Cognitive Neuropsych
What type of symptoms do atypical antipsychotics also treat (or be less likely to worsen)?
"Negative" symptoms - apathy, blunted affect, social withdrawal, anhedonia
What type of symptoms do all antipsychotics treat?
"Positive" symptoms - hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder
Forebrain
- Integrates sensation emotion and memory
What are features of the typical (1st generation) antipsychotics?
- Older
The somatic nervous system: transmitting information
- The somatic nervous system (SNS) is monitored and controlled by the CNS
Summary of the order of action for synapses
- electrical signals travel to the end of the presynaptic neuron
Function of the cerebellum
-Coordination of movement: equilibrium, gross/fine motor movement, voluntary motor movement
Which imaging method measures the white matter connectivity between regions?
-DTI
Gray Matter
-On surface of brain (cortex)
Which of the following techniques measures changes in blood flow directly?
-PET
Functions of the cortex
-Personality
Orienting attention according to one's goals is referred to as which type of orienting?
-endogenous
Wilder Penfield stimulated the brains of patients undergoing brain surgery for which neurological disorder?
-epilepsy
Silently mouthing irrelevant words while performing a memory task is thought to impair which of Baddeley's components of working memory?
-phonological loop
Descartes suggested that the mind and body interacted at which gland, located at the center of the brain?
-pineal
The part of the brain thought of as the main sensory relay for most senses is called the:
-thalamus
Name the lobes of the cerebellum.
1. Flocculonodular Lobe
Diffirent lobes of the cortex
1. Frontal Lobe 2. Parietal Lobe 3. Temporal Lobe 4. Brain Stem 5. Cerebellum 6. Occipital Lobe.
Associated Functions of the Brain Stem
1. Homeostasis by controlling autnomic functions that include: Blood pressure, breathing, disgestion, heart rate, perspiration, and temperature. 2. Alertness 3. Sleep 4. Balance 5. Startle response.
What substructures does the brain stem consist of?
1. Medulla oblongate 2. Midbrain 3. Pons
Name the three structures that make up the brainstem.
1. Midbrain
Associated with damage to the brain stem:
1. Organ failure 2. Sleep disorders - such as insomnia and sleep disorders. 3. Difficulties in balancing and moving.
What are the three specific functions of the nervous system?
1. Receive sensory input
Name the three cerebellar peduncles.
1. Superior cerebellar peduncle
What is the therapeutic range of lithium serum levels for acute treatment?
1.0 - 1.2 mEq/L
Process of synaptic transmission
1.Neurotransmittors are carried from axon terminal to dendrite vis synaptic vesicles, which fuse to membrane and release transmitters
When are lithium serum levels drawn?
10 - 12 hours after last dose
around how many neutrons are in the human nervous system and what percentage of those are in the brain?
100 billion with 80% in the brain
How many people did Penfield study, over what period of time?
1000 cases over 30 years
What is the half life of duloxetine?
12 hours
How many cerebral hemispheres does the cerebrum have?
2
How many hemispheres does the brain have?
2
What is the average half life of lithium?
20 - 24 hours
What does long-term memory include?
Semantic memory (numbers, words, etc.) and episodic memory (persons, events, etc.)
De betekenis van woorden gaat verloren
Semantische anomie
Neurodegeneratieve ziekte die het semantische geheugen globaal en selectief aantast gelinkt aan atrofie van de temporele lobben of schade aan de amodale hub
Semantische dementie
What do the ascending tracts from lower brain centers do?
Send sensory information up to the primary somatosensory area
What takes place in the cerebrum?
Sensation, reasoning, learning and memory, and language and speech
Why do tertiary TCAs have so many side effects?
Side chains cross-react with other receptors leading to more side effects.
What does the Central Nervous System consist of?
Spinal cord and brain
- Spinal cord segments can operate together to direct complex coordinated movements
Spinal nerves
Problemen met het doelbewust uitspreken van klanken, woorden en zinnen door schade aan de insula en basale ganglia maar niet aan Broca's gebied
Spraakapraxia
Dysarthia
Spraakproductiestoornis door een neurologisch letsel aan het motor component of het motor spraak systeem gekenmerkt door een slechte articulatie van fonemen
Verbale dyspraxia
Spraakproductiestoornis waarbij er moeite is bij het plannen van de articulatie van woorden
What does serotonin do to prolactin release?
Stimulates
How do you manage NMS?
Stop medication!
- Because the brain's connections are crossed stroke in the left hemisphere affects sensation and movement on the right Side of the body
Stroke
- because the brains connections are crossed stroke in the left hemisphere affects sensation and movement on the right side of the body
Stroke
corpus callosum
Structure that consists of a large bundle of fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain. Each hemisphere controls movement in the opposite (contralateral) side of the body and can also specialize in performing specific cognitive and perceptual functions. It allows information to move between hemispheres and is therefore a very important integrative structure.
Affordances
Structurele kenmerken van objecten die een bepaald gebruik impliceren. Koppelen sensorische en motorische eigenschappen van een bepaald object onafhankelijk van het conventioneel gebruik
Syntax
Structuur en volgorde van een zin
What is the basal ganglia?
Subcortical interconnected group of nuclei
A groove in brain matter usually found in the neocortex or cerebellum
Sulcus (pl.sulci)
entorhinal cortex
Supports semantic memory acquisition
Anterior middle and posterior cerebral arteries
Surface blood vessels
Psuedo en regelmatige woorden beter dan onregelmatige woorden door schade aan de lexicaal semantische route
Surface dyslexie
Task resource artefact
Taak A gebruikt neuronale bron meer dan Taak B en wordt dus meer beïnvloed bij schade aan die neuronale bron
Task demand artefact
Taak aangetast door slechte prestatie van de proefpersoon
What do sensory neurons do?
Take information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system
What do motor neurons do?
Take information from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands), which carry out responses
Resting state paradigm
Techniek om functionele connectiviteit te meten door correlatie tussen gebieden te beoordelen als de persoon geen taak uitvoert
Hypothalamus
Temperature regulation eating drinking and sexual behaviour
Where are higher areas of central visual stream?
Temporal Lobe
Where is Wernicke's area, speech comprehension?
Temporal Lobe
Where is the Primary auditory cortex (A1)?
Temporal Lobe
What did Penfield conclude about the temporal lobe?
Temporal lobe must have a role in storing memories of previous events. These memories are stored in two different ways: the facts of the event and the meaning of the facts. Interpretive cortex is area that stores information on feelings
- Integrative functions
Thalamus
Which projection neurons do NOT use GABA?
Thalamus
- Related disorders -> Parkinson disease and Tourette syndrome
The Basal Ganglia
- Produces orienting movements (eg.. turning head to see source of sound
The Brainstem: Midbrain
the CNS, somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system
The CNS and the PNS constitute an interacting 4 part system
- Frontal: motor and executive functions
The Cortical lobes
The Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland by releasing *hormones*, specialized chemicals that help to regulate other glands in the body. It also controls so-called homeostatic behaviours, such as eating, drinking, temperature control, sleeping, sexual behaviours, and emotional reactions.
The Thalamus
The Thalamus is yet another example structure for relaying information, especially to the *cerebral cortex*. It is a switching station for sensory information and is also involved in memory.
What is the importance of the refractory period in an action potential?
The action potential occurs in each successive portion of an axon. A refractory period ensures that the action potential will not move backward. In myelinated fibers, the action potential only occurs at the nodes of Ranvier, jumping from one node to another. This is called salutatory conduction.
What is the myelin sheath?
A layer of fatty tissue that forms around nerves, protecting them
The neural crest gives rise to the
PNS, Peripheral Nervous System
Besides depression, what are TCAs used to treat?
Pain (neuropathy, migraine, fibromyalgia)
Functions of the Cingulate Gyrus
Pain processing, emotion, memory, and self-regulation.
Which nucleus is NOT part of the striatum?
Pallidum
Type afasie met problemen in het weglaten of vervangen van woorden
Parafasie
Cohortmodel
Parallelle verwerking van alle mogelijke kandidaten van woorden tot op het uniqueness point
What are the results if the spinal cord is severed in the thoracic area?
Paraplegia
- Reverses the fight or flight response
Parasympathetic system
Where are the higher areas of dorsal visual stream?
Parietal Lobe
Where is the Primary Somatosensory Cortex (S1)?
Parietal Lobe
Loss of nigral dopamine neurons
Parkinson
Marche a petits pas, or festinating gait
Parkinson
Micrographia, decreasing amplitude and slowing rate when handwirting
Parkinson
Tremor while resting
Parkinson
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Can be used to detect different states of consciousness. Mental electrodes are positioned all over the scalp. The waveforms record changes in predictable ways when the person being recorded is awake and alert, drowsy, asleep, or in a coma. EEGs provide the clinician or researcher with a continuous measure of brain activity.
Describe the procedure of Penfield's research.
Operated on people with severe epilepsy. His technique meant the conscious brain was exposed and areas could be electrically stimulated. Patients reported thoughts and sensations.
Separates frontal and parietal lobes
Central Sulcus
Verstoringen in het vertalen van geschreven woorden naar spraak
Centrale dyslexie
What structure connects the pons to the cerebellum?
Cerebellar peduncles
Involved in the coordination of motor and possibly other mental processes
Cerebellum: "little brain"
What structure connects the midbrain to the cerebrum?
Cerebral peduncles
- Meningitis -> infection of the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Cerebrospinal fluid
CSF may allow certain compounds access to the brain and probably helps the brain exert metabolic wastes
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Burrowing under wood shavings
Cerebrum
Major structure of the forebrain consisting of two virtually identical left an right hemispheres
Cerebrum
Moving to the cooler part of the cage
Cerebrum
What are examples of Typical (1st generation) antipsychotics?
Chlorpromazine
Which typical antipsychotic agent has the highest alpha blockade, muscarinic anticholinergic and sedation side effects?
Chlorpromazine
Which typical antipsychotic has the lowest potency, lowest relative D2 blockade and the lowest EPS?
Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
Separates allocortex and neocortex
Cingulate Sulcus
Which SSRIs are metabolized by CYP2D6?
Citalopram
Which TCA is used in treatment of OCD?
Clomipramine
Which atypical antipsychotics have the most anticholinergic side effects?
Clozapine
What do you monitor when a pt takes clozapine?
Clozaril registry
Motor programma's
Opgeslagen routines die bepaalde motorische parameters van een handeling specificeren
Onvermogen om objecten te manipuleren door schade aan de dorsale route
Optische ataxie
Connects left and right hemispheres
Corpus Callosum
Fiber system connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
Corpus callosum
What are cerebral hemispheres connected by?
Corpus callosum
Hemianopia
Corticale blindheid aan een helft van het visuele veld
What are the side effects of MAOIs?
Orthostatic hypotension
somatosensory
Our sense of touch, temperature and pain.
Name two well-known neurotransmitters.
Acetylcholine (ACh) and Norepinephrine (NE)
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh), Norepinephrine(NE), Dopamine (DA), Seretonin (5HT), Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)
Woordherkenning
Activeert de bilaterale gebieden van de visuele cortex en het occipitotemporale kruispunt
Verb generation
Activeert de linker frontale gyrus
Spraak productie
Activeert de sensomotorische cortex
What are Extrapyramidal Symptoms?
Parkinsonian symptoms (characteristic symptoms such as rigidity)
hypothalamus - Casestudy
Patient with severe self-mutilating behavior that followed traumatic brain injury. The patient's medical team used deep brain stimulation of the hypothalamus to successfully treat these symptoms.
- Controls important movements of the body
Pons ("bridge")
What do the severity of side effects of typical antipsychotics depend on?
Potency of the drug
What is the mechanism of action of mirtazapine?
Potent antagonist of histamine-1 receptors, which adds to sedative and appetite enhancing properties.
Facts about NMS
Potentially fatal side effect of DA receptor antagonists
Additive factors method van Sternberg
Ppn krijgen een lijst met 1,2 of 4 getallen om te onthouden gevolgd door een numerische beslissingstaak. De taak wordt opgedeeld in afzonderlijke en onafhankelijke fases: coderen, vergelijken, beslissen en reageren. Sternberg stelt dat als 2 variabelen verwerkingsstadia beïnvloeden, ze een optellend effect hebben op de RT maar als ze dezelfde stadium beïnvloeden hebben ze een interactief effect
What is meant by the 'Montreal procedure'?
Precisely target which neurons to destroy in order to reduce seizures
Event related designs
Presenteert stimuli uit meerdere condities random of tezamen
Blocked design
Presenteert stimuli uit één conditie sequentieel
What is an interesting side effect of trazodone?
Priapism in males
What is the MOA of secondary TCAs?
Primarily block norepinephrine
- The behaviour that the brain produces is directly related to the world that the brain has constructed
Principle 1
- Some neuron excite others whereas other neurons inhibit
Principle 10
- Infor is stored in the nervous stem only if neural connections change
Principle 2
- Each hemisphere receives sensory stimulation from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body and controls muscles on the contralateral side as well
Principle 3
- Language is usually on the left side and spatial functions are usually on the right
Principle 5
- CNS comprises multiple levels of function these levels must be extensively interconnected to integrate their processing and produce unified perceptions or movements
Principle 6
- Sensory and motor divisions in the central nervous system (CNS)
Principle 7
- Animals with a complex Brain evolved separate systems for producing movement toward objects and for recognizing them
Principle 8
- A small injury could impair some aspect of language functioning but it would take a widespread injury to remove all language abilities
Principle 9
- Each new addition to the CNS has added a new level of behavioural complexity without discarding previous levels of control
Principle. 4
What are some determining factors for a positive lithium response?
