Chp. 4: Leadership: The art, science, and evidence

As a result of managed care and increased competition for both public and private funding, the management structure of most health care organizations has ?

"Flattened"

What did Gilkeson, a leader in the field of occupational therapy say about occupational therapy and leadership?

"Many of today's organizational charts consist of often-shifting project groups that are led by group members possessing the professional background and competencies needed to address the problem assigned to those groups" *Basically, we may find ourselves in positions of leadership, whether it be formal or temporary, sooner than we think

What supervisory leadership theories draw from the expectancy motivation theory?

"transactional" and "path-goal" theories of leadership.

What are some mechanisms by which charismatic leaders transform follower self-concepts?

-Change the perceptions of the work itself -Offer a positive future vision -Develop a strong collective identity among all followers -Heighten individual and group self-efficacy

What are the 3 characteristics of transformational leaders?

-Charisma -Individualized consideration -Intellectual stimulation

What are the 3 Strategic Theories of Leadership?

-Charismatic -Transformational -Situational

What are the four styles of Situational Leadership?

-Directing -Coaching -Supporting -Delegating

This definition highlights several issues critical to a thoughtful consideration of leadership. What 3 areas does this definition highlight?

1. Leadership is a process, and all processes have results. 2. Leadership is a process of change whereby we hope to impact others in some sustainable manner. 3. This definition implies that the focus of this process of change is specifically on individuals and that these individuals are part of a larger community.

Entry-level texts on management, regardless of the field or discipline in which they are based, often begin by pointing out that managers complete basic functions for organizations, that include?

1. Planning 2. Organizing 3. Directing 4. Controlling

What 3 elements does the process of charismatic leadership involve?

1. The leader who possesses certain characteristics that have come to be identified with charisma. 2. The constituency from which subordinates respond to the leader 3. The social structure in which the leader and the subordinates interact

What is leadership?

A process of creating structural change wherein the values, vision, and ethics of individuals are integrated into the culture of a community as a means of achieving sustainable goals.

What did attempts to develop models of the skills and knowledge required for effective performance of leaders typically begins with?

An analysis of the demands being made on people working in a certain area.

What does the leadership theory provide?

An explanation of how or why a particular phenomenon occurs and how that phenomenon might be influenced

The transformational leader has been characterized as one who ?

Articulates a vision of the future that can be shared with peers and subordinates, intellectually stimulates subordinates, and pays high attention to individual differences among people

These conceptualizations of the relationship between management and leadership may be unnecessarily narrow. In fact, one may be a manager, a leader, or both. The concepts of leadership and management are theoretical constructs that are hard to distinguish. Why is it important to attempt to distinguish them?

Attempting to distinguish them has a functional implication for new managers and is not simply an academic exercise. By thoughtfully distinguishing between the constructs of leadership and management, we may more successfully identify the skills and behaviors associated with each so that they can more easily be practiced and incorporated into our daily behavior

Another conceptualization of the relationship between management and leadership is that, whereas managers adapt to and cope with change, leaders instigate change and make competitors cope with it. What is an example of this?

Beech suggested that managers tend to rely primarily on strategy, structure, and systems, whereas leaders are inclined to use style, staff, skills, and shared goals to yield desired results.

Who differentiated between what they described as theories about leadership IN organizations and theories about leadership OF organizations?

Boal and Hooijberg

Theory and evidence on leadership is still evolving and much of the existing evidence is descriptive. The majority of research can be found in the ? literature, although some can be found in the health care literature as well

Business and Psychology literature

How has the stereotypical male leadership style been characterized?

By a focus on task completion and goal attainment

How has the stereotypical feminine leadership style been characterized?

By nurturing of interpersonal relationships

What instills pride, faith, and respect in subordinates by transmitting a sense of mission that is effectively articulated?

Charisma

What type of leaders have been portrayed as those who have been able to move followers to overcome great obstacles or to create vision, drive, and enthusiasm among followers in difficult times?

Charismatic Leaders Examples: John F. Kennedy, Chrysler Corporation

-Stresses the personal identification of followers with the leader, who formulates an inspirational vision and impression that the leader's mission is extraordinary. What theory is this?

