Cognitive Psychology Exam #3
Mental set
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem Based on a person's past experiences with the problem (or similar problems)
Propositional representation
A representation in which relationships are represented by symbols, as when the words of language represent objects and the relationships between objects; symbolic, including language
Insight in problem solving and Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987)
A sudden realization of a problems solution Often requires restructuring the problem Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) Insight vs. non-insight conditions Warmth judgment and time Insight problems solved suddenly Non-insight problems are solved gradually
Language
A system of communication using sounds or symbols It expresses feelings, thoughts, ideas and experiences
The connectionist approach McClelland and Rumelhart
AKA- Parallel distributed processing Units: like neurons, their pattern of activity distributed across a network represents knowledge rather then just triggering one "node" or "unit" the units operate like neurons but we also have other simultaneous activation, NOT sequential processing Weights: like synapse; determine at each connection how strongly an incoming signal will activate next unit kinda like the connections between neurons and determine greater importance or likelihood in relation to typicality Input units: activated by stimulation from the environment Hidden units: receive input from input units Output units: receive input from hidden units Initial activity of input units +connection weights= unit activation strength EXAMPLE: Activation of an item unit (canary) + a relation unit (can)= activation of the property units (grow, move fly, and sing)
how is language universal?
All humans with normal capacity develop language and follow its rules Those with limitations invented sign language Language is universal across cultures It doesn't matter what people's beliefs are they're all communicating with language Language development is similar across cultures Referring to language itself, aside from differences in people Languages are "unique but the same" Nouns, verbs, questions, past/ present tense, etc. are all included in every language
Categories
All possible examples of a particular concept act as pointers to our knowledge Helps provide information and understanding to newly encountered cases Can identify the special characteristics of a particular item Can understand behavior in a context Example of the cat: it likes milk and fish, related to other felines, has paws, etc.
The gestalt approach to problem solving
An organized whole that is perceived as more then just it's little pieces Can apply to how we think about problem solving because instead of looking at the individual parts of the problem we look at the whole goal we are hoping to achieve to solve the problem (example with staying at the beach house with all of your friends and the owners say they're coming back early); Kohler's circle problem
analogies to help problem solving: Gick and Holyoak
Analogies help, but hints might be needed EX: Duncker's radiation problem/ Fortress problem Learning the fortress problem first helped people better solve the radiation problem Surface features= obstacles Structural features= useful; these facilitated problem solving more then surface features steps: noticing, mapping (connection between the two kinds of problems in an analogy can help us map and solve) and applying
The prototype approach
Approach emerged because of Rosch's research approaches Instead of having a definition, it has a representation Characteristic features describe what members of concept are like An average of category members encountered in the past May shift over time: for example our prototype of a dog may change over time as we experience more members of a category
The multiple factor approach
Argued the sensory functional hypothesis was too overly simplistic Distributed representation: how concepts are divided within a category Based on asking people how much they associate things with a category animals= motion and color artifacts= actions (using, interacting) Crowding: when different concepts within a category share many properties "Animals" all share "eyes," "legs," and "the ability to move" The more crowded items may pose difficulties for patients who have category specific deficits
inductive reasoning
Based on observations Reach conclusions from evidence Strength of arguments: if we have lots of observations it helps us feel more confident (more representation), quality of observations also helps, Utility in science and daily life: comes from experience
creativity in the brain: specific areas
Chi and Snyder said the left anterior temporal lobe causes "outside the box" thinking Kounios and coworkers said Frontal lobe activity increased before noninsight solutions and occipital lobe activity increased before non insight solutions
heuristic
Cognitive shortcut to aid judgment (rules of thumb) based on experience; Not always precise enough because it's based off of personal experiences
Constraint based approach to parsing
Combines Syntax, Word meaning, Story context, Scene context and Memory load; Subject relative and object relative sentence construction the more object relative clauses we have the more our memory gets loaded This approach says there a lot of other things that impact how we parse a sentence
The exemplar approach
Concept is represented by multiple examples Examples are actual category members To categorize, compare the new item to stored examples Thinking of a multitude of things for example, our exemplar of dogs may be poodles, labs, german shepherds, and chihuahuas (instead of a prototype which just combines a lot of those main features into one idea)
Semantic networks and Collins and Quillian Model
