Classics Midterm 3

How did Augustus regulate munera?

Centralized munera and est. foundation for Imperial Games administration - Praetor's could only hold 2 shows while in office w/ max. 120 gladiators (limit Praetor's popularity) - Funding for games came from the state and Praetor's couldn't use private funds for more elaborate games (traditionally Festival Games- Ludi- were provided by the state, and Arena Games - Munera- were a personal gift to gain popularity)

Spina

Centre aisle (of the Circus Maximus) Dividing "spine" carries statues, markers etc.

What event happened in the circus maximus?

Chariot Races preceded by a sacred procession that paraded through the city streets and terminated in the Circus Maximus, where it circled the track. - Included images of the gods, which were brought to the royal skybox (pulvinar), which served as their shrine and house, from there they presided over the games.

Arch of Titus (Honorific Arch) was dedicated by whom?

Domitian after Titus' death - Served as model for later Triumphal arches, including the Arc de Triomphe in Paris

How did early gladiators differ from gladiators in the later second century BC?

Earliest gladiators may have been slaves or prisoners of war forced to fight to the death at funerals Later gladiators (from gladius, the Spanish sword that Roman soldiers used) was a skilled, trained, and armoured weapons fighter (although still a slave/captive) that fought against another gladiator

Building of the Coliseum was started by which emperor? With the spoils from which siege? It was dedicated by whom in what year?

Emperor Vespasian Siege of Jerusalem (from first Jewish-Roman war) Dedicated by Titus (son of Vespasian) in 80 BCE

As the Roman empire grew, what kind of animals became of interest?

Exotic animals After the Punic Wars: Elephants, lions, ostriches, leopards. Roman soldiers famously feared Elephants after Hannibal crossed the alps with the animals and entered Italy

What was the purpose of the Philippeion at Olympia?

1. Symbol of Phillip II uniting Greece - Because Olympia was a Panhellenic site 2. Hero worship - Phillipeion was positioned beside the Pelopeion (shrine of Pelops). Phillip II seems to indicate that was also worthy of heroized status as "King of Greece"

What was the First Triumvirate

A private agreement between Julius Caesar (then governor of Spain), Pompey, and Crassus: - Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BCE, and then governor of Gaul for five years. - Caesar would ratify Pompey's requests - Crassus would become consul in the future. The Triumvirate disbanded b/c Crassus died, the wife of Pompey, daughter of Caesar, Julia- died in child birth.

How was early Roman Sport directly linked to Religious Worship?

Festivals or holidays (Feriae) Roman games (Chariot races) = Ludi. From the Latin "Ludere" meaning "to play" - Chariot races or theatrical performances as acts of communal thanksgiving for military success or deliverance from crisis - Early chariot races (ludi circensis) were associated by tradition with the foundation of Rome under Romulus and also w/ the Etruscan king (or 5th king of Rome), Tarquin Priscus

Triumph (Triumphus)

Formalized recognition of a successful general through a public processional entrance into Rome in celebration of military victory - Rome registered ~ 300 triumphs - Political, religious, and military celebrations - not part of the regular religious calendar

Which charioteer was the first billion dollar athlete?

Gaius Apuleius Diocles 35,863,120 sestertii 5x higher than highest paid governor, could buy grain for the entire city of Rome for 1 year, or pay the salary of the entire Roman army at the height of empire for a fifth of the year.

Under the Empire factions continued as commercial organizations (Emperors took control of Gladiatorial Games, but not factions). Who were the charioteers and what could they do with their prize money?

Most charioteers were Greek or Hellenistic slaves, purchased and trained for a circus faction They received a portion of the prize money and could purchase their freedom and work as free agents

Populares vs. Optimates

Populares - Aristocratic leaders who relied on the people's assemblies and tribunate to gain power Optimates - Aristocratic majority who wanted to limit the power of the people's assembly and concentrate power w/ the senate

Social Identity

Refers to the ways in which individuals or collectives are distinguished in their social relations with other individuals or collectives

Actual origins of gladiatorial games (Campanians)

Romans encountered Campanian gladiatorial combat in 308 BCE when Romans and Campanians won a battle against Samnites Most scholars favor early 4th century BCE origin of gladiators among the Campanian, Sabellian, or Osco-Samnite people of Italy (so, native) Perhaps from Campanian funeral games. Elite volunteers competed for prizes but only fought to point of first bloodshed.

Monarch during the Regal Period (753 BCE - 509 BCE) in Rome. Who were Rome's Kings, according to Roman Tradition

Romulus (founded Rome by killing his brother Remus) Numa Pompilius (Sabine origin) Tullus Hostilius (raised by shepherd) Ancus Marcius (Roman) Tarquinius Priscus (Etruscan name, Lucumo) Servius Tullius (Etruscan) Tarquinius Superbus (Etruscan) * Ancus Marcius was the only one not foreign to Rome - shows how Rome liked to include foreigners

Alexander decides not to avenge Persia but to do what instead?

Rule over the Persian empire (This requires official forms of legitimation by the Persians; i.e. marrying into the royal family - wanted to assimilate the Persians, forced his generals to marry Persian women)

Describe beast hunts in early rome

Sacrifices (for the gods, but eaten as food) Ludi cereales - games for the goddess Ceres - animal spectacles involving small animals, hunts (brutal i.e. burning animals alive) Sport hunting: roman nobles learned sport hunting in the countryside from the Hellenistic east Small animal fights as sport (cock fighting, dog fighting)

Carceres

Starting gates (of the Circus Maximus)

"At a gladiatorial munus, when the sun was blazing and the awnings had been put out, he would sometimes insist that they be taken off, and forbid anyone to leave. He would exhibit the cheapest, second-rate beasts and gladiators grown old and sick. He would make men with physical disabilities fight, even if they were respectable, free citizens. And sometimes he would close the granaries and announce that the people would starve."