Charismatic theory of leadership

When leaders define roles and tasks but seek ideas and suggestions from the followers. Decisions remain the leader's prerogative, but communication is much more two-way.

Coaching

Leaders must be able to complete the organizing tasks of defining departmental units but must also aptly complete the task of ?

Coordinating the actions of others to meet goals related to the organizational mission

What has the flattening of the organizational structure resulted in?

Day-to-day decision making being pushed to lower levels of managerial hierarchies. the OT managers of today must have well-developed skills in program development, budgeting, and marketing, and in guiding those whom they supervise in planning, delivering, and evaluating OT services.

When leaders are still involved in decision making and problem solving, but control is with the followers. The followers decide when and how the leader will be involved

Delegating

How does leadership differ from routine problem solving?

Differs in that leaders are often presented with ill-defined problems. Leaders must often begin problem solving by figuring out exactly what problem is to be solved.

When leaders define the roles and tasks of the followers and supervise them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced so communication is largely one-way

Directing

What is the question that should be posed before conducting a search for evidence?

Do behaviors guided by a particular leadership theory result in higher perceived effectiveness as measured by indicators of subordinate perception or by organizational measures of leader performance?

What are the 6 traits that Kirkpatrick and Locke identified that they believed differentiated leaders from other people?

Drive, Motivation, Honesty and Integrity, Self-confidence, Cognitive ability, and Knowledge of business

Path-goal theory was initially developed as a ? theory of supervision concerning relationships between formally appointed supervisors and subordinates in their day-to-day functioning.

Dyadic theory

What is the transactional theory of leadership based on?

Examining the transactions or exchanges between a leader and his or her subordinates.

3. This definition implies that the focus of this process of change is specifically on individuals and that these individuals are part of a larger community. How does this relate to us as OT's?

For occupational therapy personnel, this means that, when examining the process of leading, we must consider the impact on individual workers and on the larger work community(occupational therapy department, our clients, members of other departments in our organization).

Path-goal theory is basically a ? approach to leadership, calling for a diagnosis of functions that need to be fulfilled in subordinates work environments for them to be motivated, perform at high levels, and be satisfied.

Functional

What is the overarching theme of our book; Leading and Managing OT Services?

How occupational therapy managers can utilize theory and data, information, and other forms of evidence to become more effective.

What did early studies of leadership focus on ?

Identification of the common traits of effective leaders, or what Thomas Carlyle referred to as "Great Men" or natural leaders.

What does the reformulated 1996 path-goal theory of work unit leadership identify?

Identifies 10 classes of leader behaviors that are theoretically acceptable, satisfying, and motivational for employees.

1. Leadership is a process, and all processes have results. How does this relate to us as OT's?

In considering the importance of leadership to occupational therapy personnel, we must therefore consider the desired results of the occupational therapy leader's actions.

What delegates projects to stimulate the learning and growth of employees, coaches and teaches employees, and treats each employee with respect?

Individualized consideration

What arouses followers to think in new ways and emphasized problem solving and the use of reason before acting?

Intellectual stimulation

What do leadership development initiatives often attempt to address?

Interpersonal competence through efforts that include training in self awareness, self-regulation, and self motivation, social awareness, and social skills.

What is important to distinguish between when considering the definition of leadership?

It is important to distinguish between the act or process of leading and the individuals who are in the position of guiding others. It is problematic to attempt to define and investigate leadership and in particular strategies for developing skills in the process of leading others, by solely focusing on descriptions of effective leaders

What journal emphasized the publication of original investigations that contribute new knowledge and understanding to fields of applied psychology?

Journal of Applied Psychology

What journal is published quarterly for all who teach, study, or practice leadership?

Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies

What Journal covers a broad range of topics in its field, including: competence-based management development, developing leadership skills, developing women for management, global management, team building, organizational development and change, and performance appraisal?

Journal of Management Development

What journal is dedicated to the study of how organizations impact people and how people shape organizations?

Journal of Organizational Behavior

Who identified 6 traits that they believed differentiated leaders from other people?