Prior response
What are the three parts of a neuron?
Dendrites, cell body, axon
What is duloxetine approved for the treatment of?
Depression
The Cerebrum
Derived from the latin word for brain, the largest structure in the brain. It consists of a layer called the *cerebral cortex*, consisting of about a half-dozen layers of neurons with white matter beneath, which carries information between the cortex and the thalamus, or between different parts of the cortex.
Cognitive disorders associated with the brain
Emotion processing, therefore numerous disorders, such as autism, bipolar disorder, depression, ocd, and ptsd
Social referencing
Emotionele reactie van anderen die kan leiden tot ontwijking/interactie met een voorheen neutrale stimulus
What is the function of the limbic system?
Emotions
Which medications needs to be avoided if pt is taking MAOIs?
Ephedrine, pseudoephedrine
Tremor during active movement
Essential tremor
What causes increased serum lithium levels?
Excessive dose (duh)
Problemen om de betekenis van objecten te begrijpen door een verstoring aan het semantisch geheugen door schade aan de inferotemporale cortex. Patiënten kunnen tekeningen wel zien maar afbeeldingen niet benoemen of opslaan
Associatieve agnosie
Fonologische mediatie
Assumptie dat toegang tot het gesproken vorm van het woord noodzakelijk is voor het begrijpen van visueel gepresenteerde woorden
Star-shaped neuroglia recycling transmitters L-glutamic acid and GABA
Astrocyte
Which type of antipsychotics are also used to treat mania and maintenance in bipolar disorder?
Atypical antipsychotics
Pure word deafness
Auditieve agnosie waarbij men omgevingsgeluiden en muziek kunnen herkennen maar niet spraak door schade aan de linker hemisfeer
The connection between neurons
Axon
The roof plate secretes______
BMP. Bone Morphogen Protein
Outputs via the internal segment of globus pallidus (GPi)
BOTH INDIRECT AND DIRECT
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
Balance and coordination
After a motor pattern is learned in the cortex, what structure is responsible for controlling it?
Basal Ganglia
Modulariteit
Bepaalde cognitieve processen/hersengebieden zijn beperkt in het soort informatie die ze kunnen verwerken. Ze zijn snel, efficiënt en geïsoleerd. Dit wordt mogelijk opgenomen in de genetische code
Fonologische loop
Bestaat uit de fonologische opslag en een herhalingsmechanisme gebaseerd op subvocale articulatie die de opslag vernieuwt
Associatieve agnosie
Betekenis van objecten niet begrijpen door verstoring aan het semantisch geheugen. Patiënt kan afbeelding niet benoemen of in het geheugen opslaan maar wel tekeningen erover maken. Dit komt voor door schade aan de (linker) inferotemporale cortex
Apperceptieve agnosie
Betekenis van objecten niet kunnen begrijpen door verstoring in object perceptie. Patiënt kan onderdelen wel benoemen maar niet integreren tot één visueel beeld. Dit ontstaat door schade aan de (rechter) pariëtale hemisfeer of de occipitale kwab
Fonologische dysgrafie
Beter in het spellen van echte woorden dan psuedo woorden door schade aan de foneem-grafeem conversie of problemen met de fonologische segmentatie
What is the MOA of MAOIs?
Bind irreversibly to monoamine oxidase and prevent inactivation of biogenic amines such as NE, DA, serotonin, leading to increased synaptic levels.
What is the cause of tardive dyskinesia?
Blockade of D2 receptors in the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway cause them to upregulate (hypersensitivity) --> tardive dyskinesia
What are the spinal cord and brain protected by?
Bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid
What is the tissue distribution of MAO-As?
Brain
What is the tissue distribution of MAO-Bs?
Brain
- receives afferent nerves coming from sense and sends efferent nerves out of control
Brain Stem
What does the central nervous system consist of?
Brain and spinal cord
Brain-Imaging Techniques and recoding techniques Acronyms
Brain imaging and recording techniques certainly include a lot of acronyms! How can the notice keep them all straight? One way to do so to categorize the techniques according to the kind of information they provide. CAT and MRI scans yield neuroanatomical information. PET, SPECT, and fMRI provide dynamic information about how blood flows during various cognitive activities.
Brain Lesions in the Cerebellum
Brain lesions in the cerebellum can cause irregular and jerky movements, tremors, and impairment in balance and of gait.
Central structures of the brain including the hindbrain midbrain thalamus and hypothalamus responsible for most unconscious behaviour
Brainstem
With regard to processing centers of the brain, what is the significance of Broca's area and Wernicke's area?
Broca's area and Wernicke's area are involved with understanding the written and spoken word and with speaking and writing.
What are the atypical antidepressants?
Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban)
Which dopaminergic pathway leads to anti-emetic effects?
CTZ of medulla
Which CYP enzymes metabolize duloxetine?
CYP1A2
What 2 things happened if Penfield stimulated the temporal lobe?
Experiences- felt as if they were reliving events. Were clear and vivid, but the patient was also aware of everything that was actually there around them
Geen aandacht voor een stimulus in aanwezigheid van concurrerende stimuli door schade aan de posterieure pariëtale lob
Extinction
medulla oblongata
F: Carries out and regulates life sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing and heart rate.
pons
F: breathing rate, taste and ANS functions
spinal cord
F: conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and autonomic) to the brain
carpus callosum
F: connects right and left hemispheres and allow info to pass b/t them
prefrontal cortex
F: executive process, attention, inhibition, intelligence and social skills
Voxel based morphometry
Een computationele benadering van neuroanatomie die verschillen in lokale concentraties van hersenweefsel meet via voxelgewijze vergelijkingen van verschillende hersenbeelden
Scotama
Een kleine regio van corticale blindheid
Computationele en connectivistische cognitieve modellen
Een parallel, gedistribueerd neuraal netwerk samengesteld uit nodes (eenvoudige informatie eenheden die reageren op specifieke stimuli sets)
Cognitive conjunction
Een set van taken met een gedeeld component wordt geïdentificeerd en gaat op zoek naar actieve regio's over substracties heen
Werkgeheugen
Een systeem voor de tijdelijke opslag en manipulatie van informatie
Afasie
Een verworven taalstoornis door een hersenletsel waarbij het begrijpen en uiten van gesproken en geschreven taal verstoort wordt
Sensatie
Effect van een stimulus op de sensorische organen
frontal lobe
F: executive processes (vol. bx such as decision making, planning, problem solving and thinking), voluntary motor control, cognition, intelligence, attention, lang processing and comprehension.
Hypothalamus (Finction)
F: hunger, thirst, body temp, sex activity, arousal, parenting, sweat, bp, hr, shivering, pupil dilation, circadian rhythms, sleep. Which of these functions are autonomic function How does it regulate this function: integrates a range of information from different parts of the brain, and is responsive to the following stimuli: (1) Light (think the regulation of sleep and Melatonin), (2) Odors (think pheromones - sex); think stress (which hormone again); arousal (hypothalamic neurons release oxytocin directly into the blood stream). How does the hypothalamus relate to parenting behaviour?
Broca's area
F: lang production, comprehension of complex syntax
Wernicke's area
F: language comphresion
basal ganglia
F: movement regulation, skill learning, habit formation, reward systems
cingulate gyrus
F: pain processing, emotion, memory, self-regulation
Amygdala
F: processes fear and emotion, learning. fight or flight. reward
thalamus
F: relaying motor and sensory info, memory, alertness, consciousness, contributes to perception and cognition
occipital lobe
F: vision
cerebellum
F: voluntary movement, motor learning, balance, reflex memory, posture, timing, sequence learning
Chorea has a premonitory urge and sense of relief on completion
FALSE
Chorea has stereotyped, repeated movements
FALSE
Dendritic spines are found only on dendrites of glutaminergic neurons
FALSE
Dendritic spines are presynaptic compartments
FALSE
Dopamine is optically active
FALSE
Knowing that reserpine depletes dopamine from synaptic vesicles, this drug should improve movement in Parkinson's disease
FALSE
L-DOPA acts on dopamine receptors in Parkinson's disease
FALSE
Nodes of Ranvier on myelinated axons are sites of synaptic excitation
FALSE
Sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia are part of the central nervous system
FALSE
The diameter of axons tapers going away from the neuron cell body
FALSE
NMS mnemonic
FALTER
What are the symptoms of serotonin syndrome?
Fever
In which main lobe is the primary motor cortex situated?
Frontal Lobe (Picture is Frontal Lobe)
Review Question: Describe the functions of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex.
Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
Ongeremd of oncontroleerbaar gedrag door hersenschade aan frontale lobben door herseninfarct of tumor
Frontal lobe syndrome
Onvermogen om routine handelingen uit te voeren door schade aan de frontale lobben. Er is nog steeds een intacte objectherkenning en gebruik van geïsoleerde objecten
Frontale apraxie
Lateralization
Functional differences between the two cerebral hemispheres. (E.g., in most right-handers, the left hemisphere is specialized for language, while the right hemisphere is better at some visual and spatial tasks.)
Cortical site of face agnosia
Fusiform face area
Enzyme that degrades GABA
GABA transaminase
What are side effects of blocking 5-hT reuptake?
GI distress
Receptief veld
Gebied dat een respons stimuleert van een neuron
Functionele specialisatie
Gebied reageert op een beperkt aantal stimuli
V4
Gebied van de extrastriate cortex geassocieerd met kleur perceptie
Information processing theorie van Broadbent
Gedrag beschrijven als een volgorde van cognitieve stadia: perceptuele processen --> aandachtsprocessen --> KTG --> LTG.
Fusiform face area
Gelegen in de inferieure temporale lob, reageert meer op gezichten dan andere visuele objecten
Parafasie
Gelinkt aan afasie gekenmerkt door het weglaten of vervangen van woorden
Articulatorische suppressie
Geluidloos woorden vormen terwijl een andere taak wordt uitgevoerd
What cognitive disorders are linked to the Basal Ganglia?
Generally, it is associated with movement disorders such Parkinson's and Huntington's disease. In terms of cognitive disorders, basal ganglia abnormalities have been found in individuals with schizophrenia. This may explain the habit learning deficits associated with schizophrenia. It may also contribute to the neuropathology of depression, particularly in relation to the limbic system (Remember that the Amygdala is a part of the Limbic system).
Huntington
Genetische ziekte die de basale ganglia aantast en geassocieerd wordt met excessieve bewegingen (hyperkinetisch)
What are the 6 NT systems in the body?
Glutamatergic
Surface dysgrafie
Goed voor regelmatige en psuedo woorden maar slecht in onregelmatige woorden door schade aan de lexicaal semantische route
Color constancy
Golflengte in de retina is afhankelijk van de compositie van de lichtbron en de kleur van het object
Areas of the nervous system predominantly composed of cell bodies and blood vessels
Gray matter
Brainstem overview
Group of structures that lie deep within the brain and it includes the pons, medulla oblongata, and midbrain. These group of structures play a significant role in maintaining homeostasis by controlling autonomic functions such as: Breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. While the brain stem can organise motor movements such as relexes, it coordinates with the motor cortex and associated areas to contribute to fine movements of limbs and the face. In the Brain and Behaviour book it says the following - Brainstem is involved in receiving sensory signals and coordinating movement in response to these signals. Virtually controls all movements, accept more complex movements of the fingers and toes.
What are the effects of hyperprolactinemia?
Gynecomastia
A small protrusion o bump formed by the folding of the cerebral cortex
Gyrus (pl. gyri)
What are signs/symptoms of a noradrenergic (hypertensive) crisis?
HTN (>/= 20-30 point increase in BP)
Which antipsychotics inhibit the CYP2D6 pathway?
Haloperidol
Which two typical antipsychotics have high potency, high relative D2 blockade and high EPS?
Haloperidol
inability to move half of the body due to damage to the opposing side of the primary motor cortex
Hemiplegia
Het onvermogen om stimuli aan een kant van het lichaam of omgeving te percipiëren en verwerken. Dit is contralateraal aan het beschadigde hemisfeer
Hemispatial neglect
What are some notable side effects of valproic acid?
Hepatitis
Multiple demand netwerk
Hersengebieden in de laterale PFC en pariëtale gebieden die geactiveerd worden bij een brede reeks aan testen en mogelijks verbonden zijn aan vloeiende intelligentie
Integratieve agnosie
Het niet kunnen groeperen van onderdelen in gehelen in visuele perceptie. Patiënt kan nog tekeningen overtekeningen en objecten tekenen uit het geheugen maar niet beslissen of deze objecten echt zijn of ze kunnen benoemen. Sommige vormen van groepering en figuur achtergrond segmenteren vinden echter plaats in vroegere stadia van de visuele stroom
Akinetopsia
Het niet kunnen percipiëren van visuele beweging
Achromatopsia
Het niet kunnen zien van kleur (grijswaarden). Dit is niet gelijk aan kleurenblindheid (missen van bepaalde cone cells)
Temporal coding
Het tegelijk vuren van neuronen kan gebruikt worden door een groep neuronen om dezelfde prikkel te coderen
Pure insertion
Het toevoegen van een nieuw component aan een taak verandert de operaties van een andere taak niet
Are the side effects and risk of toxicity in TCAs high or low?
High
Is the first-pass effect of SSRI antidepressants high or low?
High
Is the plasma protein binding of SSRI antidepressants high or low?
High
What are the 5-HT receptor binding properties of atypical antipsychotics?
Highly variable across atypical agents.
