Cognitive Psych Exam 3

Phonemes and graphemes do not have one-to-one correspondences Ex. -You can lead a horse to water. -The pipes were made of lead.

(Same orthography, different phonology: Same graphemes, different phonemes)

What makes a language?

-Language has a hierarchical structure -Components (smallest first) are: -phonemes and graphemes -(morphemes) e.g., "unhealthily" = un-, health, -ily (3 morphemes) -syntax -semantics -pragmatics

Language Perception

-Most of the language that we try to understand is either spoken or written (leaving aside things like sign language or reading braille).

Summary of Language

-Natural language (only humans?) -Regular: governed by rules (grammar) -Arbitrary: no resemblance between words and what they mean -Discrete: can be divided into components -Productive -Infinite number of ways to properly combine words -Can describe anything: new situations, actions, objects -Only humans use language possessing ALL of the proposed properties of a natural language

Syntax-first Study : Rayner et al.

-The boy hit the girl with the wart (complex syntax) -The boy hit the girl with the stick (simple syntax) y-axis: word fixation- hoe long they spent looking at each word, x-axis: fixation position, "binoculars/revolver but the cop" - this sentence is read and measured - when revolver was used ( it was more complex syntax) and took longer to look at by the participant -simpler syntax does not make sense --> have to look twice--> reading slows down -simple syntax faster to look at (binoculars)

Processing Language

-The comprehender (listener or reader) has to reconstruct the language producer's meaning input: the cat chased the rat--> language perception : we see "cat", hear "/k/ae/t/"-->word recognition: among other words, like dog or cat, you recognize cat--> syntatic analysis: the cat (noun) chased (verb) the rat(noun) --> semantic and pragmatic analysis - remeber tom and jerry episode

Theortical approaches:

-The syntax-first approach (e.g., Frazier, 1987; Frazier & Fodor, 1978) proposed that we construct one syntactic structure based on a set of parsing principles that focus on syntactic information alone. -That structure is then evaluated against the semantics and context and revised if it does not make sense. -A key prediction of this approach was that the parsing process computes the initial syntactic structure based entirely on syntactic information and that contextual and semantic information is only used afterward. -One of the syntactic principles proposed was that simpler structures are preferred over complex ones. - The syntactic structure s considered the simpler structure because it has fewer branching points or nodes (six constituents), while the one is more complex because it has more nodes (seven constituents).

Grapheme

Grapheme = equivalent to phoneme but for written language (e.g., 'p' vs. 'f')

Syntactic Analysis

"Enraged cow injures farmer with ax" a.) simpler: Enraged cow "injures farmer with ax" (verb phrase) b.) Enraged cow "injures" (verb) farmer with ax (verb phrase )

Semantics (Meaning) - define - in these views, the - other theories include ex. shakespeares

- : meaning contained within language -In these views, the semantic representations are the conceptual representations corresponding to words and sentences (e.g., Jackendoff, 1994, 2010). -Other theories include semantic representations within the language processing systems separate from the conceptual system (e.g., Pavlenko, 1999). In these theories the semantic representations serve to map verbal labels to their corresponding concepts. ex. Shakespeare's "a rose by any other name would smell as sweet" illustrates this distinction. The flower name rose is a word, with phonological (made up of phonemes /r/ /oa/ /z/) and syntactic properties (noun), while the concept corresponding to a rose might include features like these: scented flower from genus Rosa, comes in many colors and varieties, stems often have thorns.

Wernicke's aphasia - Karl Wernicke described a patient who had - patients with damage to this area

- Karl Wernicke (1874) described a patient who had suffered damage to the posterior part of his temporal lobe and was described as having relatively fluent, syntactically intact production but impaired comprehension. -Patients with damage to this area who exhibit similar deficits are diagnosed as having Wernicke's aphasia.

Are semantics and phonology accessed serially in language production? MEYER study

- Task: name the object in the picture out loud, while hearing distracting words in headphones see a dog, say "dog" "DOT..." (phonologically related) "CAT..." (semantically related) "SHIP ..." (unrelated) -150 ;word was played first before picture -0 word and picture ate same time +150- word is played after the picture - Dot would help prime for the picture of a dog, so you can quicker say dog - so semantic processing is happening first and phoneme is later on * longer reaction tine when cat was presented and a picture of dog was shown * ship had the same reaction time for all three trials - dot helped when word was olayed first and at the same time, but not after *semantics before phonology

Speech Errors -While speech errors are often referred to as -. In other words, most word errors involve -Analyses have also revealed that sound errors typically involve - Another regularity is that sound errors result in

- While speech errors are often referred to as "slips of the tongue," analyses of the pattern of errors suggest that most of them result from higher-level processes rather than the motor control of the tongue. - In other words, most word errors involve words from the same syntactic category. In sound errors, most vowels interact with other vowels and consonants with other consonants. Regularities like these suggest that words, syntax, and sounds are likely to be processed separately during production. -Analyses have also revealed that sound errors typically involve elements relatively close together, while word errors may involve words farther apart, again suggesting that lexical and phonological processing may occur separately. - Another regularity is that sound errors result in actual words more often than expected by chance.

Alignment theory -Garrod and Pickering (2004) proposed a framework to -Their theory, called the alignment theory, proposes that the -That is, successful communication involves -They proposed that the mechanism -As people converse, they often repeat

-Garrod and Pickering (2004) proposed a framework to describe how production and comprehension processes interact during dialogue. -Their theory, called the alignment theory, proposes that the goal of conversation is the alignment of the representations of the speaker and listener. -That is, successful communication involves aligning the phonological, syntactic, semantic, and situational models in both participants for successful communication. -They proposed that the mechanism through which alignment occurs is priming, -As people converse, they often repeat sounds, words, syntax, and meanings. Over the course of the dialogue, via priming, the sets of representations activated in the people become more and more coordinated.

-The behaviorist approach, as advanced by -Chomsky (1959) argued against this -Chomsky instead proposed that we *Children learn language in a - the interactionist approaches

-The behaviorist approach, as advanced by B. F. Skinner (1957), theorized that language learning could be explained through principles of reinforced imitation. -Chomsky (1959) argued against this explanation because it could not account for the infinite productivity of language; children can comprehend and produce utterances they have never heard before. -Chomsky instead proposed that we come innately prewired with knowledge about language and that language acquisition is a maturational process, like learning to walk. *Children learn language in a predetermined way when in an appropriate language context. - the interactionist approaches (e.g., Golinkoff, Mervis, & Hirsh-Pasek, 1994; Markman, 1989), which propose that language learning is the result of the interaction between experience and biological predispositions for language and cognition.

