern?
Lungs & Extremities in a proximodistal pattern
Why are teratogens not too big of a risk as expected?
Many abnormalities can be avoided, many potential teratogens do no harm, and much damage can be remedied
What does the phenotype depend on?
Many genes & on the environment, influenced from the moment of conception until the moment of death
What is the critical difference between life and death for fetuses?
Maturation of the neurological, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems
When is the most important brain development? Why is it so important?
Middle months (4-6 months) b/c the entire cetral nervous system becomes responsive as they start to regulate basic body functions - neuro. functioning advancements lets the fetus reach the age of viability
Why does the mother-child bond intensify during the final 3 months?
Mom is more aware of the fetal size & movement. In turn, mom's sounds, food, and behavior patterns become part of fetal consciousness. --> Auditory communication begins at 28 weeks
Cohort
People born within the same historical period who therefore move through life together, experiencing the same events, values, new technologies, and cultural shifts at the same ages. Ex: The effect of the internet varies depending on what cohort a person belongs to
What happens after birth?
Mucus removed from infant's throat. Turns pink after first breath. Umbilical cord is cut to detach the placenta. Infat is examined and weighed. Given to mom for body heat & first meal of colostrum
Embryo
Name for a developing human organism from about the 3rd through the 8th week after conception
Fetus
Name for a developing human organism from the start of the 8th week after conception until birth
Assimilation
New experiences are reinterpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas
Sociocultural Theory
Newer theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social/cultural forces
Without context, what happened to genes?
No power.
Most environmental influences on children raised in the same home are what?
Not shared
How identical are monozygotic twins?
Not tototally biologically, psychologically, an socially identical
Phenotype
Observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits
What did Piaget believe about cognitive development?
Occurs in 4 age-related stages: 1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete Operational 4. Formal operational
Accommodation
Old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences
Subjective Perceptions
Open to bias due to how it may concern human life
What stage is smoking a cigar classified as? (psychsexually)
Oral
What stage is kissing in adulthood classified under?
Oral stage hahahahahahahahahahaahaha #sorrynotsorry
Placenta
Organ that surrounds & protects the developing creature
Alcoholism is ____
Polygenic
What are genes with various alleles called?
Polymorphic or single-nucleotide polymorphisms
When science concerns development, what does it lead to?
Practical Applications
What do theories offer?
Practical Guidance
Selective Adaptation
Process which living creatures adjust to their environment. Genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, over the generations, to become more prevalent --> basic idea from evolutionary theory --> humans today react in ways that helped survival back in the days
Implantation
Process, beginning after 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it develops
Who does the work of cells?
Proteins
Apgar scale
Quick assessment of a newborn's health. Baby's color, heart rate, muscle tone, and respiratory effort are given a score of 0, 1, or 3 twice - at 1 min & 5 min after birth - and each time the total of all 5 scores is compared with the max score of 10
Heritability
Statistic that indicates what percentage of the variation in a particular trait within a particular population, in a particular context and era, can be traced to genes Ex: Heritability of height
Heterozygous
Referring to 2 genes of 1 pair that differ in some way. Typically 1 allele has only a few base pairs that differ from the other member of the pair
Homozygous
Referring to 2 genes of 1 pair that're exactly the same in every letter of their code - most gene pairs are homozygous
Polygenic
Referring to a train that's influenced by many genes
Multifactorial
Referring to a trait that's affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, that enhance, halt, shape, or alter the expression of genes, resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype
Epigenetic
Referring to environmental factors that affect genes & genetic expression, enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes and resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype
Replication
Repeating a study, usually using different participants, perhaps of another age, SES, or culture
Gamete
Reproductive cell; that is, a sperm/ovum that can produce a new individual i it combines with a gamete from the other sex to make a zygote
Experiment
Research method that scientists use to establish cause typically give people a particular treatment or expose them to a specific condition & then note whether their behavior changes Manipulate the independent variable to see if it'll affect the dependent variable
Qualitative Research
Research that considers qualities rather than quantities -ask open ended q's, report answers in narrative form, reflecting diversity an complexity - vulnerable to personal bias & hard to replicate
False Positives
Result of a lab test that says something as true when it isn't true --> can occur for pregnancy tests (like false results), or during pregnancy when a problem is reported that actually does not exist
What did longitudinal research studied find about formerly SGA children compared to an average kid? What about those who are preterm?