Critics of Subtractive Logic and New Methods
In 2000, Daniel Bub at UVIC wrote a review of subtractive logic and other issues relating to fMRI, and proposed other methods of data analysis. Borowsky and colleagues (2005) at the University of Saskatchewan have applied a different statistical approach the subtractive logic to understanding how a brain processes information. As well, researchers at the Rotman Research Institute in Toronto have pioneered a new approach to understanding brain activation that does not involve the subtractive logic; rather it focuses on single brain regions active for a given cognitive task, a network analysis of brain regions whose activity co-varies across different tasks is conducted using multivariate statistics. Using these new methods of analysis of fMRI data, researchers are able to paint a clearer picture of how the human brain achieves cognitive processing-and capture just how dynamic the human brain really is, coordinating functions across different brain regions depending on the given environment, task constraints, and motivations at the time of processing information.
Brain Imaging Techniques
In Broca's day, neurologists had to wait until a patient had died to really investigate the structural features of his or her brain. In the early part of the 20th century, more information came from studies performed as patients underwent brain surgery-to remove a tumour or stop the spread of epilepsy, most commonly. Fortunately for people but unfortunately for science, ethical considerations precluded doing brain surgery on healthy people, which limited our understanding of how "normal" brains functioned. However, in the last four decades, technology has advanced to the point where neurologists and neuropsychologists can examine the functioning of normal brains using noninvasive means. We will briefly review some of these methods, known collectively as *brain imaging techniques*.
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
In addition, neuropsychologists have mapped out a second area of the brain, located in the parietal lobe just behind the motor cortex, known as the primary somatosensory cortex. Like the motor cortex, the primary somatosensory cortex is organized such that each part of it receives information from a specific part of the body. As with the motor cortex, the total amount of "brain real estate" devoted to a particular part of the body is not proportional to the size of that body part. In other words, a large region of the body, such as leg, corresponds to only a small portion of the primary somatosensory cortex. A more sensitive part, such as fingers or lips, has a correspondingly larger amount of cortex devoted to it.
somatosensory cortex
It is also known as the postcentral gyrus. It receives tactile information from the body. Sensory information is carried to the brain by neural pathways to the spinal cord, brainstem, and thalamus, which project to this region (which in turns has numerous connections with other brain areas). It integrates sensory information (e.g. touch, pressure, temperature, pain, and spatial attention), producing a "homonculus map," similar to that of the primary motor cortex.
Do typical antipsychotics increase or decrease prolactin release?
Increase by blocking dopamine
What is there a risk of at venlafaxine doses > 300 mg/d?
Increased BP
What are some factors that decrease lithium elimination?
Increased age
What happens to the levels of antipsychotics when used with antidepressants?
Increased levels
What are some notable side effects of clozapine?
Increased risk for DM, HLD
What does a high tyramine level do when a pt is on an MAOI?
Increases release of NE and the irreversible MAOI-A causes the MAO enzyme to stop destroying NE.
Anomische afasie
Individuen hebben problemen bij het ophalen van woorden en kunnen niet de juiste woorden uiten (zelfstandige naamwoorden en werkwoorden)
What does cigarette smoking do to the CYP1A2 pathway?
Induces it
Thalamus
Information from all sensory systems is integrated an projected into the appropriate region of the neocortex
Rate coding
Informationele inhoud van een neuron is mogelijk gerelateerd aan het aantal actiepotentialen per seconde
Contention scheduling
Inhibeert concurrerende schema's voor de controle van het cognitief systeem
What does dopamine do to prolactin release?
Inhibits it
What is trazodone primarily used for?
Insomnia
Where is Gustatory Area within the lateral sulcus?
Insular Lobe
Problemen om onderdelen te groeperen tot gehelen. Patiënten kunnen tekeningen overtekenen of tekenen uit het geheugen maar niet beslissen of ze echt zijn of niet kunnen benoemen. Men kan slechts een afbeelding tegelijk zien
Integratieve agnosie
What was the aim of Penfield's research?
Investigate patients responses when their brain electrically stimulated
Insula
Involved in disgust
Ventral medial PFC
Involved in making right/wrong judgements and emotional judgements
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)
Involved in pain perception
Right temporal lobe
Involved in perception of timbre
Superior Temporal Sulcus
Involved in speech perception
orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
Involved in subjective experience of reward
The Hippocampus
Involved in the formation of longterm memories, memory and emotion.
The Basal Ganglia
Involved in the production of motor behaviour.
What is an anti-tuberculosis agent found to have antidepressant properties?
Iproniazid
The Right Hemisphere
Is the left hemisphere is dominant for language, then what role does the right hemisphere play? Structurally, the right hemisphere often has larger parietal and temporal lobe areas, and it is speculated that it leads to better integration pf visual and auditory information and better spatial processing by the right than the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere is associated with working on geometric puzzles, navigation around familiar spaces, and even musical ability.
Basal nuclei
Islands of gray matter buried within the white matter
primary motor cortex
It is also known as M1. It is critical to initiating motor movements. Areas of this region correspond precisely to specific body parts. For example, leg movements map to the part of this region closest to the midline. Not all body parts are equally represented by surface area or cell density. Representations in this region can become relatively large or small with practice/training.
The hypothalamus is related to which cognitive disorders?
It is strongly related to: 1) depression 2) bipolar disorder 3) schizophrenia. If you drink antidepressants what does it do the HPA Axis? :
cerebellum
It monitors and regulates motor behavior, particularly autonomic movements. Some recent studies have associated it with cognitive functions, such as learning and attention. Although it accounts for roughly 10% of the total brain weight, it contains more neurons than the rest of the brain combined. It is also one of the few mammalian brain structures where adult neurogenesis (the development of new neurons) has been confirmed.
What are the functions of the midbrain?
Reflexive behavior dealing with:
Gyri (gyrus)
Large folds of tissue covering the surface of the cerebrum
What is the cerebrum of the brain?
Largest portion of the brain
Why are mixed results in later research a weakness of the study?
Later research did not support original findings. Only 40 of 520 ppts reported vivid memories when temporal lobe stimulated. Suggests interpretive cortex does not always respond in the same way
Phrenology
Later, Gall's student Johan Spurzheim carried on Gall's techniques, developing the study of Phrenology, a now discredited idea that psychological strengths and weaknesses could be precisely correlated to the relative sizes of different brain areas.
Separates temporal from other lobes
Lateral Sulcus
First-order thalamic visual relay
Lateral geniculate nucleus
Extinction learning
Leren dat een voorheen belonende stimulus niet langer belonend is
Pure alexia
Letter per letter lezen
Autopagnosia
Lichaamsdelen niet kunnen benoemen (conceptuele fout)
Where is the Border of Cerebral Cortex?
Limbic Lobe
Which medication for bipolar disorder is there the best evidence of mood stabilizing effect?
Lithium
Limbic system
Regulates emotions and behaviours that store and require memory
Where does the spinal cord extend from?
The base of the brain
Neocortex (cerebral cortex)
Regulates various mental activities
A1
Located in Heschel's gyrus, functions to segregate auditory streams
What are characteristics of a sensory neuron?
Long dendrites and short axons and they carry messages from the PNS to the CNS
The Structure of the Brain
Many different structures make up the human brain. These are the easiest to learn about if we group structure in some way. We'll begin with *phylogenetic division*. The figure shows the various structures of the adult brain, including the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. In our brief discussion, we will focus specifically on the *cerebral cortex, a part of the forebrain*. However, it is worth talking briefly about the midbrain and hindbrain first.
Karl Lashley and Brain Ablation
Many neuroscientists subscribe to the principle that higher-order cognitive processes are too complicated and interconnected to be localized to any one region. This view drew support from the work of Karl Lashley, who performed several landmark studies in neuroscience, studying the effects of *brain ablation* (removal of parts of the brain) on the maze-running abilities of rats. Lashley, reported that impairment in maze running was related to the total amount of cortex removed, and not to which specific area was removed. Thus mapping cognitive functions to underlying brain regions is a complicated matter as the brain is dynamic. While basic cognitive functions seem to rely on particular brain regions, some more complex cognitive functions likely rely on a combination of regions that must interact to produce function.
Mirroring
Mate waarin we anderen begrijpen via simulatie van emotionele, motorische en lichamelijke bewegingen
What are some tyramine containing foods that should be avoided when taking MAOIs?
Matured or aged cheeses
Which medications are used for episode prophylaxis in bipolar disorder?
Medications with "mood stabilizing properties" to minimize or prevent further episodes:
-> control of breathing and heart rate
Medulla
Structural imaging
Meet de spatiale configuratie van hersenweefsel
Functional imaging
Meet tijdelijke veranderingen in hersenfysiologie gerelateerd aan cognitieve veranderingen
What is the hippocampus responsible for?
Memory and emotions
parahippocampal place area (PPA)
Memory for locations
lateral frontal cortex
Memory for objects/animals
medial frontal cortex
Memory for people
Word form anomie
Men kan het object niet benoemen
Which dopaminergic pathway leads to the antipsychotic effects?
Mesolimbic and mesocortical
What is the pons responsible for?
Message station for sleep
Single cell recordings
Meten de responsiviteit van een neuron op een bepaalde stimulus in termen van actiepotentiaal per seconde wat interferenties over de opbouw van cognitieve processen mogelijk maakt
Which dopaminergic pathway leads to the extrapyramidal effects?
Nigrostriatal
Recurrent intrusive thoughts and ritualistic behaviors
OCD
Onvermogen om de oriëntatie van objecten te benoemen ondanks een correct objectherkenning door schade aan de rechter pariëtale lob
Object-oriëntatie agnosie
Ventrale stroom
Occipitaal naar temporaal en zorgt voor objectherkenning, geheugen en semantiek
Where is the Primary Visual Cortex (V1)?
Occipital Lobe
Dorsale stroom
Occipital to parietal and provides visually guided actions and attention
What happened if Penfield stimulated the visual area of the brain?
Reported colours, shadows, and crude outlines.
What happened if Penfield stimulated the somatosensory area of the brain?
Reported tingling sensation or false sense of movement
ACC
Response monitoring
Lateral PFC
Responsible for cognition & control
Right PFC
Responsible for task monitoring
Left PFC
Responsible for task setting
The floor plate secretes______
SHH, Sonic Hedgehog
Separates left and right hemispheres
Sagittal Fissure
What are the side effects of secondary TCAs?
Same as tertiary TCAs but less
Somatosensatie
Samenvoegen van perceptuele kennis van objecten en kennis van de positie van het lichaam
Hemiplegia
Schade aan een kant van de primaire motorische cortex waardoor men de tegengestelde kant van het lichaam niet kan bewegen
Open hoofdwond
Schedel is gekraakt en zorgt voor meer gelokaliseerde schade
Myelinating neuroglia of the peripheral nervous system
Schwann Cells
What does the pineal gland of the diencephalon do?
Secretes melatonin
What are examples of monoamine NTs?
5-HT
Which receptors does trazodone work on?
5HT
The corpus callosum
A band of white matter that run much of the length of the cerebral hemispheres contains about 200 million nerve fibres that join the two hemispheres and allow them to communicate
What is Alzheimer's disease?
A brain disorder characterized by a gradual loss of memory
The Brain Stem
A brain structure consisting of the medulla and pons of the hindbrain, as well as the midbrain and certain structures of the hindbrain. It composes about 4.4% of the total weight of an adult brain.
aldopa
agonist that increases dopamine levels
Masticatory movement and facial sensation
cranial nerves: Trigeminal
Hearing and balance
cranial nerves: auditory vestibular
Facial movement and sensation
cranial nerves: facial
Tongue and pharynx movement and sensation
cranial nerves: glossopharyngeal
Tongue movement
cranial nerves: hypoglossal
Eye movement
cranial nerves: oculomotor, trochlear, abducens
Neck movement
cranial nerves: spinal accessory
Heart blood vessels viscera movement of larynx and pharynx
cranial nerves: vagus
• visual area
damage in left visual area may cause damage in right visual area of both eyes
• motor area
damage to left motor area would lead to movement problems on right side of body
antagonist
decrease nt's affects; decreasing the amount of nt's synthesized; destroy nt's in synapse; blocks receptors to keep them from binding to nt's
how do you explain excitation and inhibition in neurotransmitters?
excitatory neurotransmitters increase the postsynaptic neuron's positive charge = more likely to fire
Retinal site of color blindness
cone cell
Damage to the Orbitofrontal cortex results in
confabulated memories
brain stem
consists of a group of structures that lie deep within the brain, including the pons, medulla oblongata, and midbrain. It plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis by controlling autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It can organize motor movements such as reflexes. It coordinates with the motor cortex and associated areas to contribute to fine movements of limbs and the face.