Mental or situational model - the end - the situational model is a - for ex. -Support for this approach comes from

-The end product of comprehension is a mental representation of what the entire discourse is about. - The situational model is a mental representation of the current interpretation, which may be influenced by inferences drawn from a schema. - For example, our story does not describe the coffee shop where Bill and Ted are talking, but your situational model may contain inferences drawn from what you expect at a typical coffee shop (e.g., Bill and Ted are sitting at a small table with two chairs, Ted has a cup of coffee in front of him). -Support for this approach comes from findings suggesting that language comprehension is tightly connected to the perceptual representations of the situations described

Language Production: Formulation divded into 3 : 1. a. b. 2. a. b. 3. evidence that stages are seperate:

1.Input/ conceptualixation/ message level 2. Formulation : divided into 3 chuncks : 1. Functional level- a. functional assembely ( semantic role of word in sentences)- subject, verb, object b. Lexical selection: exactly the word that fits, word to be uttered (cow, cat, rat, mouse) 2. Positional level - what position the words will be in ( assemble components into grammatical struture) a. Syntatic assembly- need to assemebly in structure by understanding hoe verbs and nouns work b. Morpheme retrieval - retrieve word from morphemes ( cat, rat, chase) 3. Form level: appropriate sounds dormulated - phonological, orthograohic, retrieval and assembly - /k/ae/t/ - cat: written 4. leads to output and articulation *Sophie had brain damage could still write, but couldnt do syntatcial assembly ( had telegram speech) but we know that they are seperate

"Enraged cow injures farmer with ax" -syntax can -meaning is not only -two sentences with identical surface structures can have - in figure. a there are six .. - in figure.b. there are seven consituent nodes,

6 constituents: Enraged cow injurers farmer with ax 7 constiutents: Enraged cow injures farmer with ax *Syntax can profoundly affect meaning. *Meaning is not derived from words alone. -Two sentences with identical surface structures can have two different interpretations depending on the underlying abstract syntactic structure. In (a) there are six constituent nodes, and the prepositional phrase (PP) modifies the verb phrase (VP), resulting in an interpretation of "the cow injures with the ax." In (b) there are seven constituent nodes, and the prepositional phrase is attached to the noun phrase (NP), modifying farmer and resulting in an interpretation of "the farmer with the ax."

What kinds of info are contained in the mental lexicon entry for a particular word :

: how the word is pronounced , what part of speech the word is (syntax), the meaning of the word (semantic).

Phoneme -define -distinguishes -ex. - a single syllable can -ex. - set of phenomes differs - american english

= a unit of sound that -distinguishes one word from another -e.g., pat versus fat differ by /p/ vs. /f/. -A single syllable can contain more than one phoneme e.g. 'an' = /a/ and /n/. -Set of phonemes differs for each language -American English has roughly 40 phonemes, Hawaiian has as few as 13

Phoneme restoration effect: -ex.

the use of top-down processing to comprehend fragmented language -Richard Warren (1970) presented listeners with the sentence "The state governors met with their respective legislatures convening in the capital city," but he removed the first /s/ in legislatures and replaced it with a cough. The listener's task was to report where the cough had occurred and whether he or she noticed anything else about the sentence. Not only were his participants unable to correctly identify the location of the cough, none of them noticed that the /s/ was missing. Instead, they used their knowledge of the word to "fill in" the missing input.

family resemblance

things belonging to a category are related by virtue of having a set of overlapping similar set of features - points not to a single set of defining features but rather to members of categories connected by overlapping sets of features. In this approach, concepts are not defined by necessary and sufficient features but rather connected by a series of overlapping similarities across features

Language Production

-Conceptualization -Formulation -Articulation

Language summary I

-Verbal language is unique to humans -Human language is highly structured -Phonetics, Orthography, Syntax and Semantics can all be ambiguous -But putting them together (with pragmatics) can help us interpret language correctly -Next time: language comprehension (contd.), language production, language in animals

Language comprehensions - the comprehenders job is to try to -ex. conside what you have to do to understand the sentence

-the comprehender's job is to try to reconstruct the intended meaning of the speaker (or writer). ex. Consider what you have to do to understand the sentence "The cat chased the rat." You must identify the sounds (or letters) that make up the words, retrieve their meanings, build the appropriate syntactic structure, and then combine that information into an overall interpretation of the sentence

Basic phrase structure rules for English 1. 2. 3.

1. A sentence (S) is made up of a noun phrase and a verb phrase [S: NP + VP] 2. A noun phrase (NP) is made up of a noun (N) that may be modified by an article, an adjective, and a prepositional phrase [NP: (art) (adj) N (PP)] 3. A prepositional phrase (PP) is made up of a preposition followed by a noun phrase [PP: Prep + NP]

Lexical Recognition and Access Multiple levels of representation -top-level -bottom-level semantic neighbors -orthographic neighbors

-Lexicon: a mental 'dictionary' containing all the words we know -Recognition: finding the word in the dictionary -Access: reading the dictionary entry for the word Top-level: words are organized according to semantics; like laptop, mouse, monitor, smartphone Bottom-level: words organized according to letters; tree, tread, trade (orthographic representations) semantic neighbors- all about a similar topic, go together, co-occuring in environment orthographic neighbors- the words are spelled similarly

Morphemes are the

Morphemes are the smallest components of a word that convey meaning and grammatical properties

The word kindness contains:

The word kindness contains: Kind-ness = 2 morphemes ; k/I/n/d/n/e/s/= 7 phenomes ; kindness is a noun;

Saying "One, two, three" waveform spectogram

Waveform: millisecond precision on amplitude of speaker's voice. Time (x axis) versus amplitude (y axis). Spectrogram: breakdown of different frequencies present in speaker's voice, over time. This has three dimensions: time (x), frequency (y), and amplitude (color).

tip-of-the-tongue state

-the tip-of-the-tongue state (James, 1890). It is thought to reflect a state in which you have accessed the semantic and syntactic representations of a word but not the phonological form of the word.

The mental lexicon

Explanations of both the word superiority effect and the phoneme restoration effect rely on having mental representations of words. It is estimated that people generally know from 40,000 to 60,000 words (Aitchison, 2003). The collection of the representations of these words in our long-term memory is called the mental lexicon.

*The exchange of a noun for a noun is an error in ____ and the exchange of a vowel for a vowel is an error in :

lexical selection/ phonological retrieval and assembly

What is human language?

What is human language? Asystem for exchanging info between individuals, a verbal from of communication, a symbolic communication system that is learned instead of biologically inherited

Context - it also impacts Ex. rumor had it - shortly after hearing the word bugs participants saw - if the word appeared right after the word -a number of variables impact

- context also impacts a words meaning ex. "Rumor had it that, for years, the government building has been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of his room." -Shortly after hearing the word bugs participants saw either ant (related to the insect meaning of bug, consistent with the context), spy (related to the listening-device meaning of bug, inconsistent with the context), or sew (unrelated to any meanings of bug). -If the word appeared right after the word bugs, then both ant and spy were recognized faster than sew. However, if the word appeared 200 milliseconds after bugs, only ant was primed (spy and sew were the same). This shows that initially both meanings were accessed, but shortly afterward, only the contextually appropriate meaning remained. -As we have seen, a number of variables impact how quickly we recognize a word and access its meaning. One of these important factors is the sentence context in which words appear.

Do animals have language? Alex the PArrot - he is? -abilites.. Was it truly language? Or was he just taught a script? Or guessing the responses via cues from the humans in the room?

