Cold War Tensions- Germany and Cuba

Cultural Impact on Cuba

- 1961 Cuban regime takes greater political and cultural control, with massive spikes in the arrests of political opponents and the censorship of media and the arts. - Attempts to develop solidarity and communist culture were problematic, and critics argue this led to low morale, causing high worker absenteeism. - Censorship and propaganda aimed to create a more Marxist culture in Cuba by celebrating the revolution, Ernesto 'Che' Guevara, and Fidel and Raul Castro as leaders. - Anti-American propaganda blamed many of Cuba's problems (not entirely without merit) on the US. - The American embargo isolated Cuba culturally, but recent reforms have increasingly opened up Cuba to the rest of the world.

Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)

- As relations worsened between the superpowers, the Soviet Zone was increasingly run independently from the other three zones, which began to coordinate their reconstruction efforts under the Marshall Plan. - The Americans joined with the British to merge their zones into Bizonia in 1947, then joined with the French to create Trizonia in 1948. - When Trizonia introduced a new, American-backed currency in June 1948, Stalin saw it as a provocation by the Americans and an attempt to undermine East Germany. - In response, he cut off all rail, water and road access points to West Berlin in an attempt to squeeze out the Western Allies. - The 11-month Berlin blockade and the airlift organised in response ensured the collapse of cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. - Shortly after Stalin lifted the blockade in May 1949, the American, British and French zones came together to create the Federal Republic of Germany in the West. - October: The Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic in the East, further confirming the division, West Germany joined NATO, an American-led military alliance, and East Germany joined the Warsaw Pact, the Soviet equivalent.

Economic Impact on Cuba

- Before the Cold War, most of the best farmland in Cuba was controlled by large, powerful landowners who exported much of what they grew to the USA. - Cuban dictator Batista (1952-59) protected American business interests in Cuba, which often led to the Americans supporting increasingly repressive, corrupt, anti-democratic regimes. - Following the Cuban Revolution (1959), an initial wave of emigration took away many of Cuba's best educated population and much of the country's wealth, hampering future economic growth. - 1959 Castro reforms: US President Eisenhower threatened and then adopted an embargo on exports of sugarcane, tobacco and other agricultural goods from Cuba. - Cuba began negotiating agreements with the Eastern bloc countries and the Soviet Union. - Cuba began changing from a capitalist free-market economy to a communist command or centrally planned economy. - Soviets bought Cuban agricultural exports and provided Cuba with essential oil and industrial materials. - 1960: USA increasingly restricted trade with Cuba and the Cubans responded by signing deals with the Soviets and nationalising industries. - 1961: Cuban regime became increasingly Marxist in its economic policy. - Following the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), Cuba was forced to rely upon the Soviets for defence and trade as the American trade embargo continued, leading to major economic challenges in the decades to follow. - Cuba attempted to become more economically self-sufficient, embarking on an ambitious industrialisation plan, aiming for economic growth over limited periods of time through the use of quotas. - 1965: With the second wave of emigration, Cuba's industrial campaigns struggled to succeed.

Social Impacts on Cuba

- Before the Revolution, Cuba had very high inequality - in 1946, about 10% of the population controlled almost 75% of the arable land. - Cuban dictator Batista (1952-59) repressed Marxist revolutionaries. - Batista grew increasingly unpopular with the Cuban people because of inequality and authoritarian violence. - Following Cuban Revolution (1959), large numbers of Batista supporters emigrated to the USA, taking away many of Cuba's best educated population and much of the country's wealth. - The Catholic Church helped organise emigration of young children from Cuba to South Florida - many stayed with foster families or orphanages for months and even years, until their relatives could re-join them. - 1960s: Cuba intensified its push for social reforms with programmes dedicated to dramatically increasing literacy and educational opportunities for poor Cubans and women. - Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) resulted in the USA imposing a complete blockade on Cuba, causing food shortages. - Cuba succeeded in dramatically reducing inequality in Cuba with its industrialisation plan. - 1965: Second wave of emigrants left Cuba for the USA, many lower-class workers and farmers opposed to the Castro regime, creating problems with labour supply. - Each wave of emigration caused social problems for Cuba and added political support for the trade embargo in the USA. - Although inequality was dramatically decreased and basic necessities were provided for most citizens, the Castro regime grew increasingly repressive of criticism.