Suetonius - "Caligula"

"He was so extravagantly fond of the party of charioteers whose colours were green, that he ate and lodged for some time constantly in the stable where their horses were kept. At a certain revel, he made a present of two million sesterces to one Cythicus, a driver of a chariot. The day before the Circensian games, he used to send his soldiers to enjoin silence in the neighbourhood, that the repose of his horse Incitatus, might not be disturbed. For this favourite animal, in addition to giving a marble stable, an ivory manger, purple housings, and a jewelled frontlet, he appointed a house, with a retinue of slaves, and fine furniture, for the reception of those who were invited in the horse's name to eat with him. It is even said that he intended to make his horse consul."

Suetonius - "Caligula" - His favourite horse = Incitatus

What does the name "Maximus" refer to?

The name Maximus, literally "very large" refers not to the size of the Circus but to its proximity to the Ara Maxima (very large/great altar), said to have been dedicated by Hercules on his journey through Italy Largest Man-Made structure in the entirety of the Roman Empire Accommodated the largest audience: appx. 150,000

Tribune of the Plebs in the Roman senate

The tribunes were sacrosanct— had veto power over the senate; No harm could be done to the tribune. Tribune had protection of the Plebs- the people.

In the early history of Rome, what did Romans think about Greek athletics?

There was a mistrust of Greek sport, especially nudity which was seen as immoral and effeminate; contrary to Roman Virtus (virtue = manliness) As the Roman empire expanded, Greek sport became a part of Roman Spectacle.

Caesar's Innovation in Spectacle

Traditional republic restriction on gladiatorial games, munera: strictly for privately sponsored funerals (munera no longer a "funerary right") - 65 BCE Caesar held munera for his father who'd died 20 years earlier (stage plays and criminal vs. beast fight)

Who was part of the Nervan-Antonian Dynasty who was dubbed a " Wise, Just, and Moral Man"?

Trajan - Extensive building program (Trajan's Column, Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market, etc.) - Undiminished Popular Appeal throughout History

Augustus established Munera Legitima which involved what?

Tripartite structure of the arena show - Morning Show, 9am = Matutina- Beast shows with fighting by well-euqipped hunters. Hunters = Venatores, Beast Handlers/fighters = Bestiarii - Noon- = Meridiani, "noontime show" - elaborate public executions of criminals. - Mid-Afternoon- Gladiatorial Combat.

Who was the Flavian Roman emperor?

Vespasian - Known for his military exploits including Roman invasion of Britain and subjugated Judaea during the Jewish revolt - Began construction on the Flavian amphitheatre (coliseum)

Triumphator

Victorious general - Wore purple robes suggestive of kingship and jupiter (toga picta) - Rode in a gilded chariot - Attendants in front of the chariot carries fasces - symbols of his imperium - (power to command the army) - Slave held gold laurel wreath over head of general- sign of victory, but also reminded general of mortality. - Soldiers of general allowed to enter the city (as soldiers) on this one occasion.

Medism

When a Greek adopts Persian customs

Gladitorial fights were not necessarily "to the death" but rather...

shows of skill and endurance put on by trained and talented performers (i.e. WWE "pro-wrestlers") Since they were owned, they represented their masters and fans They were very valuable

Sulla's Spectacles as a means for Political Power

a) 83 BCE - Beast hunt w/ 100 maned lions - In running for one of his first offices (Praetorship) Sulla was the first to sponsor a beast hunt w/ 100 maned lions - Entertainment for the people and demonstrated his power and connections to non-Roman world through the use of exotic animals b) 82 BCE - Public execution of Samnites - Just after returning to ear he had 6000 Samnites (neighbours to Rome) from the civil war executed in the Circus Flaminus (next to the senate) c) 82 BCE - Ludi Victoriae Sullae - Victory procession (games for the victory of Sulla) - Displayed spoils of war w/ Mithridates - Procession also included Roman citizens, who were exiles when Marius had control over Rome. - The exiles declared him "savior" and "father" - At the end of procession, he gave a speech and declared himself "Fortunate" (Latin: Felix) - Held Banquets with such an excess that left over meat was thrown into the river

"Now that no one buys our votes, the public has long since cast off its cares; the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things----Bread and Games!"

Juvenal (Roman satirical poet) "Bread and Games"

"Spartacus emerges as the most capital fellow in the whole history of antiquity. A great general [...], of noble character, a 'real representative' of the proletariat of ancient times. Pompey a real shit [...]"

Karl Marx on Spartacus

What else was done to prevent collisions at the start of the race at the Circus Maxima?

Lanes were marked in chalk from the carceres to the spina Drivers had to hold their lanes up to the "break line" or "white line" across the track before the spina

What famous line was said differently in Stanley Kubrik's movie Spartacus vs. the Spartacus TV series (2010-2013)?

"I'm Spartacus" -> In the movie Spartacus is about to admit that he's Spartacus to spare the lives of all the other gladiators but each gladiator rises up and identifies themselves as Spartacus "I am Spartacus" -> In the TV show they show Spartacus as the leader. Everyone he's killed is lying on the ground around him and he's asserting his identity and selfhood.

In Egypt, Alexander was declared Pharaoh of Egypt, Son of Ra and Incarnation of Horus. Alexander traveled to the oracle of Amun-Zeus who addressed him as...