Kirkpatrick and Locke

In order to be effective, what qualities should a leader possess?

Knowledge about the work to be done, who will be involved in doing the work, and the context in which the work will be accomplished.

What has been referred to as leader behaviors related to increasing subordinate satisfaction?

Leader Consideration

What has been referred to as leader behaviors related to clarifying and reducing roadblocks?

Leader Initiating Structure

The initiation of research on the path-goal theory represented a shift in research from a focus on task and person orientation to a focus on ?

Leader effectiveness

New models, theories, and methods of examining leadership continue to be introduced. What do "mainstream" leadership scholars consistently agree upon?

Leaders are supposed to "motivate" followers to accomplish organizational goals. How leaders accomplish this task can be explained, and may depend on the theory or theories of leadership upon which they base their behavior.

2. Leadership is a process of change whereby we hope to impact others in some sustainable manner. How does this relate to us as OT's?

Leaders, whether functioning within an ongoing management position or as temporary leaders of ad hoc task groups can have lasting impacts on function of a department or organization.

What journal brings together a focus on leadership for scholars, consultants, practicing managers, executives, and administrators, as well as those numerous university faculty members across the world who teach leadership as a college course?

Leadership Quarterly

In a review of health and business literature from 1970 to 1999, only 4.4% of 6629 articles reviewed were data based, indicating the continued need for evidence-based research on the topic of _______ & _________

Leadership and Effectiveness

Can you develop skills as a leader, or are leadership skills something you are either born with or not?

Leadership skills can be developed. Understanding theories of leadership and the existing evidence on these theories can assist in examining one's existing skills and interpersonal tendencies in order to identify areas for development.

One conceptualization of the relationship between management and leadership is that the role of a manager is to maintain stability, whereas a leader guides change. What is an example of this?

Levey, Hill, and Green suggested that, whereas management is conservative and maintenance is directed, leadership is innovative, change oriented, and informed by vision.

? are often viewed as problem solvers

Managers

Who suggested that leaders are neither born nor made; rather their inherent potentials are shaped by experiences enabling them to develop the capabilities needed to solve significant social problems?

Mumford

What is deemed to be an effective leader in the path-goal theory?

One who assists subordinates to navigate the paths that ultimately lead to organizationally desired and individually valued outcomes.

Early research on leadership also sought to answer the question "Are great leaders born or made?" What is the answer to this question?

Over time, this question has drifted away because evidence now seems to support that many factors may influence the effectiveness of leaders, including skills, knowledge, work experience, and personality. Although we may not be able to change some of our basic personality traits, it seems clear that, over time, we can seek the types of experiences that may contribute to becoming a more effective leader.

What are the 2 Supervisory Theories of Leadership?

Path-goal Transactional

-Leaders increase personal payoffs for subordinates for goal attainment and make the path to these payoffs easier to travel by reducing obstacles, thereby improving performance. Which theory is this?

Path-goal theory of leadership

Leadership relates closely to traditionally recognized management skills, including ?

Planning, organizing, directing, controlling, and problem solving.

Why was the path-goal theory developed?

Primarily to reconcile prior research findings on the effects of leader-task orientation and leader-person orientation on subordinate satisfaction and performance.

Who presented a reformulated theory that he described as a theory of work unit leadership addressing the effects of leaders on the motivation and abilities of immediate subordinates and the effects of leaders on work unit performance?

R. J. House

What is a leadership style?

Refers to the elements of leading, such as the ordering and temporal spacing of leadership behaviors and can be defined as "a pattern of emphases, indexed by the frequency or intensity of specific leadership behaviors or attitudes placed on different leadership functions

What research has recently shed light on why some leaders are more effective than others?

Research on issues such as the mediating effects of subordinate trust in leaders or the congruence of subordinates' values with a leader's value

What are contingent rewards?

Rewards and recognition exchanged for accomplishment of assigned work duties or reaching organizational objectives.

-Leaders should adopt a leadership style that best fits the developmental level of their subordinates' competence and commitment. What theory is this?

Situational theory of leadership

Leadership theories can be classified as ? or ?