- extensively trained; he may have been trained to recognize this - Abilities far beyond most other parrots - did he go over these questions over and over,

Empirical Problems with definitions as concepts - many empirical findings suggest that -One characteristic of the definition approach is that -BUT , McCloskey and Glucksberg STUDY - the data suggest that

- many empirical findings suggest that the classical view of concepts as definitions is incorrect. -One characteristic of the definition approach is that it determines whether something is part of a category, but once something is determined to be a category member it does not make distinctions between category members. - they presented participants with pair of words -The second word was a category name. The participants' task was to quickly judge whether the first word was a member of that category (e.g., dog-mammal, participants should indicate yes). Their results indicated that for some items, this task was easy: Items were either clear members (e.g., chair-furniture, yes) or clear nonmembers (cucumber-furniture, no). However, some items were much more difficult (e.g., bookcase-furniture; curtains-furniture). For these items, there was disagreement across participants (with some responding yes and others no) - data suggest that we do not treat all members of a category equally. Instead we behave as if some members of a category are "better" than others.

Our mental lexicon is organized along... - perhaps the most powerful variable is .. - the more frequently a -Neighboring words .. - morphologically complex words take longer than

- many other dimensions - Perhaps the most powerful variable is how often a word is used—its lexical frequency. -The more frequently a word is used, the faster that word is recognized (e.g., Monsell, 1991). -"Neighboring" words (those that have similar orthographic spellings) also affect recognition. Generally, words with large neighborhoods (the set of words that differ by changing one letter) have more competition and take longer to recognize. -Morphologically complex words take longer than morphologically simple words (hunter made up of hunt and -er takes longer to recognize than daughter, which is a single morpheme).

Semantic -"a rose by any other name would smell as sweet" - words are - most researchers make a - rose is a word made of - but there is also the concept of rose.. -Like the rattle on a rattlesnake, but NOT - easily forgotten if not ex. - sometimes the components confer - does semantic= - some linguists believe semantics and concepts - others believe that semantic representation is the -ex.

-"a rose by any other name would smell as sweet" -words are arbitrary labels for concepts; doesnt tell us anything about meaning -Most researchers make a distinction between words and the related mental concepts -Rose is a word made of phonemes with syntactic properties -But there's also the concept of rose (scented flower, different colors, stems with thorns) -Like the rattle on a rattlesnake, but NOT like the baboon baring his teeth -easily forgotten if not well-learned, e.g., name of someone you just met -sometimes the components confer meaning in separate chunks ("untouchables") -does semantic = conceptual? (debated) -some linguists believe semantics and concepts have the same representations -others believe that semantic representation is the word representation and conceptual is a separate non-linguistic representation - e.g. bilinguals have two semantic representations (1 in each language) for a single concept.

Top-down contextual information - the word superiority effect ex.

-. In other words, we use information we already know about words to help us interpret incoming language. Ex. Consider the "letter" in the top part of Figure 9.5. Is it an A or an H? Now consider it in the bottom half of the figure. Most people interpret it as an H when in THE and as an A when in CAT. Letters are easier to identify if they are embedded within words compared to nonword contexts or in isolation. This is called the word superiority effect

*What is human language? -define -differs from : - arbitrary ex. - non-arbitrary ex. - productive -syntax

-A system of symbols used to communicate ideas -Differs from other forms of communication: -Arbitrary: symbols have no intrinsic meaning -non-arbitrary - picture of snake with mouth open, it is non-arbitrary cause we know that it will attack - arbitrary- snake hiding; dont know what it will do , so arbitrary -Productive: infinite number of ideas can be expressed -Syntax: rules for how symbols can be arranged; e.g. grammar

Language Perception -ambiguities - problems with speech: -co-articulaton - invariance - there are differences between

-Ambiguities: "the stuff he knows is dangerous" -Problems with speech: -co-articulation (phonemes are altered by what comes immediately before and after) -the invariance problem (analogous to object vision) -There are differences between comprehension processes for spoken and written language

Language Production - mistakes tell us - mistakes typically swap - because we evidence: phoneme exchange/shifts

-Mistakes tell us about the structure of language production processes (like in memory!) -mistakes typically swap 'like for like' -Because we switch a vowel for a vowel, seems like we have already sorted out the 'structure' of the word in our mind, we just slotted in the wrong phoneme. Type: Phenomes exchange: york library--> lork yibary anticipation: reading list--> leading list Perservation: beef noodle--> beef needle Addition: blue bug--> blue blug Shift: Black boxes--> back boxes Deletion: same state--> same sate - phonemes exchanges/ shifts: you have done everyhting else but at form level we make mistakes, its proof that there are seperate processes, becuase you are switching out at a phoneme level

Syntactic Analysis a.) "The spy saw the cop with the binoculars, but the cop didn't see him" ' b.)"The spy saw the cop with the revolver, but the cop didn't see him" c. "The boy hit the girl with the stick, but she didn't cry" d. "The boy hit the girl with the wart, but she didn't cry"

-As comprehenders, how do we parse sentences? -Syntax-first? a.) "The spy saw the cop with the binoculars, but the cop didn't see him" (simpler syntax makes sense)- simple cause "with the binoculars is attached to saw " b.)"The spy saw the cop with the revolver, but the cop didn't see him" (simpler syntax does not make sense --> have to use complex syntax) ( cause you cant see with the revolver, so the revolver is attached to the cop *'Simple syntax' is the version where "with binoculars/revolver" is attached to verb phrase "saw" - using simple syntax is hard in complex sample c. "The boy hit the girl with the stick, but she didn't cry" (simpler syntax makes sense,) d. "The boy hit the girl with the wart, but she didn't cry" (simpler syntax does not make sense have to use complex syntax) 'Simple syntax' is the version where "with stick/wart" is attached to verb phrase

Language in non-human primates? - attempt to - Kanzi - spontaneous use - limited in - never

-Attempts to teach language to non-human primates -Kanzi: Keyboard lexigrams, vocalizations, ASL -Spontaneous use and combination of symbols -Limited in number (never as good as 3 year old) -Never create new ones

Language Production

-BUT, evidence against idea that all levels are independent: sound errors result in real words more often than expected by chance - we are more likely to mistake a real word then non-word ex. I walked my dog mistake would be : I walked my bog. - this error occurs at the form level, because you subed in a phoneme ( change in one letter)

Language onset -Bipedalism leads to -Larynx (voice box) -Larynx is -Lets us produce -If the vocal tract evolved -by 100,000 years ago -by 30,000 years ago -By 5,000 years ago -Likely that

-Bipedalism leads to L-shaped vocal tract -Larynx (voice box) - organ in neck containing vocal cords. Controls pitch of speech -Larynx is descended in humans -Lets us produce a wider range of sounds -If the vocal tract evolved continuously throughout the Homo lineage, this perhaps indicates gradual language development -by 100,000 years ago - tools from multiple materials with multiple categories of function -by 30,000 years ago - cave painting, instruments, sculpture -By 5,000 years ago - written language (in Mesopotamia) -Likely that full language developed with or soon after H. Sapiens

Interpreting Sentences: Syntactic Analysis - building the - syntactic parsing - Chomsky made a - deep structure - surface structure -transformations of the deep structure.. -these processes were proposed to explain things like

-Building the syntactic structure (called syntactic parsing) impacts how a sentence is understood. -Syntactic parsing: building the syntactic structure of a sentence -Chomsky made a distinction between deep structure (derived from phrase structure rules like those discussed earlier) and surface structure (the linear order that actually gets produced). - the meaning of a sentence -the order of words presented in a sentence -Transformations of the deep structure (e.g., adding, deleting, and moving syntactic constituents) result in the final surface structure. -These processes were proposed to explain things like why the active sentence "the dog bit the man" and the passive sentence "the man was bitten by the dog" can mean the same thing. They both come from the same underlying deep structure, but the passive version has undergone a transformation to make it passive (the passive transformation rule would be something like this: move the second NP the man to the front, add was before the verb, add -en to the verb, and add by before the first NP the dog).

