Cognition

Intuition

relying on instinct. High chance of error.

Galton's idea of hereditary genius

- human ability is hereditary

Algorithm

- methodical approach. A logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions till you hit the right one. Not efficient, but are guaranteed to find the correct solution eventually. Ex. Methodically approach all possible solutions of 8 Character PW.

Nature vs nurture

. How much is intelligence due to genes and how much due to environment/experiences. o Study heritability by looking at correlation scores of twins who grew up in different homes, identical twins raised together, and fraternal twins raised together. o What we know is of 3 groups, strongest correlation between IQ scores in identical twins raised in same homes. Raised apart not as high correlation (there is some environmental component). Fraternal twins raised together show lower correlation, suggesting also a genetic component. o Nature and Nurture contribute to intelligence • No recipe for structuring environment to make a genius, even though we know environments that would impair intelligence (cognitive functioning). When children are deprived of interaction with people or language - intelligence is impaired; however, no direct correlation. Exposure is better than no exposure, but tons of exposure doesn't lead to a genius.

Stage 4

12+ years old - Formal operational stage - reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences; moral reasoning. At this point children are reasoning more like adults and they continue to develop that overtime. • In the formal operational stage, a child will be able to think logically about abstract ideas, hypothetical situations, and use abstract thinking to solve novel problems. • Acronym: Stage 4 - "4 is a door" and Formal Operations: picture a very wide door and behind that door are "four males" with excellent abs (for abstract thinking, which is possible at this stage). • Later developmentalists have come and figured out that children don't necessarily develop these abilities in certain age brackets, but they do tend to progress in a predictable fashion and thanks to Piaget now we know that children are more than just miniature adults.

Stage 3

7-11 years old- Concrete operational "(operational = mental operations". Learn idea of conservation. • Can do test to find out if they're in this stage - take 2 identical glasses with same amount of water, and kids will tell you they have the same amount. Then, pour one into short fat glass and other into tall skinny glass in front of the child and ask child which one has more. Before this stage will say tall glass, because the water is higher, but once they reach concrete operational stage and understand amount of water doesn't change just because the glass size changes then they will tell you that they have the same amount of water even though they look different. Also begin to learn empathy; begin reasoning of math skills. • The concrete operational stage describes children who are able to grasp concrete (real) events logically, conversion, and reversibility(refers to the ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition. • Acronym: 7-11 (the store) kids sell Big Slurpee's • No hypothetical reasoning (mastered in next stage) Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reversibility#ixzz44yNTEzQY) • Acronym: Stage 3 - "3 is a tree" and Concrete Operations: picture a tree with concrete leaves and the tree is growing out of a concrete pot. Next to the tree is a pile of logs (for logical thinking) and next to the tree is a wooden commode (for accommodation).

Stage 1

: 0-2 years old - Sensorimotor Stage (sensory = senses - children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch etc. + motor = active, as you develop how to use senses you learn to move your body around). Main task/awareness develops is object permanence: objects exist even if they can't see them. • Infant's on the other hand don't realize objects still exist if they can't see them (they have not developed object permance). Ex: if you take a ball away from an infant, they will stop looking for it. This is also why they love pee-ka-boo. • Sensorimotor stage involves issues such as object permanence and stranger anxiety. • Acronym: Stage 1 - "1 is a bun" and SensoriMotor: use the "motor" part of sensorimotor and picture 4 cinnamon buns in place of the wheels on the motorcycle. To remember that object permanence occurs in this stage, use "two ants" for "permanence" and picture two ants riding two motorcycles.

Stage 2

: 2-6/7 years old (approx.) - Preoperational stage (operational = mental operations like imagining things") - When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play. Start to use symbols to represent things. Words symbolize objects and children start understanding symbols. Also, very egocentric - only concerned about themselves, no empathy (they don't understand that other people have a different point of view than they do) (ex. A child might not understand that sitting in front of you while you watch TV will prevent you from seeing TV, since they can see). Stage of "I can't see you, you can't see me" • The preoperational stage is associated with an inability to understand the perspective of others. • Acronym: Stage 2 - "2 is a shoe" and Preoperational: use "preacher" and imagine him wearing outrageously ugly or funny shoes. For magical thinking, which is typical of this stage, picture a rabbit coming out of the preacher's hat. To remember that the conservation tasks are a challenge during this stage, picture Smokey the Bear also wearing ridiculous shoes. To remember that assimilation also occurs in this stage, picture an ass (donkey) with those same shoes.