Concepts arranged in networks that represent organization in the mind, according to Collins and Quillian Model They proposed this at a time when computers were being used for memory work "Nodes" represented category/ concept; concepts are linked together There are associated properties at the nodes for each concept (ex properties of a flower include pretty, colorful, smelly; anything above that concept and property also applies to it so for example above flower may be root, plant, etc. Cognitive economy: involves shared properties that are only stored at higher level nodes for example "petals" is at flower and "flys" is at bird; more efficient to only store it where you need it as long as it still applies to everything beneath it Exceptions are stored at lower nodes- example, 25 lb flower
Conceptual peg hypothesis
Concrete words act like a peg that we can hang something on and utilize it as a memory strategy
Language combines words and music combines tones to:
Create structured sequences that unfold over time Use a syntax to create expectations that the listener predicts
things creative people do differently
Daydreaming: volitional daydreaming- purposeful mind wandering Solitude: avoiding distractions and allows the mind to have space and take time to make new connections/ find meaning Mindfulness: focused attention meditation; open monitoring meditation
The definitional approach
Determine category membership based on whether object meets the definition of the category One of the original ideas of categories and where they came from Example: dog-> a lot of americans will think of the stereotypical kinds of dogs like labs or golden retrievers; we would also generally define it as house oet, friendly, has 4 legs, etc. Does not work well Not all members of a category fit into our stereotypical schema of them Not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features
Imagery and the cognitive revolution
Developed ways to measure behavior that could be used to infer cognitive processes Studies started looking at perception and visual imagery (images in the mind vs. images based on perception of stimuli)
Experts and problem solving
Devote a large amount of time to learning about a field Solve problems in their field faster and better then novices More knowledge and skills Knowledge is organized differently More time analyzing problems No better than novices outside of their field Less open to new approaches
Sensory functional hypothesis
Different brain areas may be specialized to process information about different categories Found that patients had category specific memory impairment patients +Double dissociation Thought that we need to be able to percieve sensory properties such as fur, srips, scales, etc. but in order to understand artifacts we need to be able to understand its functions Sensory- functional hypothesis: Living things = sensory properties artifacts= functions (Found this to be too overly simplistic)
Psycholinguistics and its 4 domains
Discover psychological process by which humans acquire and process language 4 domains: Comprehension (understanding) Speech production (how speech is made) Representation (how speech is represented in the mind) Acquisition (how speech is learned)
studies that looked at obstacles to problem solving
Dunker candle problem (how to hang a candle to the wall and light it with only matches, the box, tacks and candles? tack the box to the wall then put the candle on top of it and light the candle) Maier two string problem (how to attach two strings together when you can't hold both of them at the same time? attach pliers to one string and swing it so you can hold one string and catch the other)
Conceptual Knowledge
Enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties based on previous knowledge
availability heuristic
Events more easily remembered are judged as more probable than those less easily remembered; ex: shark attacks, plane crashes Errors: illusory correlation: correlation that either does not exist or is much weaker then assumed Superstitions Stereotypes
Prototype or exemplars?
Exemplars may work best for small categories May use both Prototypes may work best for larger categories Possible to use some of each but there isn't as much support for the definitional approach
Tanacka and Taylor expanded on Rosch on how knowledge impacts levels
Explained that every hierarchy may not look the same from person to person Novices use more basic categories Experts use more specific categories
Shepard and Metzler and the Mental rotation experiment
First study to use timing related to visualization Mental chronometry asked people to say whether or not two objects were the same but they're rotated in different ways; timing this decision so this was reflecting the time it took for someone to "turn" this object in their mind 1st use of quantitative methods to suggest imagery and perception share mechanisms
Imagery: Kosslyn and analyzing animals with known sizes
Had people analyze animals with known sizes (elephant, rabbits, flies) When people would imagine the rabbit next to the elephant, the rabbit is now very small and therefore less space is taken up in the mental visual field Mental image: quicker response time to detect details on larger object Mental walk task: people imagine they're taking a walk in their mind and they are being asked questions about these animals while mentally moving closer to smaller animals and away from larger animals Images are spatial, like perception
Farah and people looking at blank space (H or T)
Had people look at a blank space a visualize a capital H or T Then a letter would be flashed with another flash either before or after it They fond that when the letter was the same as the one they were supposed to visualize then people did better; the flash facilitated this accuracy at the brain level Better accuracy when visual imagery and perceptual experience is the same
Perky and people looking at a blank space
Had people look at a blank space and told them to visualize an object For some people in the study, the object was being projected from the back onto the screen (very faint) without them knowing What they found was that people were mistaking the actual picture for visual image and their brain didn't see anything wrong with it
Kosslyn (1973): Participants create mental images and then scan (move form one part to other) in their minds