SGA children have smaller brain volume Preterm have lower IQS
Teratology
Science of risk analysis
Multidisciplinary
Scientists from many academic disciplines can contribute to our understanding
What does the fetus do when its womb environment is damaged?
Send hormones of the fetus may begin birth early
What did Freud believe about the impact of each psychosexual stage?
Sensual satisfaction (from stimulation of the mouth, anus, or penis) is linked to major developmental needs & challenges
About a week after conception, what happens to the multiplying cells?
Separate into 2 distinct masses 1. Outer cells form a shell, the placenta 2. Inner cells form a nucleus, the embryo
Parent-Infancy bond
Strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their infant
Who came up with the Psychoanalytic theory?
Sigmund Freud
Similarities & Differences between Freud & Erikson
Similar in the fact that problems as an adult were probably from unresolved conflicts of childhood Different in that Erikson's stages emphasize not sexual urges but family & culture
Gene
Small section of a chromosome - basic unit for the transmission of heredity. A gene consists of a string of chemicals that provide instructions for the cell to manufacture certain proteins
Why must differences among people need to be noted?
So that "all kinds of people" are studied, avoiding the assumption that everyone develops in the same way - Kagan's suggestion
Are all cultural patterns social constructions or natural laws?
Social constructions
Fetal Period
Stage of prenatal development from 9th week after conception until birth --> fetus gains ~7 lbs & organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own
Embryonic Period
Stage of prenatal development from ~3 to 8 weeks after conception --> basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop
Cesarean Section (c-section)
Surgical birth, in which incisions through the mother's abdomen & uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina
Couvade
Symptoms of pregnancy & birth experienced by fathers
Brazelton Neontal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
Test often administered to newborns that measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes --> parents are often in awe of how responsive their infant is
What do universal theories stress?
That human differences are less significant than those characteristics that are shared by all humanism in ever place and era
What did behaviorism show the effect of?
That immediate responses, associations, and ex. have on learning, moment by moment and over time
Macrosystems
The larger contexts Ex: Cultural values, economic policies, and political processes
Age of Viability
The age (~22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus might survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available
What does the health during the entire fetal period affect?
The brain
What did psychoanalytic theories make us aware of?
The impact of early childhood experiences on subsequent development
What forms in the 4th week?
The head appears!!!!!!! Eyes, ears, nose, and mouth start to form. A tiny blood vessel (soon to become the heart) begins to pulsate!!!!!!!!!!!
Plasticity
The idea that abilities, personality, and other human characteristics can change over time. Plasticity is particularly evident during childhood, but even older adults are not always "set in their ways" - Human traits can be molded yet maintain a certain durability of identity
What replaced the idea that both growth is linear and that progress is inevitable
The idea that both continuity and discontinuity are art of every life, that gains and losses are apparent at every age, that changes proceed in many ways `
Difference-equals-deficit Error
The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard; human tendency to notice differences & jump to conclusions that something important is lacking in them - Danger in drawing conclusions based on a limited group as you consider your own "group" as normal and every other group abnormal
Superego
The moral ideal, conscience, learned from parents & society
What did Rogers stress? (humanism)
The need to accept and respect one's own personhood as well as that of everyone else --> people should give each other unconditional positive regard
How is an embryo formed?
The original one-celled zygote copies itself again and again, creating an embryo, a fetus, a baby, and eventually an adult
What did Freud believe to be the model for all forms of intimacy?
The parent-child relationship
What happens when genes interact additively?