Piage's stages of development

Acronym: 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 Is tree, 4 is door

Theory of general intelligence Theorist Summary Strength/evidence Problems

Charles Spearman -Used factor analysis to identify cluster of related abilities. -1 General intelligence. -Came up with general intelligence (g factor) - said that g factor can predict our intelligence in multiple academic areas. Acronym: 1 Tip in a Spear S/E This theory is highly supported by research. Those who score high in one area also score highly in other areas. Ex. Scoring high in verbal intelligence correlated to high special reasoning Prob -controversial -can one factor explain all of the diverse human abilities -limited in what it considers to be intelligence

Theory of Multiple Intelligence Theorist Summary Strength/evidence Problems

Expanded ideas of what can be included in intelligence. Gardner divided into 7 then 9 independent intelligence (they don't depend on each other and hence intelligence in 1 area does not predict intelligence in another); logical-mathematical intelligence, verbal-linguistic, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical. Later 2 added: naturalist, and existential intelligence. Acronym: 7-9 Very Different Personality Gardner's. S/E -You can have different strengths independently. -Intelligence is more than just "book smarts" Prob -No way to test this theory (not supported by research) - Intelligence vs. talents/abilities (but maybe this is just a labeling issue)

Alfred-Binet

First to develop an intelligence test, but wasn't intending too. He developed a test in order to establish a child's mental age and measure a child's intellectual development and predict how well they will do in school later on. Was designed for French children

Fixation

Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem. o If we can start solving the problem, it typically occurs through an insight - that aha moment. Insight is hard to predict and hard to encourage, particularly when you are fixated on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach. • Or we can let problem incubate - insight comes after some time. • Type I error = false positive, type II error = false negative

Working backwards

Goal State → Current State. Start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state. Used in mathematical proofs, in mazes.

Theory of Primary Mental Abilities Theorist Summary Strength/evidence Problems

L.L. Thurnstone -7 factors of intelligence - word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. Acronym: 7 Stones, relative similar. S/E Strength - breakdown seems intuitive. Ex. Possible to have high Inductive skills is possible w/o high verbal comprehension. Prob Problem - how come scores vary together statistically (which suggests underlying intelligence factor) -limited in what it considers to be intelligence

Modified semantic network

People verify pig is animal takes longer than pig is mammal. Therefore proposed modified semantic network. o Rather than hierarchical, says every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. o Means all ideas in head are connected together. When you activate one concept, you pull related concepts with it. Called spreading activation. (Can explain false memories, or remembering wrong but related info).

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Theorist Summary Strength/evidence Problems

Robert Sternberg 3 independent intelligence; based on real world success - analytical (problem solving ability), creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. Acronym: 3 iceBERGS S/E Reliable—easy to study by research. Prob Research shows that scores of all intelligences vary together. Are these 3 sides of the same coin?

Methods for problem solving

Trial and error Algorithm Heuristics -Means end analysis - Working backwards Fixation

Decision making

We make a judgement of the desirability/probability of a certain outcome • You use heuristic - a mental shortcut to make a decision, a quick decision rule/rule of thumb. Lots of kinds of heuristics used for decision making. Help us make decisions. o Ex.. What has a higher risk- Shark attack vs firework accident?

Lewis Terman

a Psychologist of Stanford University furthered/modified Binet's Intelligence test and also incorporated teenagers and adults. This was named the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. Terman noted that Binet's test was not predictive of US children. The Stanford-Binet test started being used to measure intelligence of immigrants (which was a huge problem -the test tested language ability which presented a clear issue, a language barrier) o Now, intelligence tests are being designed to make them more applicable to all cultures.

Representatives heuristic

a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match prototype - a given concept to what is typical/representative. o Ex: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they don't know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist).

Means end analysis

a heuristic where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems. We then attack the problem that has the most difference between current state and goal state. Solve Biggest → Smallest Problem. Current State → Goal State. Ex. Planning a trip to a new country, biggest problem would be to get to the new country - so you book a plane ticket to a new country.

Confirmation bias

actively seek out only confirming facts. Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful candidate was.

3 types of intelligence

analytical intelligence (Academic abilities - to solve well defined problems), creative intelligence (ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt) and practical intelligence (solve ill-defined problems, such as how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase) - proposed by Robert Sternburg.