Had people look at these images and memorize them in their mind Later when people didn't have the image in front of them and they're being asked questions about them, it took them longer to mentally move long than short distances; Conclusion: like perception, imagery is spatial ALSO Used maps as image stimuli It took longer to scan between greater distances Another support behind the idea that visual imagery is spatial
uses of The garden path model of parsing
Heuristics (rules): ex- Late closure which means the parser assumes the new words are part of the current phrase (example again: "the man who hunts ducks" when really we should just parse "the man who hunts") Grammatical structure (syntax)
Noam Chomsky 1957 and Syntactic Structures:
Human language is coded in genes Underlying basis of all language is similar Children produce sentences they never heard reinforced
understanding text and stories: inference
Information understood during reading although not explicitly stated in the text Anaphoric: connecting objects/ people Instrument: tools or methods Causal: events in one clause caused by events in previous sentence
4 parts of Creativity when it comes to problem solving
Innovative thinking: use novel ideas make connections between existing ideas Divergent thinking: open ended; large number of potential solutions Creative cognition: technique to train people to think creatively Preinventive forms: ideas that precede creation of finished creative product
What makes human language special is the juxtaposition of two things:
Its hierarchical system (organized in a certain way) Governed by rules (rule-bound)
The embodied approach
Knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when interacting with object Ex: if we see or read the word hammer or if we use a hammer, our sensory and motor areas will respond Mirror neurons: fire when doing a task or observing the same task Semantic somatotopy: words related to specific body parts and location of brain activation corresponds Limitation: doesn't fit cases that happen without interaction; doesn't apply to all concepts more so action type concepts
Meyer and schvaneveldt lexical decision task
Lexical decision task which demonstrated spreading activation Reading and making a decision on if a word is associated or not Nonsense words were the control/ comparison Reaction time is faster for closely associated pairs
Hauk et al. 2004 fMRI Study
Looking at activity in the brain with words; ex: if we move our feet we get some activation when compared to if we just read/ say words related to the same action Tells us that similar areas of our cortex are activated when moving our body and reading action words
Lea imagery and perception
More interesting things encountered during longer scans Leads to more distractions and therefore increased reaction time General idea: As we move across a distance we encounter more things and get distracted Tested it by using the same images but with more distractors
Johnson and Johnson 2014 and the Multivoxel pattern analysis
Multivoxel pattern analysis: looking at brain activity from fMRI's; taking a bunch and comparing them to each other Showed people different scenes (like at the beach) and determined that later researchers could go back and look at voxels and determine what someones brain activity looks like when they're looking at specific scenes Could predict which image was perceived (63% of the time) Could predict which image was imagined (55% of the time) this is showing that the activity pattern has overlap between imagery and perception BUT it's weaker for imagery then for perception
music and language
Music is a language of emotion; Creates emotion through spoken sounds that have no meaning
How learning occurs (the connectionist approach):
Network responds to stimulus network has to be trained to learn through feedback Provided with correct response Error signal- difference between actual activity of each output unit and the correct activity Back propagation- error signal transmitted back though the circuit Modifies responding weights for output signal to match correct response signal changes weights to allow input to match correct signal Basically we learn through feedback Repeats until error signal= 0
syntactic coordination and Branigan et al. 2000 experiment
One confederate and one participant; confederate gives options like "the girl gave the boy a book" and the participant has to choose pictures that match; then, she describes cards that she picked up as a match; what they found was the participant frames the answers in the same way as the confederate read it due to priming (EX: the girl gave the boy a book and the participant says the father gave his daughter a present instead of the girl received a present or the girl got a gift from her dad); underlying rationale: our brain is reducing computational loads in the conversation
Amedi and coworkers and the difference between perception and imagery
Our brain inhibits some sensory experiences so we are able to focus when we need to on other sense This study supports the overlap in brain activation Deactivation of nonvisual sensory areas for imagery: difference between perception and imagery! Reduces interference
Imagery and the brain: study for patients with seizures and looking at single neuron response
Overlap in brain activation whether perceiving or imagining an object Individuals were going through a procedure in relation to seizure activity Single neuron response tracking was done during these procedures Medial temporal lobe was tracked particularly Found that Imagery neurons seemed to have a specific job whether it was visual or mental perception Neurons were active in both cases! Coining of the term imagery neurons was also important
Disregard conjunction rule
Probability of conjunction two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents
Representativeness heuristic
Probability that an instance is a member of a category and is determined by how well properties of A (the instance) resemble properties associated with B (the category)
Difference of exemplar approach from prototype view
Representation is not abstract it actually has specific real examples Descriptions of specific examples Easily takes into account atypical cases
understanding text and stories: coherence