"Son of Zeus!" (According to Plutarch, this could have been a translation error)

"Iacta Alea Est"

"The Die has been cast" Suetonius, Julius Caesar Essentially, there's no going back now that Caesar crossed the Rubicon

To whom did Alexander III leave his empire?

"To the strongest"

Early evidence of Macedonians in Olympic Games

- Alexander I, King of Macedon (5th century) was prevented from competing in the Olympic Games because non-Greeks weren't allowed to compete - Alexander proved his descent from Argos and tied for 1st place in the stadion footrace - King Archelaus - Olympic and Pythian Chariot Race victor ca. 408 BCE - Phillip II - Olympic victor in Keles (356 BCE) and Tethrippon (352; 348 BCE) and perhaps a synoris victory at Delphi

Describe Alexander's war in India

- Alexander invades India during Monsoon season (big mistake - weakens his forces extremely). - Wins Battle of river Hydaspes against Porus (Parvataku) - Mutiny at River Hyphasis has him turn the campaign back towards Mesopotamia by way of the Indus River and Persian Gulf. - Not enough ships to transport all of his men, so he traveled through the Gedrosian Desert (only 25,000 survivors of 85,000 ) - Was preparing for an Arabian Campaign

Why was Augustus the ideal emperor and spectator?

- Always attended spectacles whether ill or healthy, even in the days leading to his death - Made all games a matter of imperial spectacle (rather than private funding) - Cultivated talent through gladiatorial schools; no combats sine missione - encouraged elites to perform (in various capacities) in Roman spectacle

When and why did Caesar cross the Rubicon?

- Anarchy in Rome, while Caesar is away pursuing military conquests and increasing his military strength. - Pompey is made dictator/sole consul of Rome to restore order for one year. - Caesar makes several requests for an extension of his command -> without the ability to rule (imperium), Caesar would be faced with private prosecutions. - In 49, Caesar said he would resign his command of his army, if Pompey resigned his. Caesar's terms are denied. 49 BCE, Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon and takes his army to Rome. Pompey and the Senators (w/o a proper army) fled, and Caesar entered Rome unchallenged.

Battle of Actium - when and events leading up to it

- Antony marries Cleopatra; has some military success in the East (Accused of becoming "Foreign" and "Non- Roman" in habits and customs) - "Donations of Alexandria" - Caesarion, son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra declared "King of Kings" -> direct threat to Octavius, official heir of Caesar. - Octavius, with support of Rome, pursues Antony. - 31 BCE - Battle of Actium -> Octavius wins. - Cleopatra sends messngers to Antony saying that she has committed suicide; Antony kills himself, while Cleopatra still lives. Cleopatra eventually kills herself as well.

359 BCE Philip II became King of Macedon after intense rivalries over kingship. What were the events leading up to his kingship?

- As a boy Phillip II was sent to Thebes as "hostage" in exchange for Thebes' support of Alexander II (Phillip II's brother) as king of Macedon - Phillip II learned Greek ways and Greek warfare tactics (which he improved upon) - Alexander II murdered, more rivalry for kingship of Macedon - Eventually Macedonian army named Phillip II king

Philip II gained Athens as an Ally. How did he do this?

- Athens sends hoplites to help rivals of Phillip II - Phillip II wins and sends the Athenian hoplites home with $$ - Captured Athenian colony Amphipolis, returned it to Athens, and swore to protect it - When Athens was engaged in war with its own allies, Phillip recaptured Amphipolis

Caesar appointed dictator for 10 years and held the Tribunate. What did he do with his power?

- Caesar had censorial power so he could fill the senate with his own people - raised # senators to 900 - Passed laws allowing him to appoint magistrates and consuls, giving him total control of Roman government, and robbing aristocracy of any power - March 15, 44 BCE - Caesar was assassinated by members of the Roman senate after he was appointed dictator for life

Differences between Greek and Roman chariot racing

- Chariot Racing in Rome became a Team Sport - Roman drivers wrapped the reins round their waist, while the Greeks held the reins in their hands. - Romans could not let go of the reins in a crash, so they would be dragged around the circus until they were killed or they freed themselves. In order to cut the reins and keep from being dragged in case of accident, they carried a falx, a curved knife. They also wore helmets and other protective gear. - The charioteers themselves, the aurigae, were considered to be the winners, although they were usually also slaves (as in the Greek world).

What were chariot racing teams called and how were they owned and divided?

- Chariot racing teams = factions, factiones - Factions were privately owned and operated businesses, led by private executives (domini factionum). - Factions owned all the chariots, horses, stables, and equipment needed for races. - Chariot Races consisted of four, six, eight or twelve four horse chariots (quadrigae) - Factions divided into 4 groups, organized by Team "color": Red, White, Green, and Blue.

Spartacus' slave (gladiator) rebellion was eventually defeated - when, where, how?