Semantic networks

concepts are organized in mind in terms of connected ideas. Parallel to how info might be stored in a computer. Links can be shorter for closely related ideas, or longer for less related ideas. Concepts are represented by nodes. • First semantic network model was hierarchical - higher order to lower order categories. o Ex. Animal -> bird -> ostrich. o More specific characteristics like sings, long legs, stored at lower nodes. Can breathe at higher nodes. o Longer it takes us to verify connection between nodes longer it takes for us to make that link.

Overconfidence

ex. Going into test without knowing a lot of info. Could be due to fluency (ease of processing) during studying. Ex. Can happen in a test if you never tested yourself to see if you really knew the answers. Can overestimate ability to produce answers when you need too. Can also experience overconfidence in an argument.

fluid intelligence

fluid and crystallized intelligence. o Fluid Intelligence - is ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems. • fluid intelligence is the ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable, and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning. • Cattell defined fluid intelligence as: in novel situations, the ability to recognize and reason relationships between objects or ideas independent of previous experience. • Fluid intelligence helps one see patterns, organize and identify feature and spatial relationships to solve complex problems.

Binet's idea of mental age

how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years. • Convergent intelligence was proposed by Guilford to describe IQ test related intelligence, such as puzzles, vocabulary words, and arithmetic.

Assimilation

how we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas. Acronym: assimilation has "ss" - same schema

Accommodation

how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences -to remember. Acronym: accommodation has "cc" for change or create o Example given in video - imagine a box (our schema) with 3 holes that fits 3 different shapes - circle, triangle, square. They all fit perfectly. But what if we have a star. We can either make another star shaped hole in our box for the star to fit to assimilate it OR we accommodate by making a whole new schema for it

Framing effects

how you present the decision can affect decisions as well. o Ex. Disease that will kill 600 people, option A is 100% chance exactly 200 people saved, option B 30% chance all 600 saved and 2/3rd chance 0 will be saved. Which option do you pick? OR A. 100% chance 400 die B. 1/3 chance no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 die. o In first example, most people will pick A. In second, most pick B. o If choice is framed based on how many people will be saved, you more likely pick it. If choice framed based on how many people die and have an option that no one dies. You chose an option based on how its framed despite the choices being the exact same. • These factors that impact decisions (heuristics, biases, and framing) show us that our decisions are not as black and white or consistent as we think they are.

Belief perseverance

ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex. During elections learned about and then ignore facts about someone you like.

Schemas

mental models - Frameworks for us organize and interpret new information. Piaget belief of cognitive development was in the development of schemas. To develop these, you need to be able to grow/change them - which happens through assimilation and accommodations.

Heuristics

mental shortcut that allows us to find solution quicker than other 2, Reduces the # of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities. Don't guarantee a correct solution, but they do simply complex problems and reduce total # of solutions we will try in order to get to a more manageable #. Ex. Focusing on one category of solutions OR guessing a PW that contains your birthday.

Research suggests there is one theory of general intelligence

o Does the word intelligence even hold meaning? Everything doesn't need to be an intelligence. Maybe intelligence doesn't hold meaning. It doesn't matter if the musicians are labeled as having a "high musical talent/ability" or a "high musical intelligence" - it is still wonderful to listen to. o Perhaps there is just one general underlying intelligence just like one general athleticism. Varying parts of athleticism can vary, but people who tend to be good at one sport tend to be good at another. Same can be true of intelligence.

General intelligence-spearman

o Evidence comes from fact people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of test, ex. Verbal and math skills. relative to other people, you tend to equal in both skills, although relative to oneself they might be different o Factor underlying these consistent abilities is called g factor (acronym: g = general intelligence)

Sternburg's proposal

o IQ score measures only analytical intelligence. Scales are scored so average person score is 100. Depending on where you are in relation to 100 - it effects where you are at large. o Standard Deviation = 15. o High analytical intelligence = tend to do better at school. o Those who have high IQ, creative, and/or practical intelligence do not tend to have better marriages, achieve greater physical/mental wellbeing/raise their kids better

Problems

o Well-defined Problems: clear starting and ending point. A well-defined problem has clear criteria that describe whether or not the goal has been achieved.- ex. how to turn light that is currently dark • Ill-defined - More ambiguous starting and/or ending point. An ill-defined problem does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant information to solve the problem.- ex. how to live a happy life. Can still solve ill-defined problems solve but don't know outcome.