Wartime Conferences (1945)

- Decisions about the reconstruction of Germany were an important part of the wartime conferences. - Once it became clear that Hitler and his armies would fall, tension began to emerge between the Allies. - This was seen first at the Yalta Conference of February 1945, where the 'Big Three' agreed to give the Soviet Union more territory by shifting Poland's eastern and western borders to the east, thus taking territory from Germany. The Allies also agreed to divide up Germany (and its capital, Berlin) into four zones (British, American, Soviet and French) for reasons referred to as the 'Four Ds': - Democratisation, demilitarisation, decentralisation and de-Nazification. - Despite some disagreements, the Americans and Soviets largely coordinated their efforts in the immediate occupation of Germany after the war. - April 1945: They even staged an elaborate photo-opportunity of their meeting at the Elbe River. - A few months later, after the war had ended in Europe, the Allied leaders met again at the Potsdam Conference just outside of Berlin, in July and August 1945. - Roosevelt had died and Truman replaced him. - By this time, distrust had risen between the Allies and Truman himself had been an outspoken critic of Stalin and the Soviet Union, but they still managed to agree on a map for what was supposed to be a temporary division of Germany. - Germany was divided by region, while Berlin was divided by district, with the Soviet Union taking the eastern zones of both.

Reconstruction

- Germany was very heavily bombed during World War II, leaving all of its cities and industry in rubble. - The reconstruction of Germany became a key cause of disagreement between the USA and the Soviet Union, especially after the introduction of the Marshall Plan in 1947. - Western Germany received millions of dollars to get its economy up and running, while the Soviet zone was forced by Stalin to reject the Marshall Plan. - Instead, it joined Comecon, which shipped much of the remaining industry and resources back to the Soviet Union.

Creation of the Satellite States

- One of the main reasons Orthodox historians blame Stalin for the breakdown of relations is the creation of 'puppet governments' in the satellite states. East Germany is a good example of the various tactics used to establish communist-dominated governments in areas occupied by the Red Army after the war. - 1946: In the Soviet zone of Eastern Germany, the Communist Party of Germany merged with the Social Democratic Party to create the Socialist Unity Party. - This effectively split both the KPD and the SPD from their party members in Western Germany. Critics in the West argue that this was organised by the Soviets to help create a one-party state loyal to Stalin.

Perspectives

- Orthodox historians in the West blamed aggressive Soviet expansionist action for most if not all of the Cold War tension and conflict. - Revisionists such as William A. Williams looked more critically at the West's actions. By the late 1960s and 1970s, as a result of the student protests' embrace of new ideas and the Vietnam War's anti-American sentiment, historians were taking a more balanced look at the conflict. - However, in East Germany, the 'official' SED Party line continued to be taught and written about in propaganda- heavy history books that blamed the West for the Holocaust and Cold War problems. - Following the collapse of the Berlin Wall and East Germany, the opening of the archives of the Stasi and government records led to the confirmation of many human rights abuses and other scandals in East Germany. Similarly, post-Revisionist historians of the broader Cold War, such as John Lewis Gaddis, have looked at new documents after the collapse of the Soviet Union to justify the attribution of much of the blame of the Cold War on the Soviet Union.

Expansion and Importance of the Berlin Wall

- The Berlin Wall grew to be an extensive and increasingly deadly divider of the city. - Many friends and families were separated from one another by the barrier that encircled West Berlin. - In the West, the Wall also became a powerful symbol of the repression and authoritarian threat of the Soviet bloc - a physical representation of the 'Iron Curtain'. - As it developed into a more sophisticated defence system that was nearly impossible to cross, East Germans desperate to escape became increasingly creative and daring in their attempts: digging tunnels, attempting to float over with hot air balloons, building a zip line and even tight-rope walking their way into West Berlin.

Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962)

- The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 had a great impact on Cuba. - Though historians disagree as to whether Khrushchev or Castro was most responsible for causing the crisis, it made Cuba a focus of the world for those fateful 'thirteen days in October' and had many consequences for the island nation. The immediate consequences of the crisis for Cuba were a complete blockade by the USA. - This caused food shortages and brought Cuba to the brink of war with its superpower neighbour. - The negotiations between Kennedy and Khrushchev eventually guaranteed Cuba's security in a promise from the Americans not to invade, but Castro was not included in the discussions. - This meant that some topics important to Cuba, such as the presence of an American base at Guantanamo, were ignored. - The exclusion of Castro by Khrushchev and lack of concern for Cuban priorities led to long-term problems in the Cuban-Soviet relationship. - Despite this distrust, Cuba was forced to rely upon the Soviets for defence and trade as the American trade embargo continued. - This led to major economic challenges in the decades to follow.