- Crassus (former lieutenant of Sulla) was put in charge of 40,000 Roman soldiers to defeat Spartacus - Spartacus attempted to get reinforcements from Sicily but they betrayed him and his army was cornered in Northern Italy - Spartacus and army defeated in 71 BCE in Senerchia - 6,000 survivors of the his army were crucified and lined the Appian way from Capua to Rome

Roman pre-history: The Etruscans

- Etruscan civilization from 700 BCE to incorporation into Roman Republic in 4th century BCE (300s) - Transitioned from chiefdom/tribal societies to state formation - Mining and trade in metals led to Etruscan expansion on the Italian peninsula to surrounding areas - Rome was the 1st Italic state, but inherited from the etruscans

The actual "Trojan Games"

- First held by Sulla - Then, Julius Caesar (Triumph of 46 BCE) - Augustus put on "Game of Troy" often but it was eventually cancelled due to injuries to aristocratic youths - Augustus encouraged participation of Roman noble youths in spectacle (perhaps influenced by Greek culture) - Senate fought against elites performing in spectacle

Caesar's Triumphal Games - when and describe

- Greater than Pompey's - 4 triumphs in one month - Libya, Egypt, Pontus, Gaul and a 5th (Spain) a little later: gladiatorial combat, circus races, military dances, 5 successive days of beast combat, staged military battle (1000 soldiers, 40 elephants, 60 cavalrymen) 1. First known stadium in Rome for athletic events built by Caesar (46 BCE) - Located in Campus Martius -> before Caesar Greek sports were held in the Circus Maximus - Built a temp wooden amphitheatre for hunts called the "hunting theatre" w/ lifts and trap doors 2. First Naumachia (staged naval battle) - Mass execution of captives as entertainment - Staged in large shallow basins of water w/ seats for spectators - 2000 combatants vs. 4000 rowers (all war criminals). Recreation of battle b/w Tyrians and Egyptians - Theatres were later used for Naumachia

Pompey's Spectacles of Power

- In his first Triumphal procession (aiding Sulla against Numidia), Pompey wanted to ride into Rome pulled by Elephants- but the gates forced him to use horses. a) 61 BCE Pompey celebrated his victory against Mithridates with the most lavish Triumphal Procession in Roman history. Lasted two days, with wagons of gold and treasures, 300 enemy leaders and generals, and painted scenes of Triumph. Pompey rode in on a chariot, supposedly wearing the cloak of Alexander the Great (as "conqueror of the East"). b) 55 BCE Pompey dedicated the first stone theatre in Rome, in the campus martius. Dedication included plays, music, and athletic performances c) Pompey also put on hunts in the circus maximus where 20 elephants, 500 lions, and 400 other African beasts died

Describe the "show" (spectacle) competition that Alexander arranged

- Koragos a Macedonian Warrior vs. Dioxippos an Olympic Victor in Wrestling in 336 BCE. - Koragos dressed as Ares, Dioxippos dressed as Heracles. - Dioxippos defeats Koragos - Alexander upset at loss. Later Dioxippos is framed for theft. - Ashamed, Dioxippos commits suicide. - Alexander's spectacle competition similar to earlier Persian examples, i.e. Poulydamas of Skotousa fighting Persian immortals in show competition for King of Persia. - Negotiation between Greek Sport (they liked competition/games) and Persian (and later Roman) Spectacle

Tombs of the Augurs (ca. 520 BCE)

- Painted tomb located in Tarquinia - Depicts men thought to be interpreting bird signs as a form of divination - Also seems to depict funeral games

Who was Herod of Judea

- Roman client king of Judea - Financially patronized the Olympic games, became president of the OG, and subsidized future OG - Implemented combined Greco-Roman games in honor of Augustus - Although there was Jewish resistance to Roman rule, Herod accepted Roman rule and used Greco-Roman games as a tool for self-promotion and promotion of Augustus

Hupogeum of the Colosseum

- Wooden Floor of the Arena covered with sand. - Hupogeum added or enlarged by emperor Domitian - Series of Tunnels and trap doors, for Gladiators and wild beasts to enter the arena. - Separate Entrance in the Hupogeum for Emperor to enter the Arena

Who were the 3 Julio-Claudian Roman Emperors

1. Augustus 2. Caligula - Incest w/ sisters and prostituted them - Killed/exiled most of his family - Killed on a whim - Statue in Jerusalem - 1st emperor assassinated by Praetorian guard 3. Nero - Insane, vain, power hungry - Had his mother executed - Exiled his first wife so he could remarry; after protests he brought her back and killed her - Kicked his second wife to death - Started great fire of Rome (to rebuild his palace?) - Ordered a young ex-slave to be castrated and marry him - Committed suicide when he was declared enemy of state

Second triumvirate

1. Marcus Antonius (Antony) - Caesar's co-consul at the time of his assassination in 44 BCE 2. M. Aemilius Lepidus - Master of Cavalry 3. Octavius - (grand-nephew and heir - Augustus) Isolated the conspirators from their natural base in Italy Senate appointed them the triumvirate 'triumvirs for putting the state back together' with power to make laws w/out consulting the senate/assembly and to nominate all magistrates

Nature theory vs. safety valve theory

1. Natural theory (Thomas Hobbes -Leviathon) - Man is engaged in constant war where every man is enemy to every man - Man's life is short, solitary, nasty, brutish, and poor 2. Safety valve theory (Renee Girard - Violence & the Sacred) - Mimetic desire - everyone wants what someone else has - Mimetic rivalry - all rivalry originates from mimetic desire - Scapegoat mechanism - single individuals blamed and violence is acted upon the single individual

Levels of seating in the colosseum (bottom to top)

1. Podium - Emperor, priests, senators. 2. Maenianum primum - Knights (equites) 3. Maenianum secundum imum - reserved for Roman Citizens 4. Maenianum secundum summum - non-citizens (foreigners, slaves, freedmen) 5. Maenianum summum in ligneis - wooden seats reserved for women

When Pompey returned from Asia he had what 2 requests?