Availability vs representitiveness heuristic

o availability = actual memories in mind, o representativeness = not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype of idea (general typical concept) • Anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic requires a person to create a set point or anchor. The answer is adjusted based on comparing new information to the anchor

Crystallized intelligence

refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. • Fluid intelligence tends to decrease as we move into older adulthood, while crystalized increases or stays same. • Cattell defined crystallized intelligence as the ability to retrieve and acquire knowledge • Crystallized intelligence is based on fact, experience, prior learning and accumulates as one ages.

Trial + error

take random guesses till something finally work. Not efficient. Ex. like trying to remember passwords for email you haven't accessed in a while. Know PW is 8 characters but don't remember what it is. If you are trying trial/error you guess any random combination and you don't even keep track of what you have already guessed. You could get lucky and hit pw early or it could take a long time.

Biases

that prevent us from making correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made 1.overconfidence 2. belief perseverance 3.confirmation bias Framing effects

Availability heuristic

using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don't match real state of the world. o The availability heuristic is a decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples. o Ex. More shark attacks on news so you think a shark attack = more fatal. But, firework accidents are more fatal (have a higher risk) but are less available (less publicized).

Conjunction fallacy

which means co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one. People tend to think the probability of 2 events occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone (ex. Linda being a bank teller and feminist is greater than just being a bank teller. However statistically speaking there are more bank tellers than feminist bank tellers so it's more likely she is just a bank teller than a feminist+bankteller, which your instincts might be telling you). o When a decision's probability is judged based on how similar or representative the aspect is to a specific person, group, or population and the degree that it reflects the features of the population as a whole, this is described as the use of a representativeness heuristic.

Cognitive Stability as you age

• -Implicit Memory (riding bike) • -Recognition memory

Cognitive Declines as you age

• -Recall • -Episodic memory • -Processing speed • -Divided Attention

Emotional intelligence

• Another psychologist proposed emotional intelligence -perceive, understand, and manage and use emotions in interactions with others.

Fixed vs growth mindset

• Attitude towards intelligence is important perhaps. Some people have a fixed mindset (intelligence is biologically set and unchanging), and others have growth mindset (intelligence is changeable if you learn more). Those with growth mindset accomplish more in careers. o Fixed Mindset: Praise that reinforces a fixed mindset describes characteristics and actions as innate and unchangeable. o A growth mindset praises effort, perseverance, improvement, and strategies rather than the end result. Eg. "You worked really hard on your assignment"

Development

• Development moves along in a state of equilibrium as we assimilate and/or accommodate new info we come across. Most information we encounter, we can assimilate and be back at a state of equilibrium. Information → assimilation → equilibrium. But, sometimes assimilation can't cause us to come into equilibrium and we engage in accommodation when the information we receive cannot be assimilated (information → accommodation → equilibrium) to reach equilibrium again. You gain a new schema.

Problem solving

• Examples of problems: how do you decide who to marry, best route to your new job, how do you satisfy your growling stomach • Problem Solving: moving from a current state to a goal state. This is called solving a problem. o Can be something as simple as starting a youtube video • We are excellent problem solvers.

Cognitive improvements

• Geneeral Information: • -Semantic memory (improves until 60years) (verbal skills) • -Crystallized intelligence (use knowledge and experience) (using reading comprehension to test) • -Emotional reasoning

Theories of intelligence

• Many theories on what intelligence is and how to define it. • Debate: Is there one intelligence or multiple intelligences (intelligence has multiple aspects) • Theories of Intelligence: [Acronym: ST[A]G[E]S of Intelligence - Spearman, Thurnstone, Gardner, Sternberg. In order from General (1) → Multiple Mental Abilities (7) to Multiple Intelligence 7-9, to Triarchic Multiple Intelligence (revamped Multiple Intelligence to 3)]

Piaget

• Piaget argued children weren't miniature adults. Believed they actively construct their understanding of world as they grow. As their bodies grow, their minds grow as well.

Schemas, assimilation, accommodation

• Piaget, all of us including young children are trying to understand/make sense of the world around us via schemas.

Intelligence

• What is intelligence? A mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations. Intelligence tests use numerical scores to measure aptitude for those tasks and compare them to how well others do.