In English: Components of language : -FORM -GRAMMAR -MEANING -USE

-Components of language (smallest first) are: -FORM: phonemes + graphemes (phonology/orthography) -GRAMMAR: syntax -MEANING: semantics -USE: pragmatics

Experiments examining agreement processes

-Experiments examining agreement processes (e.g., subject-verb agreement, pronoun gender agreement) have been used to explore the separation of semantic and syntactic levels of processing in production. Consider the following sentence. a. The knife is on the table. At first it may seem straightforward. The subject of the sentence is singular (referring to a knife), so you need to use the singular verb form is. But now consider the sentence in (b). b. The scissors are on the table. In this sentence the subject refers to a single pair of scissors, but the correctly agreeing verb form is are. Bipartite words (things having two parts, e.g., scissors, pliers, and pants) demonstrate that the property of the plural form has both a semantic and syntactic component to it. To examine how these semantic and syntactic components are used in production, Kathryn Bock and colleagues (e.g., Bock & Eberhard, 1993; Bock & Miller, 1991; Bock, Eberhard, Cutting, Meyer, & Schriefers, 2001; Humphrey & Bock, 2005) used a sentence completion task in which speakers were presented with the beginning of a sentence up to but not including the verb. c. The cutting board under the knives... d. The cutting board under the scissors... The speaker's task was to repeat and complete the sentence fragment. When presented with sentences like those presented in (c) and (d), speakers made errors and completed the sentences using a plural verb (e.g., "The cutting board under the knives are getting old"). Instead of using a verb that agreed with the subject noun (cutting board), the participants sometimes used a plural verb agreeing with the plural "local noun" (knives or scissors) from the prepositional phrase. The results, shown in Figure 9.16, suggest that notional and grammatical number agreement processes operate differently at separate stages during production.

-For example, Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek, and colleagues proposed -The model hypothesizes that -They argue that infants are - In a series of studies (Hollich et al., 2000; Pruden, Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, & Hennon, 2006), they presented -During the learning phase of the experiment, the researchers -They also manipulated the social cues -This allowed the researchers to see how -Following the learning phase, they tested whether -This was done in three ways: -The results showed that -Brandone, Pence, Golinkoff, and Hirsh-Pasek (2007) used a similar methodology to examine

-For example, Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek, and colleagues proposed the emergent coalition model (Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, & Hollich, 2000). -The model hypothesizes that early word learning begins associatively but transitions to social and cognitive constraint-driven processes. -They argue that infants are born with biases to attend to and integrate attentional (e.g., perceptual salience, temporal contiguity), social (e.g., eye gaze, social context), and linguistic (e.g., grammar, intonation) cues when learning words. - In a series of studies (Hollich et al., 2000; Pruden, Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, & Hennon, 2006), they presented two objects to infants (ten, twelve, and twenty-four months old) with a person situated between the objects. -During the learning phase of the experiment, the researchers manipulated the perceptual salience of the objects: one object was very interesting (e.g., brightly colored, moving parts) while the other was less interesting (e.g., dull color, stationary). -They also manipulated the social cues by having the person naming the object (e.g., "Look a modi!") stare at one of the objects (see Figure 9.17). -This allowed the researchers to see how the attentional and social cues interact during learning. -Following the learning phase, they tested whether the infant had learned the name. -This was done in three ways: (1) they presented the two objects and asked the child to look at the object with the label (e.g., "Can you find the modi?"), (2) they presented a "new label" to see if the infant would look away, and (3) they mentioned the original label to see if the infant's gaze returned to the object. -The results showed that ten-month-old infants used only the perceptual salience to connect the name to the object, twelve-month-old infants learned the name only when the perceptual and social cues aligned, and twenty-four-month-olds learned the names using only the social cues. -Brandone, Pence, Golinkoff, and Hirsh-Pasek (2007) used a similar methodology to examine verb learning. They found that two-year-olds were able to learn new verbs when perceptual cues (whether an action produced a result like a sound or a light) and speaker cues (both linguistic and social cues) matched but not when they mismatched.

Semantic Priming - having links.. -demo - response: ex. other exs. Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971): Results * significantly faster response for * May aid in - ex.

-Having links to semantic neighbors can help with word recognition -Demo: say aloud whether the two letter strings on screen are both words or not -"Yes" or "No" ex. you are quicker able to recognize monitor, if you are shown laptop; other exs. smartphone, laptop, monitior, mouse, calculator, keyboard, camera, tablet Meyer and Sch. : Participant are shown words and non-words quickly and participants say if its either yes or no - some words were associated like "nurse and doctor" -non-associated words were like " rabbit and coffee" Results: top string : word bottom string: associate word vs. non-associated word correct response: "yes" response time for non-associated: 855 ms , % errors: 8..7 response time for associated: 940 ms . % errors: 6.3 *Significantly faster response times for associated words than non-associated words *May aid sentence comprehension (sentence context 'primes' semantically related words to make recognition easier) ex. I got bread and a knife and went to the fridge to get ____ - you would think butter quicker cause they are associated

-He proposed that although different systems of animal communication may include some of these features -These features include aspects -Chomsky, and Fitch (2002) have proposed that the

-He proposed that although different systems of animal communication may include some of these features, only human language includes all of them. -These features include aspects of language related to issues we have discussed earlier in the chapter: productivity, semanticity, arbitrariness, duality of patterning, and traditional transmission. Hauser, -Chomsky, and Fitch (2002) have proposed that the minimum distinguishing characteristic of human language is recursive syntax. Recursion occurs when a rule calls for a version of itself.

Pragmatics - define - how we interpret lanuage not ex. -"Do you have the time?" -"Please pass me the salt from over there --When I ask a colleague whether she was impressed by a student's essay and she replies "Well, he has good hand-writing"... what do I infer?

-How we use language, in practice -How we interpret language not literally but rather in the most sensible or informative possible way: -"Do you have the time?" -"Please pass me the salt from over there" -When I ask a colleague whether she was impressed by a student's essay and she replies "Well, he has good hand-writing"... what do I infer? * It means that everything else wasnt good , but there handwriting was

Alternative interaction approach --However, a number of research findings led to the development of an -Ex. Taraban and McClelland (1988) presented readers sentences with the --Using these sentences, they found the -Even though sentence - Results like these demonstrate

-However, a number of research findings led to the development of an alternative interactive approach that suggests that other variables may influence the initial parse (e.g., Altmann, 1998; Gibson & Pearlmutter, 1998). -For example, Taraban and McClelland (1988) presented readers sentences with the same syntactic ambiguity that Rayner et al. (1983) investigated but with stronger semantic information biasing the more complex interpretation. -Using these sentences, they found the opposite pattern of results. -Even though sentence (d) has a more complex syntactic structure, reading times were faster - Results like these demonstrate strong support for the interactive approach to syntactic analysis.