The SNS - the somatic nervous system
consists of spinal and cranial nerves that carry sensory info to the CNS from the muscles joint and skin it also transmits outgoing motor instructions that produce movement
Higher-order thalamic visual relay
pulvinar
medulla
extension of spinal cord into skull
ventricles
f: cushions and protects the brain
subiculum
f: memory processing, regulation of the body's response to stress, spatial navigation, info processing
paretial lobe
f: perception and integration of somatosensory info, visuospatial processing, spatial attention, spatial mapping, number representation
premotor cortex
f: planning and executing motor movements imitation, empathy
somatosensory cortex
f: pressure, temp and pain
temporal lobe
f: recognition, perception, understanding language, learning and memory
neuroimaging
fMRI is the most common
What is the amygdala responsible for?
fear-processing emotion processing learning fear-learning fight-or-flight response reward-processing
The neural groove becomes the______ plate of the neural tube
floor
The ENS - the enteric nervous system
formed by a mesh of neurons embedded in the lining of the gut controls the gut the ENS communicates with the CNS via the ANS but mostly operates autonomously
• somatosensory area
less able to feel pain and changes in temperature
Axon
long part of neuron where elctric signal passes
intraparietal sulcus
magnitude judgements
sensitivity and # of neurons
more neurons in an area = more sensitivity
Skill memory is involved in performing -- activities.
motor
Conduction
movement of electric signal within neurons
cultural examples of dualism
movies like "13 going on 30" show that you can function with a different brain, because the soul is seperate from the body
neurons
nerve cells
Nervous tissue contains -- that conduct impulses and -- that service neurons.
neurons , neuroglia
What happens at the synapses?
neurons communicate through the release of neurotransmiters from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron across the synaptic cleft
Crick
philosopher who believed we are no more than our cells. the mind is what the brain does, everything psychological is biological
Met welk hersendeel wordt extinction geassocieerd
posterieure pariëtale lob
Where do neurotransmitters bind?
postsynaptic receptors at the next neuron
The -- area of the frontal lobe is especially necessary for higher mental functions.
prefrontal
Met welk hersendeel wordt utilization behavior geassocieerd
prefrontale gebieden
The ANS - the autonomic nervous system
prepares internal organs for the rest and digest response via the parasympathetic (calming) nerves or the fight or flight response through the sympathetic (arousing) nerves
caffeine affect on synaptic transmission
prevent adenisine from doing its job, acts as an antagonist
cocaine affect on synaptic transmission
prevent reuptake of dopamine by blocking key channels for reuptake
The -- area in the frontal lobe sends out motor commands to lower brain centers that pass them on to motor neurons.
primary motor cortex
The -- area in the parietal lobe receives sensory information from lower brain centers in communication with sensory neurons.
primary somatosensory
temporal lobe
process hearing and language (and allows us to add meaning to visual)
occipital lobe
process visual info
Neuroepithelial cells forming cerebral spinal fluid
ependymal cell
The Occipital Lobes
The occipital lobes process visual information, as well as the ability to process certain stimuli such as faces.
- Compared with those of animals such as rats cats and dogs which depend more heavily on smell than we do the human olfactory bulb is relatively small
The olfactory system
The Parietal Lobes
The parietal lobes contain the *somatosensory cortex*, which is contained in the *postcentral gyrus*, the area just behind the central sulcus. It is involved in the processing of sensory information from the body-for example, sensations of pain, pressure, touch, or temperature.
The Prefrontal Cortex
The prefrontal cortex or lobe is involved in what neuroscientists call *executive functioning*-planning, making decisions, implementing strategies, inhibiting inappropriate behaviours, and using working memory to process information. Damage to certain parts of the prefrontal cortex can also result in marked changes in personality, mood, affect, and the ability to control inappropriate behaviour. The prefrontal cortex shows the longest period of maturation; to appears to be one of the last brain regions to mature. Interestingly, this region may also be one of the "first to go" in aging effects seen toward the end of life.
The Premotor Cortex
The premotor cortex is involved in planning fine motor movements.
What is required for long term memory?
The release of more neurotransmitters than before
The Temporal Lobes
The temporal lobes process auditory information, as well as the ability to process certain stimuli such as faces. Because the temporal lobes are right structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus, both involved in memory, damage to the temporal lobes can result in memory disruption as well.
occipital lobe
This cortex is the primary visual area of the brain. It receives projections from the retina (via the thalamus) from where different groups of neurons separately encode different visual information such as color, orientation, and motion. Pathways from these lobes reach the temporal and parietal lobes and are eventually processed consciously. Two important pathways of information originating in these lobes are the dorsal and ventral streams. The dorsal stream projects to the parietal lobes and processes where objects are located. The ventral stream projects to structures in the temporal lobes and processes what objects are.
parietal lobe
This cortex plays an important role in integrating information from different senses to build a coherent picture of the world. It integrates information from the ventral visual pathways (which process what things are) and dorsal visual pathways (which process where things are). This allows us to coordinate our movements in response to the objects in our environment. It contains a number of distinct reference maps of the body, near space, and distant space, which are constantly updated as we move and interact with the world. This cortex processes attentional awareness of the environment, is involved in manipulating objects, and representing numbers.
cingulate gyrus - overview
This part of the brain helps with the regulation of emotions and pain. It is proposed to directly drive the body's conscious response to unpleasant experience. It is also involved in fear and the prediction (and consequent avoidance) of negative consequences and can orient the body away from negative stimuli. Learning to avoid negative consequences is an important feature of memory.
thalamus
This structure is heavily involved in relaying information between the cortex and brain stem and within different cortical structures. Because of this role in corticocortial interactions, this structure contributes to many processes in the brain including perception, attention, timing, and movement. It plays a central rile in alertness and awareness.
What are three types of dystonic reactions to D2 blockade (EPS)?
Torticollis
What are examples of dystonic reactions?
Torticollis (wry neck, or loxia) exhibit flexion, extension, or twisting of muscles of the neck beyond their normal position)
Motor and vocal tics
Tourette
Large collection of axons cousins together within the CNS
Tract
What are the indications for rx clozapine?
Treatment-resistant schizophrenia
What are the side effects of blocking reuptake of NE?
Tremors
Language depends on semantic memory.
True
Nerve signals convey information within the nervous system.
True
Processing centers of the cortex receive information from the other association areas and perform higher-level analytical functions.
True
Short-term memory and long-term memory are dependent upon the prefrontal area.
True
When the spinal cord is severed, a loss of sensation and motor control occurs in areas below the site of injury.
True
Which dopaminergic pathway manages prolactin regulation?
Tuberoinfundibular
- Glial cells -> aid and modulate neurons' activities, approx. 100 billion
Two main types of cells
Which drugs have a more narrow therapeutic range: typical or atypical antipsychotics?
Typical
What is tardive dyskinesia?
Typically *orofacial dyskinesias* (mouth and tongue)
Impulsief handelen op irrelevante objecten door schade aan de prefrontale gebieden
Utilization behavior
Cortical site of color blindness
V4
Met welk hersendeel wordt pure alexia geassocieerd
VWFA
Sulci (sulcus)
Valleys/Crevices between gyri
Confabulation
Valse herinneringen die mogelijk contradictorisch zijn zonder de intentie om te liegen. Gelinkt aan schade aan de orbitofrontale cortex
Parametrische designs
Variabele wordt als een continue dimensie behandeld. Associaties in hersenactiviteit en veranderingen in de variabele worden gemeten
What are examples of SNRIs?
Venlafaxine
efferent: they carry information from the spinal cord to the muscles
Ventral fibers are
Anterieure cingulate
Verantwoordelijk voor fouten detectie in executieve functies
Spraakproductiestoornis met moeite in het plannen van de articulatie van woorden
Verbale dyspraxie
Cognitive subtraction
Verschillen in hersenactiviteit tussen twee condities vergelijken waarvan een, een baseline of comparison conditie is. Een actief gebied zal actiever zijn in een bepaalde conditie
Periferale dyslexie
Verstoring in het lezen start in het niveau van de berekening van de visuele woord vorm
Ataxie
Verstoring van het evenwicht en bewegingscoördinatie
Where is the spinal cord located?
Vertebral canal
Interactiviteit
Verwerkingsstadia zijn niet strikt gescheiden + top-down processing is mogelijk
Angioma
Verweven bloedvezels die kunnen scheuren
Anyeurisma
Verwijding van de bloedvaten tot deze scheuren en een hersenbloeding veroorzaken waardoor intracraniale druk toeneemt
Onvermogen om objecten of afbeeldingen te herkennen. Er is een intacte low level verwerking en herkeninning door andere modaliteiten
Visuele agnosie
What do the medulla oblongata and pons have reflex centers for?
Vital functions like breathing and the heartbeat.
Ribot's law
Vroege levensherinneringen worden beter herinnerd
How can you avoid serotonin syndrome in a patient taking an MAOI that you may want to switch to an SSRI or TCA?
Wait 2 weeks before switching from SSRI to MAOI
Simulation theorie
We begrijpen anderen door hun huidige state over te nemen (iemand zien lachen activeert het pad verantwoordelijk voor lachen in onze hersenen) waardoor we emoties herkennen
Important Points to Remember
What is important to remember is that cognitive processes are implemented in human brains. Some researchers make an analogy between human minds and computers; in this view, the brain is the "hardware" ("wetware") and the cognitive processes the software. Although the two aspects of functioning can be distinguished, to really understand either we must have some familiarity with both, and with how they interact.
Introduction
When the field of cognitive psychology first began (in the 1950s and 60s), cognitive psychologists found the workings of the brain to be quite interesting, but not necessarily relevant to their understanding of how cognitive processes work. The idea was that description of cognitive processes and structures was best done at a level of abstraction above the neutral level, which was thought to be to inordanetly complicated. Many feared that a description of how each neuron working the brain would not yield a comprehensible explanation of how for example, your learning of french verb endings takes place. The level of detail of the neurons in your brain would not simply provide a very useful explanation, whereas one couched in terms of theoretical ideas such as memory storage (which might not physically exist) would. Theorists began to distinguish between different "levels" of explanation-a symbolic and abstract one for cognition, as apposed to a neural level for the actual functioning of cognitive processes in real time.
Localization of Function
When we describe a particular brain region or structure as having a particular role to play (as in memory or attention), you may wonder what the basis of such a claim is. That is, how do neuroscientists know what brain region does what? The answer lies in the study of localization of function, *a means of mapping the brain*. The original idea of localization of function traces back to an Austrian anatomist Franz Gall, who proposed an early localization theory.
CAT and MRI Scans and how the brain functions
While CAT and MRI scans provide pictures of the brain structures, and investigators can use these pictures to pinpoint areas of damage or abnormality, they provide only static pictures of the parts of the brain. No information is gleaned about how a brain functions-that its, what areas of the brain show activity when people perform different cognitive tasks. To answer such questions, different brain-imaging techniques are needed. Fortunately, recent developments have created techniques that fit the bill.
basal ganglia
a group of structures that regulate the initiation of movements, balance, eye movements, and posture They are strongly connected to other motor areas in the brain and link the thalamus with the motor cortex. They are also involved in cognitve and emotional behaviors and play an important role in reward and reinforcement, addictive behaviors, and habit formation
hypothalamus - different way to explain it's function
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature, sexual behavior; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
refractory period
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired, a new action potential cannot be fired
Sapolsky
a philosopher and biologist
Neuroepithelial cells supporting radial migrations
radial glia
Phineas Gage
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
parietal lobe
receives sensory input for touch and body position, and contains somatosensory
Dendrite
recieves info from other neuron
The spinal cord is the center for thousands of --.
reflex arcs
cerebellum
regulates fine motor skills (walking, balancing, etc. making our series of movements into one graceful motion)
reticular formation
regulates sleep, wakefulness and levels of arousal
what are the characteristics of motor neurons?
short dendrites, long axons and carry messages from the CNS to effectors in our body (muscles and glands)
What are the characteristics of relay neurons?
short dendrites, short axons to connect the other two types of neurons although they do not connect directly
Amygdala (Overview)
small, complex structure adjacent to the Hippocampus. It coordinates physiological responses based on cognitive information. It is also involved in emotion processing and fear learning. It links areas of the cortex concerned with higher order cognitive information with hypothalamic/brain stem systems involved in lower metabolic responses. What are these lower order metabolic responses? Touch, pain sensitivity, and respiration. What is an example of the physiological response regulation of cognitive information? Fight or flight response
What is opisthotonus?
spasm of the muscles causing backward arching of the head, neck, and spine, as in severe tetanus, some kinds of meningitis, and strychnine poisoning.
right hippocampus
spatial memory
frontal lobe
specialized for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory and judgment
thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
action potential
the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.
- The brain and ___ connect extensively throughout the ANS especially via the vagus nerve
the enteric nervous system - ENS
how do es the brain convey intensity and pain?
the number of neurons fireing, and the speed at which they fire
synaptic transmission
the process through which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, cross the synaptic gap, and affect adjoining neurons
what do neutrons do?
they send electrical and chemical signals to communicate at fast rates
Rate-limiting step in dopamine synthesis
tyrosine hydroxlyase
Node of Ranvier
un myelinated portion of axon
superior temporal sulcus
variant facial feature processing
The -- of the brain are -- for cerebrospinal fluid.
ventricles , reservoirs
What was good about Penfield using the Montreal procedure to carry out his research?
very precise method of studying brain. Could stimulate exact same area of brain repeatedly and patients reported their experiences. This meant he could create a brain map of function
Ventral route
what pathway leading to temporal lobes
terminal buttons
where signal is relayed to other neurons nearby
Dorsal route
where/how pathway leading to parietal lobes
The -- consists of myelinated axons that occur in bundles called tracts.
white matter
Major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
y-amino-butyric acid (GABA)
Neurotransmitter of Purkinje cells of cerebellar cortex
y-amino-butyric acid (GABA)
Functionele integratie
Communicatie tussen regio's
Rod cells
Fotoreceptoren voor lage licht intensiteit
Allocortex
- Evolutionarily older
What are the therapeutic actions of NE reuptake blocked?
Antidepressant
What are the therapeutic actions when reuptake of 5-HT is blocked?
Antidepressant
What were MAOIs originally used as?
Antihypertensive medications
What are the therapeutic actions of blocking reuptake of dopamine?
Antiparkinsonian
Problemen met objectherkenning door verstoring in de objectperceptie door schade aan de occipitale of pariëtale lob. Patiënten kunnen onderdelen benoemen maar niet integreren tot een visueel beeld. Het zien van kleur, beweging, etc. is wel intact
Apperceptieve agnosie
Onvermogen om complexe handelingen uit te voeren
Apraxie
BA45
Area involved in semantics
BA44
Area involved in syntax and motor planning
What are the antipsychotics used to treat acute bipolar mania?