Cuban Revolution (1959)

- Under the Batista regime, a number of revolutionaries gained support in their attempts to topple the military government. The most important of these movements was the 26th of July Movement, which took its name from a failed revolution attempt on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago, Cuba on 26 July 1953. - Led by brothers Fidel and Raul Castro, Ernesto 'Che' Guevara, Juan Almeida Bosque and Camilo Cienfuegos, the 26th of July Movement (or M-26-7). - They promised to: redistribute land to peasants, nationalise industry, make Cuba a fairer society through education and social reforms. - Though his ideology was certainly influenced by Marxism, Fidel Castro did not initially proclaim himself or his regime socialist or communist.

Second Wave of Emigration from Cuba

A second wave of emigrants left Cuba for the USA (mostly South Florida) from 1965 when Castro announced that any Cuban who wanted to leave could do so by boat from Camarioca. - The boatlift, combined with 'freedom flights' to Miami, transported over 250 000 Cubans between 1965 and 1971. - The class dynamic of migrants began to shift at this time, as more lower-class workers and farmers opposed to the Castro regime began to join in the mass migration. - This created problems with labour supply, and Cuba's industrial campaigns struggled to succeed. The next mass migration of Cuban emigrants to the USA came with the Mariel boatlift in 1980. - These nearly 125 000 migrants were largely lower-class young men. - Although Castro had initially announced that anyone who wanted to leave Cuba could do so, he later tried to save face and discourage departures. - He sent prisoners on the boats and labelled those leaving, and their families, as enemies of the Revolution. Indeed, each wave of emigration caused social problems for Cuba and added political support for the trade embargo in the USA.

Berlin Wall (1961)

Although Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev acknowledged the possibility of peaceful coexistence between the USA and Soviet Union, his time in power was characterised by a number of crises between the superpowers. - Attempts to stop East Germans fleeing to the West through West Berlin caused the second Berlin Crisis. - 1958: Khrushchev issued an ultimatum demanding the departure of the Western Allies from West Berlin. - This was ignored by US President Eisenhower. - When the new US President, John F. Kennedy, ignored a reissue of the demand in 1961, Khrushchev and Walter Ulbricht gave the order for a 'Berlin Wall' to be built overnight on the 13 August. - Initially a barbed wire fence, the Berlin Wall grew to be a 100-200 m wide barrier, featuring barbed wire, snipers, tank traps and two walls completely surrounding West Berlin, over 150 km long. - In the West, this was portrayed as another sign of a brutal communist regime. - The East German government claimed a wall was needed, calling it an anti-fascist protection barrier. - In the early days of the construction of the Wall, many East Berliners tried to escape to the West. - Some apartments on Bernauer Strasse in Northern Berlin were within metres of the Wall. - When East German police and military came to evict those residents, some tried to jump over the Wall, creating dramatic images broadcast throughout the West. - A few months after the Berlin Wall was built, an American serviceman was detained at a crossing for not having proper identification. - This led to a 16-hour tank standoff outside Checkpoint Charlie in central Berlin in October 1961, which almost triggered World War III.

Bay of Pigs (April 1961)

As relations worsened between the Americans and Cubans, Eisenhower authorised the CIA to begin training a group of Cuban exiles living in Florida to attempt a counter-revolution. - When Kennedy became US president in January 1961, he was presented with the plan and agreed to go ahead with it in April 1961 by launching an invasion at the Bay of Pigs in southern Cuba. - Kennedy altered the plan, however, and limited the support from the US Air Force out of fear of provoking all-out war. - The result was a catastrophe for the Americans as the counter-revolutionaries were quickly killed or arrested. The invasion was the final blow for Cuban-American relations and tightened ties with the Soviet Union. - Within Cuba, this meant the regime became increasingly Marxist in its economic policy and intensified the push for social reforms. - It also led to increasing political and cultural control, with massive spikes in the arrests of political opponents and the censorship of media and the arts.