Representation of the text in mind that creates clear relations Between parts of the text AND between part of the text and the story's main topic Created by inference
Similarity of exemplar approach to prototype view
Representing a category is not defining it Explains variation in a category Explained typicality effect
Koplan and Simon and the Russian marriage problem
Researchers used this story: the marrying off of russian villagers; 64 men and 64 women but the night before two of the bachelors die; the question is can they reallocate so that everyone can still get married similar to mutilated checkerboard Using one type of problem to solve another type of problem because if you can solve this it was easier to do the mutilated checkerboard
Word frequency effect
Respond faster to high frequency words
Pylyshyn
Said that the spatial experience is an epiphenomenon (accompanies real mechanism but not actually part of it) we feel like we have spatial experienced based on depictive representation but that's not what actually is happening; things are encoded in memory propositionally not depictive Imagery is propositional Not a lot of support for this
3 parts of understanding sentences
Semantics: meanings of language (both words and sentences) Syntax: result for combining words into sentences Parsing: mentally groups words into (meaningful) phrases
Hub and Spoke Model
Shows that there are areas of the brain identified with specific functions Areas of the brain associated with specific functions (spokes) are connected to Anterior Temporal Lobe (hub) Based on semantic dementia patients TMS method Functions: valence, vision, function, praxis, sound and speech
Support for connectionism
Similar to actual brain activity: signal and strength Network operation is not totally disrupted by damage - Graceful degradation: performance disruption occurs gradually as parts of the system are damaged this reflects that we may have a lot more going on then we assume and parallel processing may help with processing in areas that might have been damaged Explains generalization of learning - Training system to recognize properties of 1 concept provides info about related concepts Similar to human learning process
The semantic category approach
Specific neural circuits for specific categories throw s out the living vs. nonliving idea and argued for some innate neural circuits based on survival Ex: the fact that all humans develop certain categories like face and place neurons Huth et al: words activated different places on the cortex Thematic areas, but categories also distributed
Hierarchical organization
Take larger categories and break down into subcategories To understand categorization, one must consider: Properties of objects Learning and experience of perceivers Global or superordinate level= big category basic= major examples or exemplars Subordinate or specific level= below main category
Perception and the relationship between viewing distance and size/ details
There is a relationship between viewing distance and: Size: closer object fill visual field Details: seen more easily when we are closer to an object EX: if we see a tiny car in a picture, we understand that that isn't a tiny car it's just farther away
Challenges and inconsistencies of Collins and Quillian Model:
Typicality effects it would predict that all members of the category are equal (for example: a penguin, canary and robin would all be responded to equally even though that isn't accurate) Cognitive economy we aren't sure its realistic that features wouldn't be more proximal to the concept Sentence- verification results
Syntactic coordination
Use similar grammatical constructions start to mirror each other through priming to better facilitate language with another person Syntactic priming Grammatical construction produced by one person increases chances other person uses the same construction
Metusalem et al. (2012) and Understanding text and stories: situation models and brain physiology
Used event related potentials to understand text and stories Expected word examples: if you set a scene at a concert and say "the group walked out onto the..." most people will assume stage Lowest waves for expected words Greatest waves for unexpected words Moderate for wrong but related words our brain isn't having as strong of a response to related words that are wrong as much as it is to words that are unrelated and wrong
Ganis and cowroekrs and visual imagery tree study
Used fMRIs and told people to look at a series of pictures and memorize/ study them In condition 1: people see an image of a tree and hear the word tree, then were later asked questions about the image In condition 2: people are told to pull up an image of a tree in their mind and asked the same question Complete overlap of activation in frontal cortex Some differences in visual cortex
Kosslyn and coworkers and TMS
Used transcranial magnetic stimulation to visual area of brain during perception and imagery tasks Found that imagery and perception both had slowed response due to TMS approach Visual area plays a casual role for both perception and imagery
Analogical problem solving
Using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to new problem Analogical transfer: transfer from on problem (source) to another (target) EXAMPLE: solving mutilated checkerboard by solving the Russian marriage problem first
Spreading activation in relation to Collins and Quillian Model
When a node is activated, activity spreads out along all connected links Ex: we ask a question about it or see it to activate it In theory, we should be able to react quicker to the first words associated with it Concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily retrieved from memory
Common ground
When we have existing relationships, we have a history so we have a lot of information in our memory Referential communication task: over time people start to establish an understanding between a persons sayings and a card choosing task; they get faster over time (like the conceptualization lab with the random pictures) Entrainment: synchronization between conversation partners Gestures, rate of speech, body position, etc.