1. Ratify settlements w/ the East (after his victories) 2. A bill to give his veterans land The senate denied both requests

Animals as executioners

167 BCE - Aemilius Paullus first used elephants to trample non-Roman deserters 146 BCE - Scipio Aemilianus threw non-Roman deserters and runaway slaves to wild beasts in shows at Rome Beasts used as hunters and hunted

By what year had beast shows become part of official circus games?

169 BCE Two Aediles exhibited 63 African beasts, 40 bears, and some Elephants in the Circus Maximus

Describe the first venatio at Rome (including date)

186 BCE by Nobilior. Hunt for Asian beasts, lions, panthers

What did the Roman senate consist of during the Roman Republic?

2 consuls - chief magistrates of Rome, presided over the senate, elected annually Praetor - (increase from 2 to 8) commander of the army or elected magistrates; ruled provinces Aedile - (2 pairs) office of maintenance of public works including buildings and festivals Questor - financial officers

Recorded number of Gladiators in 216 BCE, 200 BCE, and 183 BCE?

216 BCE- 22 pairs 200 BCE - 25 pairs 183 BCE- 60 pairs The role of Slaves continued to take on a prominent role in Roman society, and (unfortunately) this is reflected in the increased popularity of Gladiatorial Combat.

When Alexander III (Alexander the Great) takes the throne what does the League of Corinth declare him?

League of Corinth declares Alexander general (their leader) against Persia after the death of Philip II.

When and what was the first recorded Roman gladiatorial fight?

264 BCE Sons of Decimus Junius Brutus gave a gladiatorial show for their dead father during the munus (plural - munera): a duty, tribute, or obligation to the dead Involved 3 gladiators total * Romans may have witnessed gladiatorial combat in 308 BCE; adopted first Gladiatorial combat at a Munus in 264 BCE

When did Octavius gain the title "Augustus"? With what connotation?

27 BCE -> with Religious, not Political connotation. - Tribunal Power was given to him, without becoming Tribune (which makes him sacrosanct) - Was given Proconsular Imperium (military control), without holding office of consul.

Caesar kept Gladiatorial troops at Capua, and assembled so many gladiators in 65 BCE for his father's munera (which was really a spectacle to get people to like him) that a bill was passed limiting the number of gladiators that anyone could could keep to ___ pairs (640 gladiators!)

320 pairs - Probably to limit Caesar's popularity rather than for the safety of the public

What years was the Philippeion built?

337 - 335 BCE

Philip II helps Amphictyonic League in what war? Why?

3rd Sacred war (Phocian war) To restore Delphi to the Delphians

The Fasti Triumphales were published in about 12 B.C. They contain what?

A list of triumphs from the foundation of Rome to the reign of Augustus. Fasti Triumphales begins with Romulus (1st March) First Triumph of Roman Republic was Publius Valerius Publicola (Also on the 1st of March)

How many laps of the Circus Maxima were completed? And how many dolphins and eggs were used to count laps?

7 laps 7 dolphins/eggs in art (although some sources say 9)

Spartacus' slave (gladiator) rebellion - when, where, describe.

73 BCE in Capua - His slave army increased to 70,000 men divided into 3 groups - Spartacus' goal wasn't to sack Rome but to escape to freedom in the alps - Under Spartacus, the slave army won battles over 3 different Roman commanders - Eventually slave army defeated the army of the consuls and 10,000 Roman soldiers

Hortator

A faction member on horseback who scouts the way ahead (at the Circus Maximus)

How did Alexander III die?

After several nights of celebration in Perepolis Alexander died (perhaps of alcohol poisoning)

"Now the enemy, pursuing you recklessly...comes boldly across the course to ram your wheel. His horses crumple. The shameless mob of their legs goes in the wheels and breaks the spokes one after another, until the center of the wheel is full of cracking sounds and the rim stops the flyting feet. He himself falls from the collapsing chariot, making a massive mountain of ruin, and staining his fallen face with blood."

Apollonaris Sidonius - Violence of Circus Games

What four rooms were contained in the gladiatorial schools?

Armamentarium: Armoury Sanitarium: Hospital Spoliarium: dead bodies of gladiators were taken here Choriagium: warehouse for stage properties.

In Alexander III's absence (when he's leading the fight against Persia) what two city-states revolt against Macedonian control?

Athens and Thebes - Alexander returns and completely destroys the city of Thebes (except for the house of Pindar)

What battle started the downfall into Etruscan civilization and how did it progress from there?

Battle of Alalia b/w Greeks, Etruscians, & Carthiginians, near the island of Corsica - New power distribution in west Mediterranean. Carthage expands its influence and etruscans relegated to Northern Italy. - Tyrant Hiero from Syracuse defeats the Etruscans in battle of Cumae - B/c of power struggles Etruscans lose influence over area of Latium and it's eventually taken over by Romans - By 1st century BCE Rome has annexed all remaining Etruscan territory

Venatio/venationes

Beast hunts - Put on display during triumphs and shows - Why? Long tradition in multiple parts of the world (Mesopotamia, Persia). Part of med. discourse on nature, empire, entertainment and power (animals represent nature in its most brutal form - display of king's power when he kills the animal)

Why did the Flavian amphitheatre become known as the Coliseum?

Because a colossal statue of Nero as the sun god stood nearby - Colosseum was located on the site of Nero's lake within his Palace (Domus Aurea). Flavians (Nero and Titus) declared that they were restoring order by giving the space back to the Roman people.

The path of the Roman Triumph

Began at the Campus Martius. Parade entered the city through a special triumphal gate, which was closed and not to be used by others. Circled the Palantine Hill, Took the Sacred Way through the Forum To the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capitol. At the temple of Jupiter- General dedicated fasces as thanksgiving to Jupiter.