The phenotype reflects the contributions of every gene that's involved
Guided Participation
The process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences & explorations - methods used to teach novices skills expected within the particular culture
Conditioning
The process by which responses become linked to particular stimuli - sometimes called Stimulus Response Conditioning
Why can't you say "Which characteristic, behavior, or emotion results from genes and how much from experience?:
The real question is "How much?" However, even that question is wrong since it implies proportions Both genes&the environment affect every characteristic. Nature always affect nurture, and nurture always affect nature.
Developmental application of humanism?
The satisfaction of childhood needs is crucial for later self-acceptance --> does not postulate stages
Palmar grasping reflex
When something touches the infant's pals, they grip it tightly
Why are some alleles additive?
Their effects add up to influence the phenotype
Theories V. Facts
Theories raise q's, suggesting hypotheses or even leads to research that gathers empirical data ---> data are facts that can lead to conclusions
Humanism
Theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background
How did sociocultural perspective change the way contemporary scientists think?
They now consider social context in every study.
Genes elicit responses that shape development does what?
Thus, personality may be partly the cause of a person's experiences, not merely the result
What is the first task of the outer cells (the placenta)?
To achieve implantation aka embed themselves into the uterus --> about 50% of natural conceptions fail over here LOLOLOL
Why are theories needed?
To suggest hypotheses, spur investigation, and to find answers so that empirical evidence can replace untested personal assumptions
What did Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers believe?
Traditional psychological theories underrated human potention by focusing on evil, not good. --> founded a theory called humanism
True or False: According to sociocultural theory, all learning is social, whether ppl are learning a manual skill, a social custom, or a language
True
Cross-Cultural research
Uncovers shared behaviors that ppl are unaware of - Reading book to toddlers. US moms use more nouns than verbs when they read as Chinese moms use more verbs. Easy to assume that this difference is a deficit. However, this was not a deficit as all parents were teaching vocabulary & attitudes related to their cultures
What type of an understanding did cognitive theories bring us?
Understanding of intellectual processes and how our thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development
Who came up with the ecological-systems approach?
Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1977
Allele
Variation that makes a gene different in some way from other genes for the same characteristics. Many genes never vary; others have several possible alleles
Swimming reflex
When held horizontally on their tummies, newborns stretch out their arms & legs
When is parental alliance esp. beneficial?
When infant is physically vulnerable (i.e. low birthweight)
What is a sign of self-actualization
When life is so intensely joyful that time stops and self-seeking diasappears
Stepping reflex
When newborns are held uptight, feet touching a flat surface as they move their legs as if to walk
Moro reflex
When someone bangs on the table they're lying on, newborns fling their arms outward and then bring them together on their chests, crying with wide open eyes
Doula
Woman who helps with the birth process; trained to support the laboring woman by timing contractions, doing massage, providing ice chips, and etc
Why did Freud believe that new stages cannot occur after puberty?
adult personalities & habits were influenced by earlier stages
Cerebral Palsy
disorder resulting from damage to brain's motor centers --> difficult with muscle control, so their speech and/or body movements are impaired --> results from genetic vulnerability, teratogens, maternal infection, worsened by insufficient oxygen to the fetal brain
What does behaviorism ignore?
free will
What is Erik Erikson mostly known for?
his theory of development
Cephalocaudal
literally means head to tail
Objective Evidence
not open to bias. Ex: Neuroscience of brain activation, data on family structure, the specifics of how learning occurs
What have each of the following been faulted for: psychanalytic theory, behaviorism, cognitive theory, sociocultural theory, and universal theories
psych theory - too subjective behaviorism - too mechanistic cog theory - undervaluing emotions socio theory - neglecting individuals universal theory = for slighting cultural, gender, and economic variations
Psychoanalytic or social learning: childhood exerts such power
psychoanalytic
Benefits of father presence
reduces complications
What does the sociocultural theory draw on?
research in education, anthropology, and history
Cross fostering
strategy in which newborns are removed from their biological moms in the first days of life & raised by another female or even a male
One way to mitigate maternal depression
successful breast-feeding