Cuba's Economic Struggles

Changing from a capitalist free-market economy to a communist command or centrally planned economy is a massive challenge even in the best of circumstances. - Cuba attempted to make the change with politically inexperienced leadership, a trade embargo with what had been its largest trade partner, much of its wealth departing and a problematic relationship with the Soviet Union. After the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), Cuba attempted to become more economically self-sufficient, embarking on an ambitious industrialisation plan similar to the Soviet Five-Year Plans. - These programmes aimed for economic growth over limited periods of time, through the use of quotas, and succeeded in dramatically reducing inequality in Cuba. In the first two decades: - The income of the poorest 40% of the population increased by 475% per person. - The wealthiest 5% saw their income cut in half. Large-scale planning programmes, however, struggled. - After an attempt to shift away from sugar production failed, the government reversed course and focused on achieving a 10 million ton sugar harvest in the mid 1960s. - Struggles to adjust to shipping much of this to Eastern Europe and reliance on imports from afar hurt morale, as did poor weather and American attempts at economic disruption.

Cuba

Cuba, a former colony of Spain and then the US, is just one example of a nation that got caught up in Cold War politics. - The Cuban Revolution of 1959 was caught between two superpowers with drastically different ideologies. - Political conflicts in many of the former colonies that started on the local scale drew the superpowers into proxy conflicts, which escalated the level of tension and violence as the USA and the Soviet Union supported opposite sides. The problems that Cuba faced during the Cold War were similar to those faced by many countries in what was then called the 'Third World'. - Civil conflicts connected to political disagreement or decolonisation were frequently made more destructive because of the involvement of the Cold War superpowers.

Cultural Change

Cultural change was also quite dramatic for both East and West Germany, influenced by their occupying forces. - The Americans set up America Houses' of culture and information in the West to reintroduce books banned under the Nazis, give academic talks and show Hollywood films. Later, the growth of trade with Western Europe and the USA led West Germany to take part in many important post-war cultural movements. - The Soviets, on the other hand, introduced censorship of Western art and media and attempted to develop communist culture by focusing on themes related to workers, solidarity and the class struggle.

Economic Reform

Germany was at the heart of Cold War tensions, and can be seen as a microcosm of the broader conflict. - Divided after World War II between a capitalist West and a communist East, it in many ways represented the changes and developments in tension between the USA and the Soviet Union. - This was seen in the implementation of capitalist and communist economies in the West and East. West Germany took part in the Marshall Plan, joined fair trade agreements like the European Coal and Steel Community that later developed into the European Union, and focused on developing a trade-based economy. - This led to a remarkable recovery, often called the German economic miracle. East Germany, on the other hand, joined Comecon, nationalised industry and developed a state-planned command economy. - This meant that, while East Germany enjoyed full employment and more equal opportunities for women and the working class, the West had a higher standard of living and much better access to consumer goods.

Emigration from Cuba

In the years immediately following the Cuban Revolution, many of the wealthiest landowners and military leaders connected to Batista fled to the USA. - Batista himself fled to the Dominican Republic, and eventually to Portugal and Spain, with immense wealth that he had taken from Cuba. - Many of those early emigrants did not expect to stay away for long, but, after the Cuban Missile Crisis and Castro's strengthening control, it became apparent that the increasingly communist regime was there to stay. This first wave of emigration took away many of Cuba's best educated population and much of the country's wealth, hampering future economic growth. - It also created a strong anti-Castro political force in the USA that encouraged more Cubans to leave. - Generations of emigration from Cuba had significant economic, social and cultural impacts on Cuba and the USA. The Catholic Church also helped organise emigration of young children from Cuba to South Florida. - These unaccompanied children were called 'Pedro Pan'. - Many stayed with foster families or orphanages for months and even years, until their relatives could re-join them.

Social Change

Socially, both East and West Germany struggled to come to grips with the impact of World War II and their role in the Holocaust and other brutal acts carried out by the Nazis. - West Germany briefly went through a process of de-Nazification, led by the occupying powers, but it was neglected as the Cold War heated up and many war criminals were released. - East Germany, on the other hand, tended to claim that all former Nazis were in the West and celebrated the communist leadership and Soviet Union as the leaders of the fight against Nazism. - While East Germany underwent radical change in the creation of a socialist society focusing on equality, solidarity and championing the spirit of the proletariat, the West saw slower social change. - American influence and consumerism rose in the 1950s. - However, the student movements of the late 1960s began to push for feminism, social reforms and changes to a conservative West German society, where many former Nazis were still heads of industry and government.