Aripiprazole
Which atypical antipsychotic is unique and has partial agonist activity (5HT2A) at D2 receptors?
Aripiprazole
Spraakapraxia
Articulatieproblemen door schade aan de insula en basale ganglia maar niet aan Broca's gebied
When are TCAs typically used?
As a 3rd or 4th line.
Which EPS do not always respond to anticholinergic medications?
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
The Cerebral Cortex
Neurologists divided it into four lobes: *frontal* (underneath the forehead), *parietal* (underneath the top rear part of the skull), *occipital* (at the back of the head), and *temporal* (on the side of the head). The left and right hemispheres are connected by the *corpus callosum* (in the case of the frontal, parietal and occipital lobes) and the anterior commisure (in the case of the temporal lobes). A structure known as the *central sulcus* (a prominent shallow groove on the surface of the brain) divides the frontal and parietal lobes; another sulcus, the *lateral sulcus*, helps define the temporal lobe. Actually, since our heads have two sides, right and left, we have two lobes of each kind-the right frontal, left frontal, right parietal, left parietal, and so forth.
Is lithium use in pregnancy a relative or an absolute contraindication?
RELATIVE
Chorea has graceful, dance-like movements
TRUE
Compulsions have a premonitory urge and sense of relief upon completion
TRUE
Dendrites integrate and propagate post-synaptic signals to the cell body
TRUE
Motor neurons the ventral spinal cord are part of the central nervous system
TRUE
Tics are stereotyped, repeated movements and vocalizations
TRUE
Tics have a premonitary urge and sense of relief on completion
TRUE
Does venlafaxine have fewer sexual side effects than SSRIs?
YES
Can dystonic reactions be life-threatening?
YES.
How long do antidepressants require to reach therapeutic effects?
at least 2-3 weeks
What is torticollis?
(wry neck, or loxia) is one of a broader category of disorders that exhibit flexion, extension, or twisting of muscles of the neck beyond their normal position
Prochlorperazine
*Chlorpromazine* (Thorazine) - Antimanic Agent; First Generation (Typical) Antipsychotic, antinauseant. Blocks postsynaptic dopamine receptors in the mesolimbic system and increases dopamine turnover by blockade of the D2 somatodendritic autoreceptor.
Amygdala - Associated Cognitive Disorders
- Autism linked to amygdala dysfunction (lack of empathy) -neural activity here has been linked to depression and bipolar. - PTSD linked with amygdala responses.
Cerebellum
- Controls complex movements and cognitive functions
Meninges: Three layers of protective tissue
- Dura mater "hard mother" tough outer layer of fibrous tissue
Spinal Cord
- controls most body movements
The cerebral cortex
- is a thin sheet of nerve tissue folded many times to fit inside the skull
What are the features of the atypical (2nd generation) antipsychotics?
- newer
What is the process of electrical neurotransmission?
- when a neuron is in a resting state, the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside
Anatomy of Cerebellum
-2 hemispheres
resting potential
-70 mV
What are the functions of the basal ganglia?
-Motor control (stereotypical and automated movement)
Functions of the temporal lobe
-Audition
White Matter
-Beneath gray matter
What are the functions of the middle cerebellar peduncle?
-Carries information on body's position in space
What are the functions of the medulla?
-Carries motor messages from cerebrum to spinal cord
What are the functions of the inferior cerebellar peduncle?
-Carries sensory info from both pons and medulla
What are the functions of the superior cerebellar peduncle?
-Carries sensory info from pons to cerebellum
The posterior lobe of the cerebellum plays a role in...
-Motor planning/praxis
Which of the following techniques has the best temporal resolution?
-EEG
Functions of frontal lobe
-Expressive language
The anterior lobe of the cerebellum plays a role in...
-Extremity control
What are the functions of the thalamus?
-Gateway for sensory info before heading to cortex (except olfaction)
The law of proximity and the law of similarity both represent:
-Gestalt grouping principles
Function of the right hemisphere.
-Interpretation of perceptual, abstraction, and spatial information.
Functions of the occipital lobe
-Interpretation of visual stimuli
One common etiology of amnesia related to thiamine deficiency is termed:
-Korsakoff's syndrome
Function of the left Hemisphere.
-Large role in human language
The water maze used to test the spatial memory of rodents bears the name of which researcher?
-Morris
Functions of the parietal lobe
-Sensory detection, perception, and interpretation
The visual route thought to be important for orienting to stimuli passes through the inferior pulvinar and what other structure?
-Superior colliculus
The flocculonodular lobe of the cerebellum plays a role in...
-Trunk control
Functions of the pons.
-Unconscious motor information (weight shift balance etc.)
The ventral route identified by Ungerleider and Mishkin (1982) has been referred to as the _______ pathway.
-What
Petrides's (1996, 2000, 2005) model suggests that the dorsolateral prefrontal region is primarily responsible for
-active manipulation
Which of the following parts of the limbic system has been implicated most in the detection of fearful or threatening stimuli?
-amygdala
According to the premotor theory of attention what is covert orienting?
-an action plan (e.g. saccade) that is prepared but not executed
Which of the following tasks can amnesic patients NOT typically learn to perform normally?
-associative recall
According to reductionism, psychology should, in the end, reduce to what type of construct?
-biological
Bisiach and Luzzatti (1978) helped establish that neglect:
-can occur for spatial mental images
Another term for the posterior aspect of the brain is:
-caudal
Which of the following was one of the two key assumptions of phrenology (and still used in cognitive neuroscience)?
-different regions of the brain perform different functions
The fluid filling the ventricles serves all of the following purposes EXCEPT:
-generating action potentials
The principle of cognitive subtraction holds that it is possible to infer functionally specialized brain regions by:
-identifying regions activated by an experimental, but not baseline, task
A basketball video is played to participants (or students in Brain and Cognition☺), who fail to notice the gorilla that walks into the video frame and briefly walks between the players. The participants have likely experienced which of the following?
-intentional blindness
The key conceptual difference between working memory and short-term memory is that working memory emphasizes not only storage of information but also its:
-manipulation
Which nucleus projects to primary auditory cortex along the thalamo-cortical route?
-medial geniculate
Ribot's law refers to the observation that:
-memories from early in life tend to be preserved in amnesia
Fletcher and Henson (2001) suggested that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has the specific function of:
-monitoring
The brain's ability to change as a result of experience is referred to as:
-neuroplasticity
Procedural memory falls under which umbrella category of long-term memory?
-non-declarative
The blind spot is located at the point where which pathway leaves the eye?
-optic nerve
Interpreting a sensory stimulus based on pre-existing knowledge of how objects are structured is an example of:
-perception
Neurons in the lateral intraparietal (LIP) area tend to have which of the following profile:
-responds to stimuli that are unexpected and stimuli that are task-relevant
Neglect is associated with lesions to the:
-right inferior parietal lobe
Knowing that Berlin is the capital of Germany is an example of which type of memory?
-semantic
The number of distractors in which type of visual search task doesn't matter?
-single feature
Pure tones have which of the following types of waveforms, when pressure is plotted against time?
-sinusoid
The neocortex consists of how many main cortical layers?
-six
The tonotopic organization refers to the orderly mapping between cortical position and:
-sound frequency
Cone cells are:
-specialized for detecting different wavelengths of light
The _____ metaphor reflects how visual attention highlights a particular location in space at any given time.
-spotlight
The dips or folds in the brain are called:
-sulci
Color constancy means that, under many different viewing conditions:
-the perceived color of a surface remains fixed
The so-called "father of modern anatomy" was named:
-vesalius
Which of the following neuroimaging analysis techniques was used to determine the gray matter volume in the hippocampi of London taxi drivers (Maguire, 2000)?
-voxel-based morphometry
What is the therapeutic range of lithium serum levels for chronic treatment?
0.7 - 1.0 mEq/L
What does each cerebral hemisphere contain?
A frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobe
What are the side effects of tertiary TCAs?
1) Antihistaminic: sedation, weight gain
Which atypical antipsychotics have the highest risk of hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, weight gain, sedation, decreased BP and anticholinergic side effects?
1) Clozapine
When are antidepressants used?
1) Depressive episodes in MDD
What is the order of the manifestation of EPS side effects?
1) Dystonia
What are side effects of atypical antipsychotic medications that the FDA requested to include a product labeling warning?
1) Hyperglycemia (and DM2)
What are the treatment regimens for severe acute mania?
1) Lithium + antipsychotic
What are the treatment regimens for less severe acute mania?
1) Lithium alone
What are the four dopaminergic pathways related to schizophrenia in the brain?
1) Mesolimbic (SCZ - increase in DA causes positive symptoms)[nucleus accumbens]
What are some adverse effects of *chronic* lithium treatment?
1) Renal changes
What are the adverse effects of TCAs?
1) Sedation
The three functionally distinct parts of the amygdala
1) The medial group of subnuclei has many connections with the olfactory bulb and the olfactory cortex 2) the basolateral group has extensive connection with the cerebral cortex (orbital and medial prefrontal cortex) 3) The central and anterior group of nuclei has many connections with the brainstem hypothalamus and sensory structures.
What is associated with damage to the Basal Ganglia
1) Tremors 2) Involuntary muscle movements 3) Abnormal increase in muscle tone 4) Difficulty initiating movement 5) Abnormal posture.
The brain has -- cavities called ventricles.
4
agonist
A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter; increasing the synthesis of nt's and blocking their reuptake; they reamin in the synaptic cleft; stop enzymes from destroying nt's
What is reticular formation?
A complex network of nuclei and fibers that extends the length of the brain stem, is a major component of the reticular activating system, which arouses the cerebrum via the thalamus and causes a person to be alert.
Gyrus
A convolution or ridge of the brain
Wernicke's Aphasia
A decade after Broca's discovery, Carl Wernicke announced the discovery of a second "language centre" in the brain, this one thought to control language and understanding (as apposed to language production). This region, which has become to be known as *Wernicke's Area*, is located in the superior posterior region of the temporal lobe, also typically in the left hemisphere. Patients with so-called *Wernicke's Aphasia* (also called *fluent aphasia*) are able to produce speech with seemingly fluent contours of pitch and rhythm. However, the speech often makes no sense and contains gibberish. Moreover, these patients show impairments in their ability to understand speech.
Wilfred Penfield
A famous Canadian researcher, Wilfred Penfield, took this work a step further. Penfield was a groundbreaking researcher and highly original surgeon working at the Montreal Neurological Institute in the 1930s. Before operating on his patients, who were undergoing surgery for treatment of severe epilepsy, he stimulated the brain with electrical probes while the patients were conscious on the operating table (under only local anesthesia), and observed their responses. In this way, he targeted the areas of the brain involved in certain cognitive functions such as smelling, motor control, and speaking, among others. Using this technique he created maps of the sensory and motor cortices of the brain. These maps are still used today.
broca's area
A functionally defined structure in the left frontal lobe of about 97% of humans (including a large majority of left-handers). It is involved mainy in the production of spoken and written language and also in language processing and comprehension. It takes its name from the French scientist whose work with language-impaired patients led him to conclude that we speak with our left-brain.
limbic system
A group of brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypthalamus that are involved in processing and regulating emotions, memory, and sexual arousal. It is an important element of the body's response to stress and is highly connected to the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems. It is also responsible for processing the body's response to odors.
What can cause cerebral palsy?
A momentary lack of oxygen at birth
dendrites, cell body (soma), axon
A neuron is dividend in three regions ____,_____ and _____.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A newer technique that measures changes in magnetic fields generated by electrical activities of neurons. It has been called the magnetic equivalent of EEG. MEG gives a more precise localization of brain region activity then does EEG.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
A newer technique that relies on the fact that blood has magnetic properties. As blood is carried from the heart, it is maximally magnetic. As it passed through capillaries, it becomes less magnetic. Brain regions that are active how a change in the ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated blood. Such fMRI scans use existing MRI equipment but provide clinicians and investigators with a noninvasive, nonradioactive means of assessing blood flow to various brain regions.
Hypothalamus Overview
A structure that regulates a wide range of behavioral and physiological activities. It controls many autonomic functions, such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual activity. To do this, it integrates information from many different parts of the brain and is responsive to a variety of stimuli including light (it regulates circadian rhythms), odors (e.g. pheromones), stress, and arousal (hypothalamitic neurons release oxytocin directly into the bloodstream). Other functions include parenting behavior, perspiration, blood pressure, and heart rate.
What is the cerebral cortex?
A thin but highly convoluted outer layer of gray matter that covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the region of the brain that accounts for sensation, voluntary movement, and all the thought processes we associate with consciousness.
E. It is more common in elderly individuals
A. This a potentially fatal side effect of the DA receptor antagonists
How do the tricyclic antidepressants work?
ALL:
Hemispatiaal neglect
Aandacht niet kunnen richten aan de tegengestelde kant van een hersenletsel. Dit is erger aan de rechterkant (asymmetrisch of grotere contributie aan salience map) wat resulteert in een bias voor de linker kant van de omgeving. Dit wordt verbonden met schade aan de rechter inferieure pariëtale lob
Where is cortisol made?