Paivio and Paired- associate learning
Where we take 2 words and we're learning them together Pairs of words in these studies involved a noun and an adjective together In general people had a better memory for words that evoked a mental image Ex of well remembered pairs: unpleasant bruise, worthless currency Ex of harder to remember pairs: unpleasant scandal, worthless nonsense
High prototypicality
a category member closely resembles the category prototype Typical member Ex: the lab as a typical dog type
Low prototypicality
a category member does not closely resemble the category prototype Atypical member Ex: a teacup pitbull as an atypical dog type
Lexicon
all words a person understands
Prototype
an average representation of the "typical" member of a category
Pegword Technique
associating images with words Pair items to be remembered with concrete peg words Create a vivid image of things to be remembered with the object represented by the work
Garden path sentences
begin by appearing to mean one things, but then end up meaning something else (temporary ambiguity) Some unexpectedness about them that make it difficult for us to comprehend; appear to mean one thing but actually don't Example: "the man who hunts ducks out on weekends" actually means "the man, who hunts, ducks out on weekends" or another way to write that would be "the man hunts and ducks out on weekends"
non-verbal communication in relation to effective communication
being able to interpret and react to gestures, facial expressions, tones of voice and other cues to meaning
creativity in the brain: networks
default mode network helps after we take a break from whatever problem we're working on; helps with idea generation; incubation (or taking time away) can help us have an idea; supported by Mayseless and coworkers
Rosch's study on prototypically
determined theres a strong positive relationship between prototypicality and family resemblance High overlap= high family resemblance Low overlap= low family resemblance
analogical paradox
difficult to apply analogies in the lab, though routinely used in the real world (learning from one thing an applying it to something else isn't easy to replicate)
Mental imagery
experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input (eg auditory, olfactory) EX: retelling a story that someone used to tell after they have passed, a sound being reproduced in their minds even though that person wasn't there to say it
Fixation
focus on a specific aspect that prevents solving
Rayner and Duffy 1986 fixation and gaze times
found that people would look longer at less common words
Imageless thought debate
is thinking possible without images? Francis Galton says it exists but that its not necessary Behavioralists diminished their importance too
Family resemblance
items in a category resemble one another in a number of ways Broadened definitional approach Example with all possible chairs; desk chair, couch, circle fluffy chair, a rock being used as a chair, kitchen chair, etc.
the importance of how a problem is stated and Koplan and Simon
its easier to solve problems when info points toward the correct representation of problem Koplan and Simon: mutilated checkerboard problem one of the things they looked at is how not all problems are the same; how the problem is being presented could make things easier or more difficult for us They showed the board as black and pink, then the boards had the words "bread or butter" in each square and they found that when people think of the bread and butter as pairs, they figured it out easier because they thought "there's two butters missing now I have to find a new way to go about this" instead of just seeing colors
Luchins 1942 Water Jug Problem and mental set
jug of water and 3 empty containers, each has a certain volume it needs to hold; trying to get to 100 on the first trial with Jug A being 21, Jug B being 127 and Jug C being 3; participant starts to learn that the same formula works for every task which is B-A-2C OR A+C
Rosch on how the basic level of Hierarchical organization is special
just the right amount of information or our go-to Had people list the average common features they could think of for specific examples Found that as people were coming up with these descriptions, whats happening is in global categories people just have a few basics because at that level there's not a lot of things they all have in common At the basic level, however, there's a lot of commonalities that make these things related to each other From basic to specific, theres not a whole lot more information to give So basically, Going above basic level -> large info lost; Going below basic level-> little info gained
BF Skinner 1957 and Verbal Behavior:
language learned through reinforcement (by parroting or mimicry, and it is rewarded)
Judgment
making a decision or drawing a conclusion based on reasoning
Decisions
making choices between alternatives
Concept
mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions
theory of mind in relation to effective conversation skills
our ability to understand what other people think, feel or believe; helps with turn taking/ reciprocation Developing a theory of what other people have in mind Ex: dad calls home and is talking to his son on the phone, his dad says "what are you doing" and boy says "playing with this" this is an example of how little kids dont have theory of mind because now his dad has to ask "what is this" when he's older, the boy will probably say something like, "playing with that cool train grandma got me" Theory of mind is deficient in individuals who suffer with autism