Triumphant generals became beast-masters by doing what?

Bringing back wild beasts for display and destruction in shows Military skill? Romans saw hunting in the wild as a good preparation for warfare, so they exposure to killing animals in arena hunts would have similar benefits.

There was a very basic form to Circus Maximus until Late Republic. What were the changes some of the emperors made?

Caesar - Elongated the track - Added tiered rows of seats on both sides Augustus - Created a platform area (Pulvinar) Claudius - Redid wooden starting gates (carceres) in marble Nero - Added special seating for knights Domitian - rebuilt the circus after the great fire Trajan - rebuilt the pulvinar and replaced wooden seats with concrete

"But even those who have triumphs, and who on that account keep the generals of the enemy alive a longer time, in order that, while they are led in triumph, the Roman people may enjoy an ennobling spectacle, and a splendid fruit of victory; nevertheless, when they begin to turn their chariot from the forum towards the Capitol, order them to be taken back to prison, and the same day brings to the conquerors the end of their authority, and to the conquered the end of their lives."

Cicero, Captives and Spectacles of Conquest Talking about Caesar's victory against the Gaul, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Africa. Keeping the leader of the captive army alive to kill him publicly Once the victory has been est. at the end of the triumph, that's the end of the general's authority (sort of a symbolic death for the general when the captive general is killed) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN KILLING OF THE CAPTIVE AND AUTHORITY OF THE GENERAL

"The last day was that of the elephants, and on that day the mob and crowd was greatly impressed, but manifested no pleasure. Indeed, the result was a certain compassion (misericordia) and a kind of feeling that the huge beast has a fellowship with the human race."

Cicero, letter to Marcus Marius - Talking about how spectators had compassion for the animals being killed in Pompey's spectacle

Philip uses his political power with the Amphictyonic League to do what?

Conquers most of Greece and created the "League of Corinth"

Significance of Saurin's Tragedy Spartacus sculpture?

Gave voice to a desire for freedom that fuelled the French revolution

Perizoma group

Greek vases with naked athletes with perizomas painted on them afterwards Most likely made for export for Etruscan clients - Basic inconsistency in representation. Some athletes are nude (tomb paintings) others are not (Perizoma group). Why? I don't know

Five requirements set forth by the senate to be awarded a triumph

Had to be a magistrate Had to defeat the enemy in a just war against a foreign enemy, one sanctioned by the senate, approved by the people and mandatory to the survival of the empire Had to kill over 5,000 men Had to return with massive amounts of trophies and prisoners War was entirely complete, which enabled the soldiers to return for the celebration

What honour was Caesar given after he was assassinated for becoming too powerful?

He was deified (cult of Divus Julius) - First Roman historical figure to be deified - Octavius, as his adopted son, becomes divii filius (son of god)

According to Plutarch, Life of Crassus: Spartacus was "more _______ than ________"

Hellenic Thracian

"The whole world belongs to Rome so Rome must be destroyed and made only a bad memory, and then where Rome was, we will build a new life where all men will live in peace and brotherhood and love, no slaves and no slave masters, no gladiators and no areas, but a time like the old times, like the golden age. We will build new cities of brotherhood, and there will be no walls around them."

Howard Fast's novel "Spartacus" Makes Spartacus a communist revolutionary aiming for a classless society

"The ordered that armor and weapons should be made ready, and took down temples and porticoes of ancient spoils of enemies. The levy wore a strange appearance, for owing to the sacarcity of free men and the need of the hour, they bought, with money from the treasury 8,000 young and stalwart slaves and armed then, but asked them first if they were willing to serve. They preferred the slaves for soldiers, though they might have redeemed the prisoners of war at less expense."

Livy "Slave warriors" Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE: defeat of Rome by Hannibal. Roman response was to arm 8,000 slaves .

"So the Romans made us of the spendid armor of their enemies to do honor to the gods; thile the Campanans, in consequence of their pride and hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name of Samnites."

Livy Romans initially found campanian gladiatorial combat to be inappropriate (Romans dedicated enemies armour to the gods, in comparison)

"First Tarquinius waged war on the Latins and captured the town of Apiolae. Because he brought back more plunder than expected from what seemed like a small war, he put on more extravagant ludi than previous kings had done. It was then that the place now called the Circus Maximus was marked out. There were separate sections of seats for senators and knights to watch from, with benches on supports as much as 12 feet from the ground. There were horse races and boxers brought in from Etruria. These games are still held annually, and called the Ludi Romani or the Great Ludi."

Livy, The History of Rome Origins of the Ludi Circensis Triumph of Tarquinius -> Led to Circus Maximus and Ludi Romani/Great Ludi Romans introduced the idea of a spectacle being associated with war. Why? They put on a spectacle after they won a war using the spoils

Under the Roman Emperors, Private Gladiatorial Schools of the Republic were banned. Emperors established four Imperial Gladiatorial Schools. What were they called?

Ludus Magnus Gallicus Dacius Matutinus

"The Emperor Trajan knew that the Roman people are held in control principally by two things- free grain and shows- that political support depends as much on the entertainments as on matters of serious import, that...neglect of the entertainments brings damning unpopularity, that gifts are less eagerly and ardently longed for than shows, and finally, that gifts placate only the common people on the grain dole, singly and individually, but shows placate everyone."