Adrenal Cortex
3) Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) controls movement and balance -> the spinal cord is part of the hindbrain
Adult brain of a fish, amphibian or reptile
2) Hindbrain develops further into - the mesencephalon (across brain) which includes the cerebellum - metencephalon (spinal brain) including the spinal cord
Adult brain of mammals
Verworven taalstoornis door een hersenletsel waardoor het begrijpen en uiten van geschreven taal verstoort is. Dit is multimodaal en multilinguïstisch
Afasie
Right angular gyrus and inferior parietal lobe
Affected in neglect patients
Telegrafische spraak en spraak met vooral inhoudswoorden en weinig functiewoorden
Aggramatisme
Amygdala Damage
Aggression, irritability, loss of control of emotion, disruption of short-term memory, deficits in recognizing emotions (particularly fear)
Which adverse effects of typical antipsychotic agents are inversely proportional to potency?
Alpha blockade
Orexigenic (hunger) or catabolic tone
Alpha-melanoctye-stimulating hormone
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Although an important diagnostic tool in neuropsychology, CAT (PET and SPECT) scans are used less often than a newer brain-imaging technique of MRI. Like CAT scans, MRI provides information about neuroanatomy. Unlike CAT scans, however, MRI requires no exposure to radiation and often permits clearer pictures, as you can see in a picture of an MRI scan of a brain. Someone undergoing an MRI typically likes inside a tunnel-like structure that surrounds the person with a strong magnetic field. Radio waves are detected at the head (or whatever body structure is being scanned), causing the centres of the hydrogen atoms in those structures to align themselves in predictable ways. Computers collapse information about how the atoms are aligning and produce a composite three-dimensional image from which any desired ceos-section can be examined further. MRI scans are often the technique of choice, as they now produce textbook quality anatomy pictures of a brain. However, not everyone can undergo an MRI scan. The magnetic fields generated in an MRI scan interfere with electrical fields, so people with pacemakers are not candidates for MRI scan (pacemakers generate electrical signals). Nor are people with metal in their bodies, such as a surgical clip on an artery or a metal shaving in the eye. The magnetic field could dislodge the metal in the body, causing trauma. Metal anchored on hard surfaces, such as dental fillings, is not a problem. Because MRIs require people to lie very still in a tunnel-like machine that often leaves little room for arm movements, people with claustrophobia are also not good candidates for this technique.
What cognitive disorders are associated with the brain stem?
Although it is linked to few cognitive disorders: Abnormalitiess have been found in individuals with autism.
What are the TCAs?
Amitriptyline
What ties emotions to experiences?
Amygdala
What is an action potential?
An action potential is a rapid change in polarity as the nerve signal occurs. It is an all-or-none phenomenon and occurs only when threshold is reached.
Which two classes of medications are FDA approved for treating acute bipolar mania?
Anticonvulsants
Conspecific
Andere leden van dezelfde soort
Type van afasie waarbij er woord-ophalingsproblemen optreden
Anomie
Problemen in de ophaling en uiting van de juiste woorden
Anomische afasie
Which patients should NOT be Rx bupropion?
Anorexia nervosa
Electrical Recording Methods
Another "window of the brain" can be obtained through electrical recording methods. You may already known that when neurons in the brain (or anywhere else, for that matter) fire, they generate electrical activity. Some animal research has involved placing electrodes in individual neurons to detect when and how often those single cells fire. Such work is not done with humans. Instead, the sum total of electrical activity generated by a large number of neurons comprises the information gathered.
Event-Related Potential (ERP)
Another electrical recording technique that measures an area of the brains response to a specific event. Participants in an ERP study have electrodes attached to their scalp and are then presented with various external stimuli, such as sights or sounds. The recording measures brain activity from the times before the stimulus is presented until the time afterward. The brain waves recorded also have predictable parts, or components. That is, the shape of the waveform can vary depending on whether the participant expects the stimulus to occur or is attending to the location in which the stimulus appears, and whether the stimulus is physically different from other recent stimulus.
Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
Another technique that measures cerebral blood flow. This basic technique is similar to a PET scan, but does not require some of the expensive equipment that PET scan requires; thus it is sometimes known as a "poor persons PET". Like CAT scans, however, PET and SPECT scans use radiation.
Where is ACTH made? (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)
Anterior Pituitary
What are the side effects of low potency atypical antipsychotics?
Anti-HAM:
A group comprising of structures that regulate (1) the initiation of movement; (2) balance, (3) eye movements; and (4) posture. They are strongly connected to other motor areas in the brain and (5) links the Thamalus with the motor cortex. Despite these motoric functions, these structures are also involved in (6) cognitive and emotional behaviours and play an (7) important role in reward and reinforcements, addictive behaviours, and habit formation. Functions: Movement regulations as described above, skill learning, habit formation, and reward systems.
Basal Ganglia (Overview and Function Described)
The Forebrain
Because of our interest in cognitive issues, we will focus the remainder of our discussion on the forebrain. Some of the structures of the forebrain are represented in the figure. Some structures of the forebrain include, the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia, cerebral cortex and more.
What are signs/symptoms of lithium toxicity at a serum level > 3.0?
Cardiac arrhythmias
What can a serious overdose of TCAs result in?
Cardiac arrhythmias
Substructures of Basal Ganglia
Caudate Nucleus Globus pallidus nucleus accumbens Putamen Substantia Nigra Subthalamic Nucleus.
Perceptual neglect
Caused by lesions to hippocampus
Representational neglect
Caused by lesions to parietal lobes
Object neglect
Caused by lesions to right angular gyrus
Space neglect
Caused by lesions to superior temporal gyrus
SAS
Cognitief systeem die cognitieve processen controleert en reguleert. Schema's specificeren iemand's handelingen of gedachten o.i.v. omgevingsinvloeden. Elke stimulus activeert een respons of schema. Het selecteren van een bepaald schema in routine situaties wordt gemonitord door contention scheduling. In unieke situaties zal het SAS schema activatie controleren. Het SAS controleert contention scheduling opdat bepaalde strategieën kunnen worden toegepast
Brain Plasticity
Complicating this already involved picture of the brain organization is the notion of the *plasticity* of the brain. Some brain regions can adapt to "take over" functions of damaged regions, depending on the injury and the function involved. In general, the younger the patient and the less extensive the injury, the better is the chance of regaining function.
What are signs/symptoms of lithium toxicity at a serum level of 2.0 - 3.0?
Confusion
Ontwikkelingsstoornis om toonhoogte te ervaren zonder gekende neurlogische stoornis
Congenital amusia
What do interneurons do?
Connect sensory and motor neurons
Multiple trace theorie
Consolidatie is een proces van het opslaan van herinneringen in meerdere geheugensporen wanneer een herinnering opnieuw beleefd wordt. Deze geheugensporen worden opgeslagen in de temporale lobben waardoor oudere herinneringen beschermt zijn tegen schade. De hippocampus legt in deze theorie vooral episodische herinnering vast maar dit is vaak verweven (semantische kennis gelinkt aan context)
Basal ganglia
Control of voluntary movement
- Both functions such as the modulation of sensation and movement in the face
Cranial Nerves
Smell
Cranial nerves: olfactory
Vision
Cranial nerves: optic
D1 dopamine receptors on striatal neurons
DIRECT
LGN
De LGN is een onderdeel van de thalamus. Er is een LGN in elk hemisfeer bestaand uit 6 lagen, 3 voor elk oog
Semantische anomie
De betekenis van woorden gaat verloren
Categoriale perceptie
De neiging om ambigue of hybride stimuli als een of een ander te zien i.p.v. alle twee tegelijk of als een mengeling
Retinitopische organisatie
De receptieve velden van neuronen zijn georganiseerd om de spatiale organisatie te reflecteren
Retina
De retina is het intern oppervlak van het oog dat bestaat uit lagen waarvan sommigen fotoreceptoren bevatten die licht omzetten naar neuronale signalen
Plasticiteit
De vaardigheid van de hersenen om te veranderen door ervaring
What is the pre-frontal cortex responsible for?
Decision-making and rational thought.
Echte woorden beter dan psuedo woorden maar met semantische fouten en problemen met hoog vs. laag voorgestelde woorden door schade aan beide routes
Deep dyslexie
Fissure
Deep groove on the surface of the brain
afferent they carry information form the body sensory receptors
Dorsal fibers are
What are the secondary TCAs?
Desipramine
Biologische beweging
Detecteren of een stimulus geanimeerd is of niet vanuit bewegingscues
What does serious lithium toxicity mandate?
Dialysis
What encloses the third ventricle?
Diencephalon
Describe what is meant by 'localisation' of brain function
Different areas of the brain do certain jobs.
Cortical layers
Different layers have different cell types
Which [antimuscarinic] medications are used to treat EPS?
Diphenhydramine [antihistamine]
How does Lithium differ from most other psychotropics?
Distributed to TBW
What are the anticonvulsants used to treat acute bipolar mania?
Divalproex
Optische ataxie
Door schade aan de dorsale route ontstaat een onvermogen om objecten te manipuleren
Frontal apraxia
Door schade aan de frontale lobben worden routine taken niet langer juist uitgevoerd maar is er geen tekort in objectherkenning of het gebruik van geïsoleerde objecten
Extinction
Door schade aan de rechter inferieure pariëtale lob is er geen aandacht voor stimuli in aanwezigheid van concurrerende stimuli
What are the substrates for MAO-Bs?
Dopamine
Canadian Research Highlight
Dr. Bryan Kolb is a professor of psychology at the University of Lethbridge, holds the board of Governors Research Chair in Neuroscience, and is one of the worlds most influential neuroscientists. He was the first to show how the growth of new brain cells following injury can restore cognitive and behavioural function. His work investigating factors that influence brain development in infancy has led to the development of new treatments and strategies for improving behaviour following early brain injury, and offers new insights into recovery of function in victims of stroke, Alzheimer's Disease, and drugs abuse.
Drug stimulation of dopamine neurons in VTA or synapses in nucleus accumbens
Drug addiction
Spraakproductiestoornis door neurologisch letsel aan het motorsysteem of aan het spraakproductiesysteem waardoor er een minder goede uitspraak is van fonemen
Dysarthia
E. All of the above
E. All of the above
E. Theophylline
E. Theophylline
What are "other" side effects of TCAs?
EKG changes (prolong QTc)
What are the side effects of high potency atypical antipsychotics?
EPS
Error related negativity
ERP component die wordt geactiveerd als er fouten worden gemaakt
- Occipital (visual)
Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes
Cone cells
Fotoreceptoren voor hoge lichtintensiteit en golflengtes van licht
A very deep sulcus
Fissure
What are examples of SSRIs?
Fluoxetine
Which SSRI has the longest half-life?
Fluoxetine
Which SSRI has the most prominent side effects of anxiety/activation/insomnia?
Fluoxetine
Which SSRI is metabolized by the CYP2C19, CYP2D6 and CYP3A3/4 (less so)?
Fluoxetine
Echte woorden beter dan psuedo woorden door schade aan de grafeem-foneem conversie
Fonologische dyslexie
Woord vervangen door een niet woord met minstens de helft van de onderdelen van het bedoelde woord
Fonologische parafasie
Ravi Menon
For example, Ravi Menon and his colleagues have been instrumental in using fMRI techniques to allow a clear delineation of the human primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe. As well, a review of 275 PET and fMRI studies summarizes how different areas of the brain are active for different cognitive functions such as attention, perceptions, imagery, language, and memory.
The Cerebellum
Found in the hindbrain, it contains neurons that coordinate muscular activity. It is one of the most primitive brain structures. It also governs balance and is involved in vernal motor behaviour and coordination. It has also been implicated in peoples ability to shift attention between visual and auditory stimuli, and in dealing with temporal stimuli such as rhythm. It controls coordinated movement; also involved in language and thinking.
The Medulla Oblongata
Found in the hindbrain, transmits information from the spinal cord to the brain and regulates life support functions such as respiration, blood pressure, coughing, sneezing, vomiting, and heart rate.
The Pons
Found in the hindbrain, where its name derives from the latin word for bridge. It also acts as a neural relay centre, facilitating the "crossover" of information between the left side of the body and the right side of the brain, and vice versa. It is also involved in balance and in the processing of both visual and auditory information.
- Fourth ventricle
Four ventricles: cavities in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid
Factually Psychology
Franz Gall believed in something called Faculty Psychology. Faculty Psychology was the theory that different mental abilities, such as reading or computation, were independent and autonomous functions, carried out in different parts of the brain. Gall believed that different locations in the brain were associated with such faculties as parental love, combativeness, acquisitiveness, and secretiveness, to name a few.
What is the cerebellum separated from?
From the brain stem by the fourth ventricle
Where is Broca's Area, speech production?
Frontal Lobe
Where is the Primary Motor Cortex (M1)?
Frontal Lobe
Dominant mutation in Huntingtin gene
Huntington
Loss of striatal neurons
Huntington
What are some dangerous side effects of clozapine?
Hyperglycemia, risk of ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar coma
What are the serious side effects of MAOIs?
Hypertensive crisis
- Emotional behaviour
Hypothalamus
Panting
Hypothalamus
Shivering
Hypothalamus
Vasoconstriction
Hypothalamus
Vasodilation
Hypothalamus
Water Retention
Hypothalamus
Grandmother cell
Hypothetisch neuron die reageert op één specifieke stimulus
descartes
I think therefore I am
D2 dopamine receptors on striatal neurons
INDIRECT
Relays via the external segment of globus pallidus (GPe)
INDIRECT
Onvermogen om bewegingen op verzoek uit te voeren hoewel dit wel vaak automatisch lukt door schade aan de inferieure pariëtale lob
Ideomotorische apraxie
What are the tertiary TCAs?
Imipramine
Damage
Inappropriate emotions. Lack of fear. Impaired nociception (sensation of pain), and learning impairments.
The gates of potassium channels open and -- flows out of the axon. The membrane potential --.