Prosody
pattern of intonation and rhythm is spoken language Creates emotion in spoken language Speaker's "soaring oratory"
Speech segmentation
perception of individual words even though there are no silences between spoken words We don't have a lot of breaks in between ours words so when people who speak a different language listen to us talk it can sound very confusing; however, we understand because we are able to identify and interpret between different words due to statistical regularities
Method of loci
placing images at locations Visualizing items to be remembered in different locations ina mental image of a familiar spatial layout
Analogical encoding
process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined
Typicality effect
prototypical objects are processed preferentially which means that in a sentence reading task where the sentence could be "the chair is furniture" vs "the mirror is furniture" we would respond faster to the chair then the mirror Used sentence verification task and found that: Highly prototypical objects verified faster Prototypical objects named faster Example: asking people to name colors, they're more likely to say things like "red, green, blue" first then "chartreuse, periwinkle" Priming also plays a role because it results in faster judgements
Conversation definition
relationship with language in the fact that there's give and take, back and forth, dynamic and rapid; defined as 2 or more people talking together
functional fixedness
restricting use of an object to its familiar functions
Visual imagery
seeing in the absence of a visual stimulus EX: thinking about how many windows are on the front of your house
Depictive representation
similar to realistic pictures
Meaning dominance
some words are used more frequently than others
Given- new contract
speaker constructs sentence that include: Given information (what is known) New information "New" can then become "given" information Very give and take explanation of conversations
Reasoning
the cognitive process of starting with information and then making conclusions based on that information
Semantics
the meaning of language
Lexicon semantics
the meaning of words
Categorization
the process by which things are placed into groups called categories (all possible examples of a particular concept) example in the beginning of the animal from mexico (we were able to categorize it even though we didn't know what it was)
Tanenhaus and Trueswell 1995 and the visual world paradigm
they compare and contrast what happens when a scene helps us vs. doesn't help us Track eye movements as people hear a sentence and watch them navigate a scene; for example: "place the apple on the towel in the box" At first people move the apple to the towel and then pick both up and put it in the box (no one's looking at the pencil alos in the scene) Next, researchers say "place the apple that's on the towel in the box" which makes then sentence far less ambiguous Second part of the study shows that eye movements change when information revises interpretation of sentence In this scene there's two apples on a towel and napkin (each) and NO pencil; this eliminates almost all ambiguity Both linguistic and non-linguistic info used
Balanced dominance
type of meaning dominance; example: cast (understood equally as the cast of a play or a cast used for a broken bone)
Biased dominance
type of meaning dominance; example: tin (understood pretty quickly as the metal and not something that we put something in)
Variable word pronunciation
use context to understand words with unfamiliar pronunciations Ex: saying "ant" when we're referring to our aunt; saying "gonna" when we mean going to
Lexical decision tasks
when people do these tasks, we already know people are faster when they know it's a frequently used word over a less frequently used for (example: people will respond faster to the word "Hi" then the word "Lexicon")
In vivo problem-solving research
where researchers observe analogical learning in the real world (business meetings); Example: ACT (acceptance and commitment therapy) used for anxiety, depression, etc; uses analogies so clients can learn different stories and connect them to their own lives; often emotions are getting in the way of these people living their best life so therapists will have people try to eliminate those emotions; the danger of this, however , is it can make people overly concerned with experiencing any kind of negative emotions; passengers on the bus analogy helps people understand that negative emotions are a piece of us; our mind in the bus and although at times we have an anxious driver there's other people in the bus that make us a whole
Lexical priming and Tanenhause
words activate words Tanenhaus 1979: people would hear words with multiple meanings (rose the verb and rose the noun); they would read the word rose and then the word flower or they would read the verb word rose and the word flower and researchers would see reaction time and what they found was that words that had unrelated meanings would take longer to comprehend Briefly access all meanings before use context to determine accurate meaning
Lexical ambiguity
words often have multiple meanings