Marcus Cornelius Fronto (Tutor to Roman emperors) "Bread and games"

"Let Victory in sadness break her Idumaean palms; O Favour, strike your bare breast with unsparing hand. Let Honour change her garb for that of mourning; and make your crowned locks, O disconsolate Glory, an offering to the cruel flames. Oh! sad misfortune! that you, Scorpus, should be cut off in the flower of your youth, and be called so prematurely to harness the dusky steeds of Pluto. The chariot-race was always shortened by your rapid driving; but O why should your own race have been so speedily run?"

Martial Epigrams "The Charioteer Scorpus"

O Rome, I am Scorpus, the glory of your noisy circus, the object of your applause, your short-lived favourite. The envious Lachesis, when she cut me off in my twenty-seventh year, accounted me, in judging by the number of my victories, to be an old man."

Martial Epigrams "The Charioteer Scorpus"

"Let barbarous Memphis stop talking about the miracle of the pyramids; Assyrian toil is not to vaunt Babylon and the soft Ionians are not to garner praise for Trivia's temple; let the altar of many horns say nothing about Delos, and do not let the Carians lavish extravagant praise on the Mausoleum suspended in empty air and exalt it to the stars. All labour yields to Caesar's amphitheatre: Fame will tell of one work instead of them all."

Martial, "Spectacles 1" on Roman Coliseum

Describe the Roman Republic (509-31 BCE) that followed the Regal Period

Oligarchy - Known as time of Republic = Res Publica ("the public thing") - Romans called their government The Senate and the Roman People (SPQR = Senatus Populusque Romanus)

At what festival did Alexander proclaimed that the Greeks should worship him as a god?

Olympic festival of 324 BCE

The Circus Maximus was sited where?

On the level ground of the valley of Murcia b/w Rome's Aventine and Palentine hills

Who was Phillip II murdered by?

One of his guards who was also a former lover

What were two earlier beliefs of the origins of gladiatorial games?

Originally thought to be from the Etruscans, but Etruscan art does not necessarily show real-life gladiatorial-style fights. According to later Christian tradition, Gladiatorial Games were born out of earlier practices of human sacrifice, but little evidence for human sacrifice at Rome (difference between death, and death involved with direct worship of a deity)

"But now the procession is coming—keep silence all, and attend! The time for applause is here—the golden procession is coming. First in the train is Victory, borne with wings outspread—come hither, goddess, and help my love to win! Applaud Neptune (Poseidon), you who trust too much in the wave!I will have nothing to do with the sea; I choose that the land keep me. Applaud thy Mars, O soldier! Arms I detest; peace is my delight, and love that is found in the midst of peace. And Phoebus Apollo—let him be gracious to augurs, and Phoebe gracious to huntsmen! Minerva (Athena), turn in applause to thee the craftsman's hands! You country dwellers, rise to Ceres (Demeter) and tender Bacchus (Dionysos)! Let the boxer court Pollux, the horseman Castor! But we applaud thee, mild Venus (Aphrodite) and thy children potent with the bow...."

Ovid, Amores Sacred Procession of Gods at the Circus (Ovid, love poet, meets his mistress at the circus Maximus)

Philip takes up model of "_________" as a claim to avenge Persian invasion of Greece

Panhellinism

Patricians vs. Equestrians in the Roman senate

Patricians - old, ruling class families in Rome Equestrians - aristocracy, lower than patricians

How did Phillip II commemorate his Olympic victories and how did that differ from other 5th century Sicilian tyrants who were victors?

Phillip - through coinage depicting his victories Other victors/tyrants - praise poems (Pindar) and Victory monuments (charioteer at Delphi)

"The Circensian Games were taking place; a kind of entertainment for which I have not the least taste. They have no novelty, no variety, nothing, in short, one would wish to see twice. I am the more astonished that so many thousands of grown men should be possessed again and again with a childish passion to look at galloping horses, and men standing upright in their chariots. If, indeed, they were attracted by the swiftness of the horses or the skill of the men, one could account for this enthusiasm. But in fact it is a bit of cloth they favour, a bit of cloth that captivates them. And if during the running the racers were to exchange colours, their partisans would change sides, and instantly forsake the very drivers and horses whom they were just before recognizing from afar, and clamorously saluting by name."

Pliny the Younger - "Cheering for Clothes" Team Fanatics

"But Pompey's elephants, when they had lost all hope of escape, tried to gain the compassion of the crowd by indescribable gestures of entreaty, deploring their fate with a sort of wailing, so much to the distress of the public that they forgot the general and his munificence carefully devised for their honor, and bursting into tears rose in a body and invoked curses on the head of Pompey for which he soon afterwards paid the penalty."

Pliny, Natural Histories - Spectators felt bad for the crying elephants

"Then, going up to Ilium (Troy), he sacrificed to Athena and poured libations to the heroes. Furthermore, the gravestone of Achilles he anointed with oil, ran a race by it with his companions, naked, as is the custom, and then crowned it with garlands, pronouncing the hero happy in having a faithful friend while he lived, and after death, a great herald of his fame (i.e.Homer)."

Plutarch, Life of Alexander - Alexander's private funeral games for Achilles in Troy - Achilles' non-participation in Funeral Games of Patroclus (though he was the best) as a model for Alexander's non-participation.

For it was neither every kind of fame nor fame from every source that he courted, as Philip did, who plumed himself like a sophist on the power of his oratory, and took care to have the victories of his chariots at Olympia engraved upon his coins; nay, when those about him inquired whether he would be willing to contend in the foot-race at the Olympic games, since he was swift of foot, 'Yes,' said he, 'if I could have kings as my competitors.'