K+ , repolarizes
Amnesie
Kan anterograad of retrograad (herinneringen voor schade) zijn en ontstaat door schade aan de mediale temporele lobben
Which "illegal" drugs can worsen schizophrenia symptoms or induce them in adults?
Ketamine
Object constantie
Komt tot stand door het matchen van de geconstrueerde visuele representatie met opgeslagen objectbeschrijvingen in het geheugen
What are the causes of noradrenergic crises?
L-dopa
Major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
L-glutamic acid
Neurotransmitter of pyramidal cells of cerebral cortex
L-glutamic acid
Associated to other areas of ipsilateral hemisphere
L2
Commissure to like areas of contralateral hemisphere
L3
Same as the granular layer
L4
Subcortical target and non-reciprocal driver (WRITE) of higher order thalamic relays
L5
Reciprocal modulator (READ) of thalamic input
L6
Do tertiary amine TCAs have more or less NE reuptake than secondary amines?
LESS
Does bupropion have a high or low rate of sexual side effects?
LOW
Does venlafaxine have high or low plasma protein binding?
LOW
Is the therapeutic index of TCAs low or high?
LOW
What is the therapeutic index in MAOIs - low or high?
LOW
-- and -- are dependent upon Broca's area (a motor speech area) and Wernicke's area (a sensory speech area), which are in communication.
Language , speech
• language areas (including Broca's area & Wernicke's area)
Language areas- Brocas Aphasia (difficulty remembering and forming words) and Wernickes Aphasia (difficulty understanding language and producing meaningful speech)
What do descending tracts from the primary motor area communicate with?
Lower Brain centers
Do tertiary amine TCAs have more or less sedative and anticholinergic effects than secondary amine TCAs?
MORE
Diffusion tenor imaging
MRI wordt gebruikt om de witte stof connectiviteit tussen hersengebieden te meten
Cortical site of motion blindness
MT/V5
Hippocampus
Main region involved in memory
Parietal lobes
Main region involved in numerate brain
Prefrontal cortex
Main region involved in working memory
Visual word form area and left lateralisation
Main regions involved in reading
Temporal regions
Main regions involved in speaking
pituitary gland
Makes hormones, master gland.
What are syndromes of psychosis?
Mania
What does the brain stem contain?
Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
- Perception of pain
Midbrain: Tegmentum (floor of midbrain)
Standaard consolidatiemodel
Model waarbij de hippocampus ervoor zorgt dat verbindingen gevormd worden in de corticale gebieden. Deze geheugensporen worden door herhaalde activering van de hippocampale-corticale netwerk versterkt en geïntegreerd in het bestaand geheugen. De enthohrinale cortex speelt een rol tussen de hippocampus en corticale delen. De PFC speelt een integrerende rol met het bestaand geheugen opdat er geen dubbele opslag komt
The Amygdala
Modulates the strength of emotional memories and is involved in emotional learning , and also involved in aggression.
Consolidatie
Moment veranderingen in hersenactiviteit vertalen in permanente structurele veranderingen in de hersenen zoals nieuwe neuronale verbindingen
Aphasia
More modern approaches to localizing function in the brain date back to Paul Broca, who in the early 1860s presented findings at a medical conference that brain injury to a particular part of the left frontal lobe (the posterior, inferior region) resulted in a particular kind of *aphasia*, or disruption of expressive language. This brain region has become known as *Broca's area*; injury to this area leads to a kind of aphasia known as a *Broca's or nonfluent aphasia*, in which the person is unable to produce many words or to speak very fluently.
Cerebrum
Most anterior part of the brain; consists of two hemispheres.
Left Hemisphere Dominance in Language
Most individuals (around 95%) show a specialization for language in the left hemisphere. In these individuals, the left hemisphere is likely to be larger in size, especially in areas where language is localized. We say that these individuals has left-hemisphere dominance in language. A small percentage of people do not show such specialization, having language function in both hemispheres (these are called *bilateralized individuals*), and an even smaller percentage having language centres located in the right hemisphere.
Myelin breaks down what disease?
Multiple sclerosis
What are long axons covered by?
Myelin Sheath formed by neuroglia cells called Shwann cells
What are signs/symptoms of lithium toxicity at a serum level of 1.2 - 2.0?
N/V
Which NTs does bupropion affect?
NE reuptake inhibitor
Are antipsychotics indicated for anxiety or insomnia?
NO
Do MAOIs use the CYP450 system?
NO
Does tardive dyskinesia resolve after stopping the atypical antipsychotic drug?
NO
Can you use clozapine with carbamazepine?
NO!
The gates of sodium channels open first and -- flows into the axon. The membrane potential --.
Na+ , depolarizes
Mentalizing
Nadenken over gevoelens en gedachten en ook rekening houden met gevoelens van de ander
Spatiale resolutie
Nauwkeurigheid waarbij iemand een gebeurtenis kan meten m.b.t. locatie
Temporele resolutie
Nauwkeurigheid waarbij iemand een gebeurtenis kan meten m.b.t. tijd
During a resting potential, what is the electrical charge on the inside of the axon?
Negative (-65mV)
Spiegelneuronen
Negeren het onderscheid tussen zelf en de ander. Neuronen gericht op doelgerichte acties en reageren niet bij geïmiteerde acties (afwezigheid object of externe agent). Spiegelneuronen zijn gelegen binnen de premotorische cortex
Informatie wordt verwerkt tot op het niveau van objectherkenning maar er is geen bewuste waarneming. Dit komt voor bij concurrerende stimuli en is geassocieerd met schade aan de inferieure pariëtale lob
Neglect
Large collection of axons coursing together outside the CNS
Nerve
What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?
Nerves
What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?
Nerves and ganglia
What is the effect of atypical antipsychotics on prolactin release?
Net neutral effect
Parsing
Omzetten van woorden naar een zin
Logograpisch
One-woord-one-symbol
Degrees of freedom problem
Oneindig aantal motorische oplossingen voor het handelen op een object
Symbol grounding problem
Onmogelijk om een woord te beschrijven zonder de betekenis van het ander woord te kennen
Semantische dementie
Ontstaat door atrofie aan de temporele lobben waardoor het semantisch geheugen selectief en globaal wordt aangetast
Attentional blink
Onvermogen om een target te benoemen als deze snel op elkaar volgt. Snelle presentatie van stimuli en ppn moeten de targets rapporteren die ze hebben gezien (D en A). Ppn kunnen de 2e target niet rapporteren als het te snel na het 1e target verschijnt. De 1e target neemt mogelijk ons beperkt aandachtscapaciteit over
Why was Penfield's sample a weakness of his study?
Patients used were an unusual sample, as they had severe epilepsy. Means any results obtained were unusual and not reflective of people with non-epileptic brains
Lateralization of Function
Paul Broca's report of a language centre in his patients did more than argue for localization of function. Broca and many neuropsychologists since have been able to show that the two cerebral hemispheres seem to play different roles when it comes to some cognitive functions, especially language. We call this phenomenon *lateralization*.
Verstoring start op niveau van de berekening van de visuele woordvorm met spatiale en aandachtsverstoringen
Periferale dyslexie
What are the MAOIs?
Phenelzine
Right hemisphere
Pitch perception
N170 response
Processes face stimuli relative to other visual stimuli
Review Question: Explain how modern-day localization of brain functions differs from phrenology.
Psychologists no longer need to use scalp massages as diagnostic tools. They can now look at what's happening inside the skull using one of several types of brain scans. The most successful of these methods is the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scan, particularly the functional MRI (or fMRI).
What are the side effects of blocking reuptake of dopamine?
Psychomotor activation
What do antipsychotics treat?
Psychosis, regardless of the syndrome
Letter per letter lezen door schade aan de visual word form area. Patiënten hebben problemen met 2 letters of hoofdletters vs. kleine letters maar kunnen letters onderscheiden van pseudo letters en hun spiegelvorm
Pure alexia
Door schade aan de linker hemisfeer kan men wel muziek en omgevingsgeluiden herkennen maar niet spraak
Pure word deafness
What are the results if an injury is in the neck area?
Quadriplegia
Which antipsychotics are substrates for the CYP3A4 pathway?
Quetiapine
What is the function of the Central Nervous system?
Receives and integrates sensory input and formulates motor output
Describe what is meant by the 'cerebellum' and what it is responsible for
Receives information from the spinal cord and the brain. Main role is movement, coordination, balance. Involved in attention and language
Functions of Cerebellum
Receives sensory input from the eyes, ears, joints, and muscles about the present position of body parts, and it also receives motor output from the cerebral cortex about where these parts should be located.
What is Akathisia?
Restlessness primarily in legs
Dopamine is inactivated by
Reuptake
basal ganglia function
Rhythm perception & movement to beat
Music processing
Right lateralisation
What are examples of Atypical (2nd generation) antipsychotics?
Risperidone
Which atypical antipsychotic has the highest risk of D2-related side effects (EPS, akathisia, increased PRL)?
Risperidone
Which atypical antipsychotics have high D2 binding and similar side effects to typical antipsychotics?
Risperidone and paliperidone
Medial Longitudinal Fissure
Separates right and left hemispheres
What are the substrates for MAO-As?
Serotonin
Does venlafaxine have a short or long half life?
Short
Is trazodone short or long acting?
Short acting
What is the Central Nervous System composed of?
Short, nonmyelinated gray matter and myelinated tracts called white matter.
What are Parkinsonism side effects?
Shuffling gait
The Left versus the Right Hemisphere
Some describe the difference in function between the two hemispheres by labelling the left hemisphere as the analytical one and the right hemisphere as the synthetic one. The idea here is that the left hemisphere is particularly good at processing information serially, that is, information with events occurring one after another. If you think about processing a sentence, the events would be the individual words that are spoken or read in sequence. By contrast, the right hemisphere is thought to be more synthetic, putting individual elements together the make up a whole. Cognitive processes here might include constructing maps or other spatial structures, drawing sketches, and navigating through mazes. Popular press articles have made much of the difference between the two cerebral hemispheres, going so far in some cases as to classify people as either right-brained or left-brained. Its very important to remember that is a gross oversimplification. The vast majority of individuals have two quite functional cerebral hemispheres that continually interact to process information and carry out cognitive functions. The odds that only one hemisphere would be active in any everyday task are remote. Moreover, the two hemispheres are connected by a large neural structure known as the *corpus callosum*, which send information from one hemisphere to the other very quickly.
Computerized Axial Tomography Scan (CAT Scan)
Some of these methods give us information about neuroanatomy-the structures of the brain. One of the earliest such brain imaging techniques, developed in the 1970s, was X-ray computed tomography-also called X-ray CT, *Computerized Axial Tomography, or CT Scan-a technique in which a highly focused beam of X-rays is passed through the body from many different angles. Differing densities of body organs (including the brain) deflect the X-rays differently, allowing visualization of the organ. Typically, CAT scans of persons brain result in 9 to 12 "slices" of the brain, each one taken at a different level of depth. CAT scans depend on the fact that structures of different density show up differently. Bone, for example, is denser than blood, which is denser than brain tissue, which is in turn denser than cerebrospinal fluid. Recent brain hemorrhages are typically indicated by the presence of blood; older brain damage, by areas of cerebrospinal fluid. Thus clinicians and researchers can use CAT scans to pinpoint areas of brain damage and also to make inferences about the relative "age" of the injury.
Kunnen een woord niet definiëren zonder te verwijzen naar een ander woord
Symbol grounding problem
- mediates the fight or flight response
Sympathetic system
Blindsight
Symptoom waarbij de patiënt niet bewust een stimuli in een bepaald gebied kan zien maar wel visuele discriminaties juist kan uitvoeren. Het reflecteert waarschijnlijk de werking van andere visuele routes
What are some medications, when given with MAOIs, can cause serotonin syndrome?
TCAs
(T/F) 95% of the body's serotonin stockpile is in the gut.
TRUE
(T/F) Venlafaxine has minimal activity at CYP450 enzymes.
TRUE
Athetosis has writhing movement of the body or face
TRUE
Growth Statistics of the Brain
The brain grows from 0 to 350 grams (about three-quarters of a period) during the prenatal period, but this growth doesn't stop at birth. The maximum brain weight of 1,350 grams (about three pounds) is achieved when the individual is about 20 years old. Most post-birth growth take place before the child's fourth birthday, but some changes continue through adulthood. But keep in mind that in the human brain, bigger is not always better!
- The two principal structures are the hypothalamus and the thalamus
The brainstem: Diencephalon
- Stimulates the forebrain -> regulation of sleep-wake behavioural arousal
The brainstem: Hindbrain reticular formation
What is memory?
The capacity to retain a thought or recall an event or other information from the past.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
Review Question: Predict which brain areas are likely to be most involved with the cognitive processes of perception, attention, memory, language and problem solving. Provide a rationale for your predictions.
The forebrain, which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and the cerebral cortex, structures that are most directly implicated with cognitive processes such as memory, language, planning and reasoning.
The Frontal Lobes
The frontal lobes have three separate regions. The *motor cortex* (located in the precentral gyrus), *prefrontal cortex* and the *premotor cortex*. It has been hypothesized that brain regions that show the most plasticity over the longest periods may be the most sensitive to environmental toxins or stressors.
The Hindbrain
The hindbrain develops originally as one of the three bulges in the embryos neural tube. Evolutionarily, structures within the hindbrain are the most primitive. The *brain stem* comprises about 4.4% of the total weight of an adult brain; the *cerebellum* accounts for an additional 10.5%. The hindbrain consists of three major structures: the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum.
What makes the prefrontal area aware of past experiences?