-Infants don't learn language in isolation; instead they are -- Parents talk to and play with their children - Speech directed at infants - It typically has -Eye contact and smiling provide

-Infants don't learn language in isolation; instead they are typically actively engaged in highly interactive and social contexts. - Parents talk to and play with their children (Hart & Risley, 1995, estimated that parents direct three hundred to four hundred utterances an hour to their children). - Speech directed at infants (called child-directed speech) typically differs from that between adults. - It typically has fewer words, less complex syntax, more repetition, and exaggerated prosodic structure (higher pitched, slower, longer pauses, and distinctive contours). These speech simplifications provide infants important cues that assist in their language learning (Dominey & Dodane, 2004). -Eye contact and smiling provide strong social cues. Snow (1977) has argued that as early as one month infants learn some basic turn-taking rules of conversation through the playful "dialogues" with their caregivers (e.g., "Ooh, was that a burp? Are you burping at me?" The parent then pauses and waits until the infant makes another vocalization. "You were! You were burping at me."). Parent-infant interactions provide a rich environment, full of linguistic information to help the child learn language.

Ambiguous News Headlines: -Juvenile Court to Try Shooting Defendant -Red tape holds up new bridge -Miners Refuse to Work after Death -Retired priest may marry Springsteen -Local High School Dropouts Cut in Half -Panda Mating Fails; Veterinarian Takes Over -Kids Make Nutritious Snacks -Squad Helps Dog Bite Victim -Hospitals are Sued by 7 Foot Doctors

-Juvenile Court to Try Shooting Defendant -Red tape holds up new bridge -Miners Refuse to Work after Death -Retired priest may marry Springsteen -Local High School Dropouts Cut in Half -Panda Mating Fails; Veterinarian Takes Over -Kids Make Nutritious Snacks -Squad Helps Dog Bite Victim -Hospitals are Sued by 7 Foot Doctors

Language production - typically lags behind teh - early vocal behavior consists of - 4-5 monthst they -10 months they -12 months they -2nd birthday they - 3rd birthday -Children's utterances initially consist of single words, -By their third year their utterances continue to get

-Language production typically lags behind language comprehension, in areas other than vocabulary as well. -Early vocal behavior consists of nonlinguistic vegetative sounds (e.g., crying, burps, sucking noises), but as early as six weeks, infants begin cooing vowel sounds. -By four to five months they begin babbling and producing clear consonant vowel clusters (e.g., ba, gi), followed by reduplicated babbling (e.g., baba, gigi). - By ten months infants begin to show more complex babbling, combining sounds into incomprehensible wordlike utterances (e.g., dab gogotah), and - by twelve months their utterances may be showing evidence of the phonological rules of their environmental language. At this point they may begin to use their first words, often pointing at things to which they refer. -By their second birthday they may use two hundred to three hundred words (typically focused on the "here and now," like important people and objects that can be moved or manipulated), and -by their third birthday they can use one thousand words. Nouns typically appear before verbs. -Children's utterances initially consist of single words, but in their second year they start to combine words to produce longer "telegraphic" speech, leaving out grammatical words (e.g., articles like the and a and prepositions like by and for). -By their third year their utterances continue to get longer and more complex. They typically use full sentences and can form questions, make negative statements, and use grammatical morphemes.

-Newborns enter the world without -DeCasper, Lecanuet, Busnel, Granier-Deferre, and Maugeais (1994) had -At the thirty-eighth week a new or old story was read while -Heart rates -Mahler et al. (1988) demonstrated that four-day-old infants could -By their sixth month, -From six to twelve months they can -From age one to two years, children can -At this age children often exhibit -It is estimated that children typically understand nearly -Vocabulary growth continues rapidly,

-Newborns enter the world without being able to use language, but evidence suggests they have some experience and knowledge very early on, perhaps even before birth. -DeCasper, Lecanuet, Busnel, Granier-Deferre, and Maugeais (1994) had mothers read stories to their fetuses during pregnancy. -At the thirty-eighth week a new or old story was read while the fetuses' heart rates were measured. -Heart rates slowed in response to the old stories, demonstrating that even in the womb, fetuses could distinguish between the two stories. -Mahler et al. (1988) demonstrated that four-day-old infants could distinguish between spoken French and Russian. As already mentioned earlier in the chapter, one-month-old infants can distinguish between most of the phonological contrasts of all the languages of the world. -By their sixth month, infants typically can recognize their own names and respond to "no." -From six to twelve months they can recognize names of familiar objects, foods, and body parts (Bergelson & Swingley, 2012). -From age one to two years, children can point to objects and pictures when named and understand some requests or questions (e.g., "Push the truck" or "Where's the horsey?"). -At this age children often exhibit overextension, applying the words they know to more things than adults do (e.g., doggie may be used to refer to all four-legged animals) and underextension (e.g., using car to refer to a particular car rather than all cars). -It is estimated that children typically understand nearly three times more words than they produce at this stage. -Vocabulary growth continues rapidly, and by the third year the vocabulary gap between production and comprehension narrows. Also by the third year they can answer who, what, and where questions.

-One proposal to account for this is that we use our comprehension system to -Levelt (1983) called this approach -The theory is that -Griffin monitored speakers' -However, recent evidence suggests that '] -Even our disfluencies (e.g., "ums" and "uhs") may be

-One proposal to account for this is that we use our comprehension system to monitor our ongoing productions, not only after we have said them but also before their actual articulation. -Levelt (1983) called this approach the perceptual loop. -The theory is that even before we articulate our planned utterances, we run our "inner speech plan" through our comprehension system to look for errors so that we can make corrections before articulation. -Zenzi Griffin (2004) reported findings consistent with this proposal. -She monitored speakers' eye movements while they described pictures. She found that speakers gazed at named objects longer when they named them incorrectly and then corrected the error. -However, recent evidence suggests that comprehension alone may not be sufficient for monitoring errors -Even our disfluencies (e.g., "ums" and "uhs") may be meaningful. Fox Tree (2001) has suggested that the "ums" and "uhs" we produce may be used to signal comprehenders of upcoming production difficulties. Research findings like these provide strong support for the notion that we may use our production and comprehension processes together during language use.

Form: Phonology and Orthography -Phoneme - does not -ex. kill vs. kiss -Grapheme -ex. kill vs. kiss *If a unit of sound carries meaning..

-Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that can change meaning in a language -does not necessarily carry meaning (changes it) -kill vs. kiss : exchange the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/ -Grapheme: a letter or a number of letters that represent a sound (phoneme) in a word -kill vs. kiss : exchange the grapheme <ll> for the grapheme <ss> *If a unit of sound carries meaning, it is a morpheme (it may also be a phoneme and a whole word!)

- properties of the word alone are not the - words may be STUDY - Meyer and Scvaneveldt presented participants with - they demonstrated that people - similar results have been found with

-Properties of the word alone are not the only factors that affect word recognition; the context in which they occur also matters. -Words may be "primed" by other words (see Figure 9.8). Study: Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971) presented participants with a list of strings of letters and asked them to respond with a yes or no as to whether they were real words (a lexical-decision task). -They demonstrated that people recognize a word (e.g., doctor) faster if it is preceded by a semantically related word (e.g., nurse) compared to an unrelated word (e.g., shoes). -Similar results have been found for phonological and orthographic (spelling) primes.