Plutarch; Life of Alexander - Alexander was anti-athletics (against competition in athletics) - Why? May not have wanted to compete with people of lower status OR he didn't want to be defeated publicly by other people and have his status lowered in the public eye - In contrast to Philip who used Panhellenic competitions to establish "Greekness"

Fasces

axe had to be removed within the boundary of the sacred inner city of Rome Why> power of life and death is with the people not the general within the city

"And nothing is so damaging to good morals as to hang around at some spectacle. There through pleasure, vice sneaks in more easily. I come back more greedy, more desirous of honour, more dissolute, even more unfeeling and cruel, because I have been among people. By chance I happened to be at the spectacle at noontime, expecting some witty entertainment and relaxation, to rest men's eyes from the gore. It was the opposite. Whatever fighting there was before was comparative mercy. Now there was pure murder, no more fooling around. ... Many people prefer this to the ordinary pairs and the fighters. Why wouldn't they? No helmet or shield pushes the sword away. Where is the defence? Where is the skill? These things are just to delay death. In the morning men are thrown to lions and bears, at noontime to the audience."

Seneca, Stoic Philosopher and Tutor/Advisor to Nero Criticism of violence of Roman spectacle

What did Octavius (Augustus) do to avoid the fate of Julius Caesar?

Separated powers from their offices, rather than directly challenging the government - During Augustus' rule, offices of Republican government still existed, but were rendered useless (people had titles still, but he had all the power)

Augustus forbade gladiatorial combats that were...

Sine missione ("without release") - fights that didn't go to a decision (i.e. death) - Augustus wanted all fights to go to an appeal for missio Benefits - Assured quality of fighting, without ending prematurely - Guaranteed possibility of survival of good gladiators - Gave the people an active role in the process and outcome of the combats.

"That no memory or the least monument might remain of any other victor in the sacred Grecian games, he ordered all their statues and pictures to be pulled down, dragged away with hooks, and thrown into the common sewers. He drove the chariot with various numbers of horses, and at the Olympic games with no fewer than ten; though, in a poem of his, he had reflected upon Mithridates for that innovation. Being thrown out of his chariot, he was again replaced, but could not retain his seat, and was obliged to give it up, before he reached the goal, but was crowned notwithstanding."

Suetonius - "Nero" - To improve Roman relations with Greece, Nero competed in the Olympics in 67/65 BCE - Victor in chariot race

"In the number, variety, and magnificence of his public spectacles, he surpassed all former example. Four and-twenty times, he says, he treated the people with games upon his own account, and three-and-twenty times for such magistrates as were either absent, or not able to afford the expense."

Suetonius, "Divine Augustus" - Augustus gained popularity and power through spectacles which he paid for 24x out of his own pocket

"He entertained the people with wrestlers in the Campus Martius, where wooden seats were erected for the purpose; and also with a naval fight, for which he excavated the ground near the Tiber, where there is now the grove of the Caesars. During these two entertainments he stationed guards in the city lest, by robbers taking advantage of the small number of people left at home, it might be exposed to depredations. In the circus he exhibited chariot and foot races, and combats with wild beasts, in which the performers were often youths of the highest rank."

Suetonius, "Divine Augustus" - Had guards to watch over the city so houses didn't get robbed while people were watching the show - Roman aristocrats were put in the arena. They wanted fight because the shows were so popular

"He separated the soldiery from the rest of the people, and assigned to married plebeians their particular rows of seats. To the boys he assigned their own benches, and to their tutors the seats which were nearest it; ..... none clothed in black should sit in the centre of the circle.1 Nor would he allow any women to witness the combats of the gladiators, except from the upper part of the theatre, although they formerly used to take their places promiscuously with the rest of the spectators."

Suetonius, "Divine Augustus" Gendered aspect - women could only be sat in the farthest back seats (harder to see the blood and gore) Sexuality ("promiscuity") is associated with witnessing the violence

"Augustus corrected the confusion and disorder with which the spectators took their seats at the public games, after an affront which was offered to a senator at Puteoli, for whom, in a crowded theatre, no one would make room. He therefore procured a decree of the senate, that in all public spectacles of any sort, and in any place whatever, the first tier of benches should be left empty for the accommodation of senators. He would not even permit the ambassadors of free nations, nor of those which were allies of Rome, to sit in the orchestra; having found that some freed slaves had been sent under that character."

Suetonius, "Divine Augustus" Rome was a stratified society which you could see based on where people were seated in the stadium

"For in time long past, in accordance with the belief that the souls of the-dead are propitiated by human blood, they used to purchase captives or slaves of inferior ability and to sacrifice them at funerals. Afterwards, they preferred to disguise this ungodly usage by making it a pleasure. So, after the persons thus procured had been trained--for the sole purpose of learning how to be killed!-- in the use of such arms as they then had and as best as they could wield, they then exposed them to death at the tombs on the day appointed for sacrifices in honor of the dead. Thus they found consolation for death in murder."

Tertulian (Christian author) On spectacles Belief that the dead required blood for blood. So as a result they had slaves. Gained popularity where it became entertainment (trained these slaves in war so killing them could become a form of entertainment) Theory of gladiatorial games origin

What was Greek influence on Etruscan sport?

The Francois vase - Found in 1844 in an Etruscan tomb in a cemetery near Chiusi, Italy - Dated to 570/560 BCE - Depicts funeral games of Patroclus Etruscans did not participate in Panhellenic games - must have had their own athletic culture influenced by Greeks No Etruscan literary account of sports or funeral games, but there is evidence from material culture Best evidence for Etruscan sport -> tomb painting

What did Alexander carry with him wherever he went?

The Iliad