The hippocampus
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Review Question: What does it mean to say that the cerebral hemispheres show lateralization? What is the typical pattern of lateralization?
The lateralization of brain function refers to how some functions, or cognitive processes tend be more dominant in one hemisphere than the other. The medial longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum. The hemispheres exhibit strong, but not complete, bilateral symmetry in both structure and function. For example, structurally, the lateral sulcus generally is longer in the left hemisphere than in the right hemisphere, and functionally, Broca's area and Wernicke's area are located in the left cerebral hemisphere for about 95% of right-handers, but about 70% of left-handers.The extent of any modularity, or specialization of brain function by area, remains under investigation. If a specific region of the brain, or even an entire hemisphere, is injured or destroyed, its functions can sometimes be assumed by a neighboring region in the same hemisphere or the corresponding region in the other hemisphere, depending upon the area damaged and the patient's age. When injury interferes with pathways from one area to another, alternative (indirect) connections may develop to communicate information with detached areas, despite the inefficiencies.
- Regulation of emotional and sexual behaviours memory and spatial navigation
The limbic system
The cingulate gyrus is part of which part of the brain
The limbic system
Where are the hippocampus and amygdala located?
The limbic system in the temporal lobe
The Problems with Phrenology
The major problem with Phrenology was not the assumption that different parts of the brain controlled different functions, but rather with two subsidiary assumptions:
The Midbrain
The midbrain is located (unsurprisingly) in the middle of the brain. Many of the structures contained in the midbrain (such as the inferior and superior colliculi) are involved in relaying information between other brain regions, such as the cerebellum and forebrain. Another midbrain structure, the *reticular formation*, helps keep us awake and alert and is involved in the sudden arousal we may need to respond to a threatening or attention-grabbing stimulus.
The Motor Cortex
The motor cortex (located in the precentral gyrus) directs fine motor movement.
Neuroplasticity
The nervous system's potential for physical or chemical change that enhances its adaptability to environmental change and its ability to compensate for injury.
Pons (introduction and function)
The region in the brain that is most associated with breathing and generates respiratory rhythms. It is also the part of the brain through which auditory sensual information enters the brain. As part of the brain stem it is involved in motor control, posture, and balance. It is also involved in sensory analysis and is the site at which auditory information enters the brain. During REM we have sleep paralysis. A case study includes a person who had a lesion on the pons. The lesion led to a lack of sleep paralysis
Fanciscus Donders and Subtraction Technique
The strategy used to produce a functional map of the brain is based on a concept introduced by the Dutch psychologists Fanciscus Donders in 1868/1969. He suggested a general method for measuring a cognitive process. This logic has been adapted to develop functional maps of cognitive processes in the brain. He measured the time it took a person to respond (by making a keypress) to a light and subtracted this from the time needed to respond to a particular colour of light. His experiment revealed that discriminating colour requires about 50 msec of cognitive processing. In neuroimaging studies the same logic, termed *subtraction technique*, has been applied to isolate the brain region(s) contributing to a given cognitive process. That is, the relative amount of activation in a particular brain region needed for a given cognitive task can be measured by subtracting a control state (responding to a light) from a task state (discriminating colour).
What is psychopharmacology?
The study of drug-induced changes in mood, sensation, thinking and behavior.
Most useful process for different kinds of understanding
There is still a strong argument among psychologists, biologists, philosophers, and computer scientists over which level of explanation is most useful for different kinds of understanding. However, increasing numbers of cognitive psychologists have become interested in the functioning of the brain as an underpinning for cognitive activity. Although the question of which level provides the most useful process remains, many cognitive psychologists feel they cannot investigate cognition without a working knowledge of how the brain develops and functions. One of the ongoing challenges for cognitive psychologists is developing and applying method of inquiry that can conclusively link cognitive processes to underlying neural activity. A full understanding of how cognitive operations arise from activity of individual neurons, or of distributed brain systems, as well as the functional interaction of various brain regions is the main goal in the growing field of cognitive neuroscience. A related goal is to determine how cognitive functions are affected by damage to certain brain structures, lowering brain injury due to strokes, disease, and accidents.
ventricles
These cerebral structures are interconnected fluid-filled spaces that are extensions of the spinal cord. They have no unique function but provide cushioning against brain damage and are useful landmarks for determining the location of other brain structures.
frontal lobe
These lobes are part of the cerebral cortex and are the largest of the brain's structures. They are the main site of so-called "higher" cognitive functions. These lobes contain a number of important substructures, including the prefrontal cortex, motor and premotor cortices, and Broca's area. These substructures are involved in attention and thought, voluntary movement, decision-making, and language.
Making New Questions and Connections in Cognitive Psychology
These techniques fro studying the way the brain functions make possible new connections and new questions in cognitive psychology. Before the availability of these techniques, cognitive theorists did not refer to the biological mechanisms that implement various cognitive processes. Now cognitive neuroscientists offer us findings from studies based on a new assumption: "The mapping between physical activity in the brain and its functional state is such that when two experimental conditions are associated with different patterns of neural activity, it can be assumed that they have engaged distinct cognitive functions".
- forebrain
Three major components of the CNS with mediating behaviour
Left hemisphere
Timing & ReadingR
What is the function of the spinal cord?
To carry out reflex actions, send sensory information to the brain, and receive motor output from the brain.
Areas of the nervous system rich in fat-sheathed neural axons
White matter
What is most of the cerebrum composed of?
White matter
Lexicale parafasie
Woord vervangen door een bestaand woord
Fonologische parafasie
Woord vervangen door een non-woord
Men kan het object niet benoemen maar wel gebruiken en selecteren
Word form anomie
Lesions in Specific Brain Regions
Work by other neuropsychologists began to establish connections between lesions in particular brain regions and loss of specific motor control or sensory reception. Using research performed either on animals or as part of neurosurgical procedures intended to address problems such as epilepsy, scientists began to "map out" the portion of the frontal lobe known as the motor cortex.
Corticalization
Wrinkling of the cortex over time as you learn
Can antipsychotics decrease agitation?
YES
Can lithium toxicity occur despite apparently normal lithium doses?
YES
Do SSRI antidepressants use the CYP450 system?
YES
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Yet another functional brain-imaging technique, which dates back to the 1970s. This technique involves injecting a radioactively labelled compound (radioisotopes of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine subatomic particles that rapidly emit gamma radiation, which can be detected by devices outside the head). PET scans measure the blood flow to different regions of the brain, allowing an electronic reconstruction of a picture of a brain, showing which areas are most active at a particular time. A variation of the PET procedure involves measuring local metabolic changes instead of blood flow, using an injection of flurodeoxyglucose, a radioisotope structurally similar to glucose. Typically, PET scan visualizations are presented in colour. PET scans rely on the fact that when an area of the brain is more active more blood flows to it, and its cells take up more glucose from the blood vessels that penetrate it. People undergoing PET scans sit with their head in a ring of photocells. A radioactive tracer, typically 15O2 (oxygen with one election removed), is injected into a vein as water, that is, as H2^15O). Within 30 seconds, the tracer starts to reach the brain. The tracer ^15O accumulates in the brain in direct proportion to the amount of blood flowing to that brain region. Within the roughly two minutes before the radioactive tracer decays it its half life several scans can be made, showing the amount of blood flowing to that region.
Parkinson
Ziekte geassocieerd met de basale ganglia gekenmerkt door een gebrek aan willekeurige bewegingen
Oligodendroglia cell, Schwann cell
____ in the CNS and ____ in the PNS myelinated axons
The -- adds emotional overtones, such as fear, to memories.
amygdala
Surface blood vessels
anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries
What is the brain stem responsible for?
automatic survival functions, e.g. breathing, swallowing
• occipital lobe
back of brain, and it controls vision.
charge insided the neuron
before and after the action potential, it is negative
• temporal lobe
behind frontal lobe and below occipital lobe. Auditory including speech and hearing and contains a language area Wernicke's area
• parietal lobe
behind frontal lobe with somatosensory area at the front, and is where sensations are processed
Prosopagnosie
beperking in het verwerking van gezichten zonder moeite in de vroege visuele verwerking. Patiënten kunnen moeilijk bekende gezichten herkennen maar wel via kleren, herkennen. Dit door schade aan de gyrus fusiformus. Het omgekeerde geval is dat iemand een bekende persoon wel herkend maar vertrouwdheid mist (capgras syndroom)
chemical communication always ______ neurons
between
What are the different ways of reuptaking neurotransmitters?
broken down by enzymes, diffuse off, reuptaken into the vesicles
How are neurotransmitters released?
by exocytosis when an action potential reaches the axon terminal
How do neurons communicate?
by transferring neurotransmitters from one neuron to another, which trigger action potentials in neurons
Problems with case studies
can only use if damage occurs in one precise area of the brain
Purkinje cells
carry info from cerebellum to rest of brain and spinal cord
current methods
case study, electrical stimulation, neuroimaging
What are neurotransmitters?
chemical messengers
what are the different parts of a neuron
dendrites, soma (body cells), nucleus, axon, nodes of ranvier, axon terminals (synaptic buttons), myelin sheath
dualism
descartes believed mental ohenomena are different from the physical body
Drug-induced choreoatheosis
dyskinesia
What is oculogyric crisis?
dystonic reaction to certain drugs or medical conditions characterized by a prolonged involuntary upward deviation of the eyes. The term "oculogyric" refers to the bilateral elevation of the visual gaze
contralateral control
each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body
When neurotransmitters bind to postsynaptic receptors, what does the chemical message turn to?
electrical impulses
amygdala
found on each horn of hippocampus, central in many emotion processes, especially forming emotional memories
• frontal lobe
front of brain, controls thinking, planning, and movement and contains a language area Broca's area
The prefrontal area in the -- lobe uses information in the other association areas to plan the body's actions.
frontal
List the 4 lobes of the cerebrum
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
The limbic system is a -- grouping rather than an anatomical one.
functional
Enzyme that makes GABA
glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)
The -- of the spinal cord contains neuron cell bodies.
gray matter
limbic system
group of forebrain structures involve in emotion, learning, motivation, and memory (including hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus)
Broca
had a patient that could only say "tan" but understand language; damage to "broca's area"
• auditory area
hearing loss
Hippocampus
helps create and store new memories forever in cerebral cortex
Myelin Sheath
helps increase speed of electric signal
Injury of subthalamic nucleus
hemiballismus
Inattentional blindness
het niet bewust zijn van een visuele stimulus doordat de aandacht ervan weg wordt getrokken
Change blindness
het niet opvallen van het tevoorschijnkomen of verdwijnen van objecten tussen 2 afwisselende beelden (change detection tasks)
The -- acts as a conduit for sending information to long-term memory and retrieving it again.
hippocampus
Because tracts cross over, the -- side of the brain controls the -- side of the body and vice versa.
left , right
Within the diencephalon, the hypothalamus controls --.
homeostasis
What does HPA axis stand for?
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
Where is corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) made?
hypothalamus
electrical communication is almost always _____ the neurons
in
Dendrites -> cell body -> axon -> end foot
in a neuron information flows
pyramidal cells
in cerebral cortex have about 40,000 synaptic contacts with other neurons, triangular body and single, long dendrite with smaller dendrites
Where are neurotransmitters stored?
in vesicles, in the terminal buttons, in the presynaptic neuron
Met welk hersendeel wordt ideomotor apraxie geassocieerd
inferieure pariëtale lob
Met welk hersendeel wordt neglect geassocieerd
inferieure pariëtale lob
Met welk hersendeel wordt associatieve agnosie geassocieerd
inferotemporale cortex
Afferent
information a sensory information coming into the CNS (incoming information)
Efferent
information is information leaving the CNS (outgoing information)
Met welk hersendeel wordt spraakapraxia geassocieerd
insula en basale ganglia
fusiform gyrus
invariant facial feature processing
glial cells
makes up the myelinate sheath
pituitary gland
master hormonal gland
Parkinson's disease
maybe caused by loss of dopamine producing neurons
EEG
measures brain activity near-surface with electrodes
left hippocampus
memory for context
Phagocytes of the central nervous system
microglia
Cell body (soma)
nucleus of the neuron
A visual association area occurs in the -- lobe.
occipital
Met welk hersendeel wordt apperceptieve agnosie geassocieerd
occipitale of pariëtale lob
summation
occurs if there are more excitatory signals than inhibitory signals causing the neuron to fire, creating an electrical impulse
Myelinating neuroglia, affected in multiple sclerosis
oligodendrocyte
Object-oriëntatie agnosie
onmogelijkheid om de oriëntatie van een object af te leiden ondanks correcte objectherkenning. Objectconstantie door het gebruiken van een kijker-onafhankelijke route die niet gebruik maakt van het afleiden van de centrale as
P600 response
overlap between music & language
Released in childbirth
oxytocin
What does the midbrain do?
relays impulses from the cerebrum to the spinal cord or cerebellum and houses reflexes for visual, auditory, and tactile responses.
Efference copy
representatie van het motorisch bevel die gestuurd wordt naar relevante sensorische gebieden
Learning takes place when we...
retain and utilize past memories
Retinal site of night vision
rod cell
N400 response
semantic violations
Within the diencephalon, the thalamus specializes in sending all --, except the sense of smell, to the cerebrum.
sensory input
bipolar cells
sensory neurons in retinas of eye
Hypothalamus plays a major role in the body's response to.____________ and is therefore________________________.
stress (which would explain why it is linked to pupil dilation) Consequentially it is the corner stone of the HPA axis.
pons
structure relaying information from cerebellum to rest of brain
An auditory association area occurs in the -- lobe.
temporal
transmission
transfer of signal from one neuron to neuron