Lexical Recognition and Access - research shows that it takes us about - recognition of the word is only part of the issue , we also need to - ex, the dictionary would be our - access corresponds to.. - the speed and accuracy with which we can

-Research has shown that it takes as little as 200 milliseconds to recognize a word (in the case of spoken language, this may be even before the end of the word is heard). -Recognition of the word is only part of the issue; following recognition we access the word (Balota, 1990; Balota & Chumbley, 1984). If we consider a dictionary as our metaphor for the lexicon, recognition would be when we find the word. -Access would correspond to reading the entry for the word, which would typically include how it is pronounced, what part of speech it is, and what its meanings are. -The speed (and accuracy) with which we can accomplish this feat is a function of how we organize our lexicons and the extent to which we can use contextual information.

tip-of-the-tongue state study -Schriefers, Meyer, and Levelt (1990) provided an experimental demonstration of the - They presented speakers with -They manipulated two variables: -when the interfering word appeared relative to the picture -The results of their experiment : -The pattern is different when the

-Schriefers, Meyer, and Levelt (1990) provided an experimental demonstration of the separation of semantic and phonological processing during production. - They presented speakers with object pictures to be named, while simultaneously ignoring a word they heard over headphones. -They manipulated two variables: the relationship between the pictures and the words (if the picture was a dog, then the interfering words could have been dot, phonologically related; cat, semantically related; or ship, unrelated) and -when the interfering word appeared relative to the picture (150 ms before the picture, at the same time as the picture, or 150 ms after the picture). -The results of their experiment :When the distractor word was presented early, there were clear effects of hearing a semantically related word but not a phonologically related word (relative to the unrelated control word condition). -The pattern is different when the distractor was presented later: no effect of a semantically related word but an effect of a phonologically related word.

Washoe the Chimpanzee - knew and used - type of language - ASL doesnt require -Does this simple, symbolic language really make the cut as a language?

-Taught to use American Sign Language (ASL) -Knew and used ~200 signs. -Simple, symbolic language -ASL doesn't require human vocal tract articulations (allows us to discover aptitude for symbolic language) -Does this simple, symbolic language really make the cut as a language? -

Language production proceeds through.. -Conceptualization is the - Formulation is the 1. 2. -. Following the positional stage, -The theory predicts a separation of -The separation of the meaning from the -Since meaning processing is completed earliest,

-These kinds of regularities led Merrill Garrett and others to propose that language production proceeds through a series of processes: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation (e.g., Garrett, 1975, 1988; Levelt, 1989). -Conceptualization is the level of thought, where we piece together the nonverbal situational model (the "message") we want to talk about (see Figure 9.14). - Formulation is the grammatical processing stage during which the message is mapped onto linguistic units. Garrett proposed that this happens in two stages. 1. First is the functional stage of processing where we select semantically appropriate lexical items and assign them to functional roles (e.g., subject, verb, object). 2. the positional stage, during which a syntactic structure corresponding to the functional roles is built and lexical items are inserted into the syntactic structure. -. Following the positional stage, the form information (e.g., sounds, spellings) of the words is specified, and finally we articulate (say or write) the utterance. -The theory predicts a separation of semantic, syntactic, and phonological processes during production. -The separation of the meaning from the syntax and form explains the production paradox. -Since meaning processing is completed earliest, errors resulting late in the production process may disrupt meaning while conforming to syntactic and form constraints

Syntax first approach - to test the predictions of the syntax first approach - -The syntax-first approach predicted that when participants read these sentences, i -- In the case of sentence version (a), -However, this structure does not make sense in version (b)

-To test the predictions of this syntax-first approach, Rayner, Carlson, and Frazier (1983) had people read sentences similar to our ambiguous headline. -The syntax-first approach predicted that when participants read these sentences, in both (a) and (b) the initial syntactic structure built should be the simpler one in which the prepositional phrase ("with the binoculars/revolver") modifies the verb phrase ("the spy saw with the binoculars/revolver"). - In the case of sentence version (a), this interpretation makes sense (the spy saw with the binoculars). -However, this structure does not make sense in version (b) (the spy saw with the revolver), which should result in a slowing down of reading when getting to the "but the cop didn't see him" part of the sentence. Rayner et al.'s results were consistent with this prediction (see Figure 9.9).

Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up as a -the experimenters estimated that she could use from -Caregivers argued that she demonstrated behaviors similar to those of -Another chimpanzee, Sarah, was taught an -Researchers claim she was able to -Kanzi, a male bonobo chimpanzee, learned to

-Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up as a human child and taught to use American Sign Language (Gardner & Gardner, 1969). -the experimenters estimated that she could use from 150 to 200 signs, from many different syntactic classes. -Caregivers argued that she demonstrated behaviors similar to those of human children learning language, including overgeneralization of words, and could create new signs generatively (e.g., combined signs for "water" and "bird" to refer to a duck). Fouts, Fouts, and Van Canfort (1989) -Another chimpanzee, Sarah, was taught an artificial language consisting of plastic symbols of different shapes, sizes, and textures (Premack, 1988; Premack & Premack, 1972). Sarah had a "reading" and "writing" vocabulary of nearly 130 words. -Researchers claim she was able to understand the words in the absence of their referents, suggesting that she was able to demonstrate key characteristics of language (e.g., semanticity, arbitrariness, and displacement). Sarah could also follow simple written instructions like "insert banana pail" as well as more complex ones like "insert apple pail banana dish" (meaning put the apple into the pail and the banana onto the dish). -Kanzi, a male bonobo chimpanzee, learned to communicate with a special keyboard labeled with geometric symbols (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1993; Savage-Rumbaugh, Fields, and Spircu, 2004). The symbols represented familiar objects and activities. Similar to Washoe, Kanzi was able to combine the symbols in novel, but systematic ways, suggesting that he had learned a "proto-grammar."

Origins of language -How did these communication systems become full-blown language?

-We diverged from a common ancestor with Chimps about 6-10 million years ago -Chimp cranial capacity: about 350 cc -this plot shows millions of years ago (x axis) against cranial capacity (y axis); cranial capacity increased over time - size of skulls = size of brain=size of language grew over time

Mental Representation/Situational Model study -Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002) had comprehenders read a -They found that naming times were --Glenberg and Kaschak (2002) found evidence that -They presented comprehenders with sentences that -Sentences that implied action in a -participants read a

-Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002) had comprehenders read a sentence that implied something about the shape of objects (e.g., "The egg was in the carton" or "The egg fried in the pan") and then presented a picture of an object to be named (see Figure 9.12). -They found that naming times were slower if the implied shape in the sentence mismatched the pictured shape than if they matched. -Glenberg and Kaschak (2002) found evidence that the situational model may include action components. -They presented comprehenders with sentences that implied action in a particular direction (e.g., "close the drawer" implies action away from you, while "open the drawer" implies action toward you). Their comprehenders had to decide whether the sentences made sense and indicate their decision either by pressing a button close to them or away from them. -Sentences that implied action in a direction consistent with the response direction (e.g., if "yes it makes sense" was a button close to the body and the sentence was "open the drawer") were verified faster than those that were inconsistent. -Participants read a sentence that implied something about the shape of an object and then were presented with a picture of an object to be named. Results indicated that naming times were slower if the implied shape in the sentence mismatched the pictured shape than if they matched.