Breakdown of Cuban-American Relations (1958-1961)

The US Eisenhower government was deeply doubtful of Castro's revolution and worried by some of his early reforms. - This fear was increased when a large number of Batista supporters emigrated to the USA and began criticising the new Cuban government for illegally taking private property and delaying elections. - The Cuban economy was also caught between the two superpowers. - Eisenhower threatened an embargo on exports of sugarcane, tobacco and other agricultural goods from Cuba. - The fear of losing its main trade partner led Cuba to begin negotiating agreements with the Eastern bloc countries and the Soviet Union, which the Americans interpreted as a shift towards Communism. - As the Americans blocked trade with Cuba, the Soviets filled the void, buying Cuban agricultural exports and providing essential oil and industrial materials. - In the spring and summer of 1960, the Eisenhower regime and Castro grew further and further apart. - The USA increasingly restricted trade with Cuba and the Cubans responded by signing deals with the Soviets and nationalising industries. Historians disagree on who deserves the blame for the breakdown in relations, but largely agree that economic factors were key in the rising division.

Perspectives

The breakdown in relations between the United States and Cuba continues to be a debate both in public and amongst historians to this day. - Although relations between the two countries improved dramatically during the US presidency of Barack Obama, Cuba continues to be a single-party state and the archives are still closed to historians. - Within Cuba, official party historians continue to be influenced by Marxist ideology, which attributes all of the blame for the conflict on the imperialist United States, and celebrates Castro and his peers as national heroes. - In the United States, many Revisionist historians and even post-Revisionists are more critical of American imperialism in Latin America and misunderstandings of Cuban politics. The Cuban-American population, however, remains more divided. - Many of the people whose lives were disrupted by the Cuban Revolution or those who felt oppressed under the Castro regime continue to be outspoken critics of the Cuban government. - They place most of the blame for the crisis on the Cuban leaders in Havana, thus continuing to see the conflict through the Western Orthodox viewpoint.

Economic Impact on Germany

West Germany - 1945: Focused on developing a capitalist, trade-based economy (led to the German 'economic miracle'). - 1948: Took part in the Marshall Plan, receiving significant aid from the United States to rebuild the economy. - 1951: Joined fair trade agreements like the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) - later the European Union. - 1990: Reunification. East Germany - 1945: Developed a state-planned command economy. - 1946: Nationalised industry. - 1950: Joined the Soviet-led Comecon. - 1949-61: Around three million people fled East Germany, leading to a lack of some highly-trained professionals, such as doctors and engineers.

Social Impact on Germany

West Germany - Had a higher standard of living, but also higher inequality. - Better access to consumer goods from Western Europe and the United States. - Conservative society: student movements of the late 1960s pushed for feminism and social reforms. - East German refugees (1949-61) struggled to adjust to life in West Germany - Second Berlin Crisis (Berlin Wall, 1961-89) separated friends and families. - The Wall became a powerful symbol of the repression and authoritarian threat of the Soviet Bloc. East Germany - Had full employment. - More equal opportunities for women and the working class. - Socialist society focused on equality, solidarity and the proletariat. - Increasingly repressive. - Second Berlin Crisis (Berlin Wall, 1961-89) separated friends and families. - East Germans were desperate to escape East Berlin.

Cultural Impact on Germany

West Germany - The Americans set up 'America Houses' of culture and information to reintroduce books, give academic talks and show Hollywood films - Post-war cultural movements: student movements of the late 1960s pushed for feminism and social reforms - More connected with cultural movements in the US and Western Europe, including pop music, modern art movements, and American films and television East Germany - Censorship of Western art and media. - Development of communist culture focused on themes related to workers, solidarity and the class struggle. - Cultural institutions often led by the government, including 'Young Pioneers' youth movement. - West Berlin played an important role in anti-communist propaganda in East Germany, including transmitting Radio Free Europe (American-funded radio station).

Cuba's Social Programmes

While Cuba's economic struggles led to later departures of goods and social problems, it did achieve some significant successes in its social programmes. - Most notable was the progress made in education and healthcare. - In the Batista years, education was largely available only to elites. - Adopting the communist language of equality and support for the working class led to programmes dedicated to dramatically increasing literacy and educational opportunities for poor Cubans and women. - Though questioned by critics, the government reported adult literacy rates of 96% by 1962 and significant boosts to the numbers of secondary and university graduates by the late 1960s. - Women were being awarded more than half of the degrees in many fields. - However, attempts to develop solidarity and communist culture were problematic, and critics argue this led to low morale, causing high worker absenteeism.