Supervisory or Strategic

When leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes to the followers. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions but control is with the followers

Supporting

What do expectancy motivation theories suppose?

Supposes that a subordinate's performance is related to the extent to which he or she believes that his or her actions will lead to specific outcomes. Transactions are, in essence, "Do this and you will receive that"

What is another factor that sets leadership apart from more routine problem solving?

That leaders must almost always solve problems while considering a broad social context and implement plans while marshaling support, communicating a vision, and motivating others

What does the term "flattened" indicate?

That many managers who used to lead discipline specific departments have been asked to accept formal supervisory responsibility for other disciplines, and some middle managers have been laid off.

What is known as the "association of associations" and the advocate for the nonprofit sector?

The American Society of Association Executives

What assumption did the "Great Men" studies focus on ?

The assumption was that people could change their personalities and worldviews to adopt the traits of effective leaders in order to become successful leaders themselves.

What is the process of "empowerment"?

The end result of leadership is a change in organizational culture that helps subordinates generate a sense of meaning in their work and a desire to challenge themselves to experience success.

How does the flattening of the organizational structure impact the managers?

The managers hold higher expectations for staff therapists, including entry-level practitioners, to work independently, solve problems creatively, and work as members of multidisciplinary teams for task forces.

As noted by Barker, "When leadership is defined, the definition usually addressed the nature of the ?, and not the nature of ?

The nature of the LEADER, and not the nature of leadership

What is management?

The process of guiding an organization by planning for future work obligations, organizing employees into functional units, directing employees in the process of completing daily work tasks, and controlling work processes and systems to assure adequate quality of work output.

What do strategic leadership theories, including "Charismatic", "transformational", and situational" theories draw from?

The study of organizational behavior and the notion that leaders are able to motivate followers to commit to and realize performance that exceeds their own expectations.

What do Strategic leadership theories discuss?

They relate to leadership OF an organization

What do Supervisory leadership theories discuss?

They relate to leadership WITHIN an organization

What is the mission of the Center for Creative Leadership?

To advance the understanding, practice, and development of leadership for the benefit of society worldwide

What is the function of a leader according to the path-goal theory?

To increase personal payoffs to subordinates for achieving workplace goals established by management.

-Leaders promise rewards and benefits to subordinates for meeting work goals and leaders and subordinates agree through transactions on what will lead to reward and how to avoid punishment Which theory is this?

Transactional theory of leadership

What kind of leaders seek new ways of working, seek opportunities in the face of risk, prefer effective answers to efficient answers, and are less likely to support the status quo?

Transformational leaders

-Leaders achieve change by expressing the value associated with outcomes and by articulating a vision of the future resulting in commitment, effort, and improved performance on the part of subordinates. What theory is this?

Transformational theory of leadership

As occupational therapy students or entry-level practitioners, why should we care about leadership at this point in our careers?

We should consider that we will find ourselves in both formal and informal leadership roles much sooner than we expect or desire.

When is effective leadership most needed and likely to have its greatest impact on the performance of a work group?

When groups face new problems

What is managing by exception?

When leaders avoid intervening or giving directions if the old ways of doing things are working and allow subordinates to continue in their jobs as always if performance goals are met.

In regards to leadership theory and corresponding behavior of leaders who adopt a particular theory, what might we be most interested in knowing?

Whether behaviors guided by one theory result in more improved performance on the part of subordinates than when a leader uses behavior guided by another theory.

A leader's performance is a function of ?

Whether he or she can identify goals, construct viable paths to goal attainment, and direct others along these paths in a volatile and constantly changing environment.

As noted in Chapter 1, before conducting a search for evidence, one must develop a ?

question guide selection of evidence.

House and Aditya noted that a problem with current leadership is that it continues to focus almost exclusively of ?

superior-subordinate relationships to the exclusion of organizational and environmental variables, including characteristics of followers, that are crucial to effective leadership performance.

A transaction occurs when ?

the leader promises rewards and benefits to subordinates for their fulfillment of agreements and their contributions to goal acheivement

In 1933, Smith and Kreuger provided an early review of the literature and organized ?

traits into the categories of personality traits, social traits, and physical traits