Tan : Brocas aphasia

-a deficit in language production -Tan (the only word that he could speak freely), who had been unable to speak for twenty-one years. - Tan seemed to retain his ability to understand language, but his ability to produce language was severely impaired. -After his death, Broca performed an autopsy and discovered that Tan had suffered brain damage in the left inferior frontal region of his cortex (see Figure 9.2). -This was the first documented case of expressive aphasia (also known as Broca's aphasia). Patients with damage to this region of the brain have speech typically characterized as slow, effortful, and halting, lacking in most grammatical words (e.g., articles, prepositions).

Rosch and Mervis -presented participants with - A separate group of participants was asked -Exemplars that had more of these frequent attributes were -Rosch and Mervis interpreted these findings as support for -They argued that -Typicality of members within a -So, typical category members have

-presented participants with twenty members of six categories and asked participants to rate the typicality of each member. - A separate group of participants was asked to list attributes of each of the members. Some attributes were listed more frequently than others. -Exemplars that had more of these frequent attributes were considered more typical members of the category. -Rosch and Mervis interpreted these findings as support for Wittgenstein's family resemblance view. -They argued that concepts are overlapping networks of attributes. -Typicality of members within a category depends on how they compare to an abstract combination of the most frequent attributes. -So, typical category members have many frequent attributes (i.e., features common to many category members) and very few attributes that are frequent in other categories.

Pragmatics (Using language) -define - paul Grice distinguished between -ex.

-the examination of how language is used in particular contexts -Paul Grice (1989) distinguished between sentence meaning (as just described) and speaker meaning (what the speaker intended to communicate). - ex. (e.g., idioms like "he kicked the bucket," metaphors like "my professor butchered my first draft," and indirect requests like "can you pass the salt?").

Syntax (Grammar) ex. consider -synatic structure is ...

-the rules structure of a language;At the most basic, this is the level of representations and rules that specifies the ordering of words. ex. Consider two sentences with exactly the same words but two very different meanings: "Man bites dog" and "Dog bites man." It is easy to see that the word order is important for the overall meaning. -syntactic structure is the abstract representation that specifies how the words are related, not by meaning but rather the grammatical properties (e.g., nouns and verbs) of the words.

Semantics: Morphemes -define -ex. -ex. - a moprheme with plural -ex. - ex. -some morphemes are - morphemes can also be - so untouchable is

-the smallest component of a word that conveys meaning or grammatical properties -e.g. "cow" and "s" (in "cows") -e.g. "hunt" and "-er" in "hunter" -A morpheme (such as the plural '-s') is realized differently depending on the phonological environment: -cows, bushes and bikes : /z/, /Iz/ and /s/ -cows, bushes and bikes: <s>, <es> and <es> -Some morphemes are single words ("cat", "orange", "plateau") -Morphemes can also be prefixes and suffixes ("un-", "-ed", etc.) -So "untouchables" is 4 morphemes: "un-", "touch", "able", and "-s"

Syntax - define -specifies the - abstract representation that - not simply a -ex. *although order provides a big component, its not only a Syntatical Ambiguity *Time flies like an arrow; *Fruit flies like a banana: *Multiple 'deep structures' can be *These two sentences have almost the

-the structure and rules of language (grammar) -specifies the ordering of words -abstract representation that governs how words are related, not by meaning but by grammatical properties -not simply a linear order! -ex. "Man bites dog" ≠ "Dog bites man" ≠ "Bites man dog" English does not allow a sentence that starts with a verb followed by two nouns *although order provides a big component, its not only a linear order of words that defines syntax 1.flies' is a verb, 'like' is a preposition 2.'flies' is a noun, 'like' is a verb *Multiple 'deep structures' can be possible with a single 'surface structure' (next slide) *These two sentences have almost the exact same words, ordered in the same way, but they have completely different underlying (or deep) syntactic structures

Language Form: Phonology and Orthography - there is not a one to one..

-there is not a one-to-one correspondence between the sounds (phonology) and the letters that make up a language (orthography). -The differences between the two kinds of stimuli (e.g., letters are made up of visual lines and curves that we see; sounds are made up of vibrations in the air that we hear) illustrates the flexibility of our comprehension processes to handle two sets of representations to achieve the same basic communicative goals.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

-used the concept of "game" as part of a theoretical argument against the definition approach to concepts. - argued that it may not be possible to identify a list of necessary and sufficient features for many categories, in particular "real-world" categories.

1. Australopithecus (Lucy) 2. Homo Habilis 3. Homo Erectus 4. Homo Sapiens Each: First apperancce Cranial capacity Tool use Language use

1. -First appearance: 4 million years ago -Cranial capacity: about 450 cc Bi-pedal (walking on 2 legs) -No evidence of tool use or language* 2.First appearance: 2.3 million years ago Cranial capacity: about 600 cc Very simple stone tools -species was nicknamed 'handy man' because fossil remains are often accompanied by primitive stone tools 3.First appearance: 1.8 million years ago Cranial capacity: about 1000 cc Migrated widely (exited Africa) Still simple tools, but evidence of fire use Still no language (scientists think) -Fire would allow for more free activity at night that was not previously possible. -Fire use gives the Perfect environment for increased interactions among individuals, which would foster language development 4.First appearance: 200,000 years ago Cranial capacity: up to 1,850 cc Complexity of tools and social structures begins to increase dramatically Modern humans 1300cc on average *

Anaphoric inference: - is one way in which we use -inferences are

Anaphoric inference: using a pronoun to refer to something in a previous sentence -is one way in which we use inferences to bind sentences together into cohesive texts (things make sense from one sentence to the next) and coherent structure in discourse (the whole text makes sense with what we know about the world). -Inferences are interpretations of the story that go beyond what is actually stated. They help tie the story together, forming a cohesive whole, rather than a list of disconnected sentences.

How do we decide which person he refers to in that case? -Arnold, Eisenband, Brown-Schmidt, and Trueswell (2000) used an -They had people listen to sentences like -Simultaneously, they were looking at -They examined two cues: - they monitored what - their results showed that - within the first 400 ms

Arnold, Eisenband, Brown-Schmidt, and Trueswell (2000) used an eye-tracking procedure to investigate the kinds of cues used to figure out the correct pronoun antecedents. -They had people listen to sentences like "Donald is bringing some mail to Mickey [or Minnie] while a violent storm is beginning. He's [or She's] carrying an umbrella, and it looks like they're both going to need it." -Simultaneously, they were looking at pictures like those in Figure 9.10 (in all of the pictures the correct antecedent is the character with the umbrella). -They examined two cues: gender (if both characters are the same or different gender) and accessibility (typically things mentioned first are more accessible than things mentioned second). -They monitored what people looked at in the pictures as they heard the sentences. -Their results, presented in Figure 9.11, showed that people use both gender and accessibility information to quickly determine the correct antecedent for the pronouns. -Within the first 400 ms, participants looked equally at the two characters. After 400 ms, the participants used cues to gaze at the correct referent.

Categorical perception: - Ex. Eimas and colleagues demonstrated that infants - interestingly, as they experience language they typically -for ex. English makes a distincition between

Categorical perception: an issue in language comprehension due to the categorization of phonemes -Ex. Eimas and colleagues (Eimas, Siqueland, Jusczyk, & Vigorito, 1971) demonstrated that infants (one- and four-month-olds) can distinguish between different phonemes. In fact, it is generally believed that infants can distinguish between most phonological units of the world's languages. -Interestingly, as they experience language, they typically lose their ability to make distinctions between phonological contrasts not found in their native language contexts. - For example, English makes a distinction between /r/ and /l/ phonemes, but Japanese does not. In Japanese, the /r/ and /l/ sounds are considered part of the same category of speech. Young Japanese infants can make the distinction; however, as they get older and experience Japanese in their environments, they lose that ability

In our ex. Of syntactic ambiguity:

In our ex. Of syntactic ambiguity: the problem with "enraged cow injures farmer with an ax" arises because the propostional phrasr "with ax" can modify either the verb( injures) or the noun (farmer); and the problem with "time flies like an arrow"; fruit flies like a banana; ambiguity comes up cause flies can be either noun or verb and like can be interpreted differently in 2 sentences

Word errors - nouns ex writing a letter to my mother-->

Word Errors: Exchange: writing a letter to my mother--> writing a mother to my letter Anticipation sun is the sky--> sky is in the sky Perservation class will be about discussing the test--> discussing the class Addition These flowers are purple--> these purple flowers are purple Shift something to tell yu all -->something all to tell you -Because we switch a noun for a noun, implies that sorting out the syntactical order comes first (this is done correctly) and inserting words into the syntax happens later (this is where the error crept in). - shows issues at syntatic assembly

Phonemes and graphemes do not ex. - the waveform tells you the -the acoustics in the beginning are - not too much info to - also lack of clear - for this to be a spectogram

Phonemes and graphemes do not have one-to-one correspondences ex. "the stuff he knows" = "the stuffy nose" Waveform tells you the amplitude (or loudness) of the speaker's voice with millisecond timing (plotted against time). Notice that the acoustic signal for the first part of the two sentences looks very similar. -There is not much information in the signal to disambiguate the two different sentences. Notice also the lack of clear word boundaries. It is difficult to tell where one word ends and the next begins. For this to be a spectrogram, you'd need to know the frequencies involved (or the pitch).

More morphologically complex words take longer to recognize. Which word out of hunter and daughter takes longer to recognize?

Hunter, takes longer because hunt is 2 morphemes, hunt and er ; daughter is only 1 morpheme, cause it can't be separated

idiom: define -he popped his clogs --> -that went down a treat --> -said the actress to the bishop --> -Bob's your Uncle--> -it fell off the back of a lorry --> -taking coals to Newcastle -->

Idiom: a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words Culturally specific (British American): -he popped his clogs -->he kicked the bucket -that went down a treat -->goes over well? -said the actress to the bishop --> that's what she said -Bob's your Uncle--> and there you go -it fell off the back of a lorry -->it fell off the back of a truck -taking coals to Newcastle -->trying to herd cats?

Invariance problem:

Invariance problem: an issue in language comprehension due to variation in how phonemes are produced

Morpheme - define -may be equal to -ex. - May be equal to many -ex.

Morpheme = the smallest meaningful unit in a language -May be equal to a single phoneme and/or equal to a word -e.g., the word 'a' is a phoneme, a morpheme and a word! -May be equal to many phonemes e.g. "imagine".

Morphemes ex. sometimes morphemes are used to .. ex. for plurals like cows we use... - thus, ..

Morphemes: the smallest units of a language that contain meaning ex. Sometimes morphemes are used to add grammatical features (e.g., the past tense inflectional morpheme -ed may be added to indicate that the event occurred in the past); in other cases added morphemes result in a change of the meaning or syntactic class (e.g., noun or verb) of a word (e.g., in farmer the -er changes the meaning of farm from "a place to grow food" to "a person who grows food"). ex. For cows we use the /z/ phoneme, for axes we use the /Iz/ (there is a third too: with bikes we use /s/). The rules change how the plural morpheme is phonologically realized depending on the phonological environment. -Thus, the morphological level is the point at which form, syntax, and semantic information interact.

Semantics Pragmatics

Semantics = meaning contained within language Pragmatics = the way in which context affects meaning

Language perception solutions - analagous to top down effects -categorical perception -phenome restoration effect

Some solutions our brains use: -analogous to top-down effects in reading (vision) -categorical perception (sounds categorized as either one phoneme or another, not in between) --phoneme restoration effect (we fill in the blanks)

Spoken language contains mor ambiguities than written language in that :

Spoken language contains mor ambiguities than written language in that : speech is transient (unfolds over time and disappears, it is harder to perceive the gaps between words with speech than writing, speakers tone and way of speaking also present challenges

Syntax -define -ex.

Syntax = word order. -The set of rules that govern the structure of a sentence in a language, thereby influencing the meaning of the sentence. -"Man bites dog" ≠ "Dog bites man".

Processing Language

The comprehender (listener or reader) has to reconstruct the language producer's meaning -have to go through -input -language perception -word recognition -syntactic analysis -semantic and pragmatic analysis

Rayner et al. demonstrate evidence that we process syntax first because:

readers slow down when the simple syntax doesn't make sense , which implies they tried to use the simple syntax first, then had to readjust when it didn't make sense

Typicality effect: - define - Rips, Shoben, and Smith (1973) used a -Further support for typicality effects comes from patients with -Disadvantages

a result where more common members of a category show a processing advantage -Rips, Shoben, and Smith (1973) used a speeded category verification task in which they presented participants with sentences like "A robin is a bird" or "An elephant is a bird." Participants had to respond with "True" or "False" as quickly as they could. -They found that responses were much faster for typical members of a category (e.g., "A robin is a bird") than for atypical members (e.g., "A chicken is a bird"). - Further support for typicality effects comes from patients with semantic dementia who show progressive impairment of conceptual knowledge. Mayberry, Sage, and Lambon Ralph (2011) demonstrated that the impairments are constrained by concept typicality. They asked patients to match words and pictures to categories. Their patients made more errors on atypical items than on typical items. Disadvantages: -absence of clear necessary and sufficient people - no clear categorical boundaries - typicality effects for category and noncategory members

a. ) "The boy hit the girl with the stick, but she didn't cry" - Which one will be harder to read (slower)?

a. ) "The boy hit the girl with the stick, but she didn't cry" - simpler syntax makes sense, but meaning of sentence is potentially ambiguous b.) "The boy hit the girl with the wart, but she didn't cry" - simpler syntax does not make sense, so you have to use complex syntax. But no ambiguity. ( slower though) Which one will be harder to read (slower)? If we process syntax first, (b) will be slower

Coarticulation - define - shows the sound spectograms for - research sugegst that we -while most sounds are percieved along a

an issue in language comprehension due to the overlapping of sounds in spoken language -shows the sound spectrograms for "The stuff he knows is dangerous" and "The stuffy nose is annoying." Notice that the words all seem to blend together such that it is difficult to see where one word ends and the next begins. -Research suggests that we treat language-related stimuli differently from other stimuli. -While most sounds are perceived along a continuum, speech is perceived as discrete categories

Phenomes ex. - different languages are

distinct sound units that comprise a language ex. Hey Bill." There are five distinct sound units, two vowels and three consonants: /h/, /eI/, /b/, /I/, and /l/. -Different languages are made up of different sets of phonemes (e.g., American English has roughly forty phonemes, Native Hawaiian has as few as thirteen,