COM 3332 Seibert FSU Test 1 study

E-commerce

(electronic commerce) completes online purchases and financial transactions on the Web

3 fundamental technologies that remain the foundation of today's web

*HTML*: HyperText Markup Language. The markup (formatting) language for the web. *URI*: Uniform Resource Identifier. A kind of "address" that is unique and used to identify to each resource on the web. It is also commonly called a URL. *HTTP*: Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Allows for the retrieval of linked resources from across the web.

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

- 1963 - a joint industry-government committee - the first developed universal standard for computers - permits machines from different manufacturers to exchange data

ENQUIRE software

- 1980 - written by Tim Berners-Lee - launched by European Organization for Nuclear Research (better known as CERN) - a hypertext program that allowed scientists at the particle physics lab to keep track of people, software, and projects using hypertext (hyperlinks)

World Wide Web protocols finish

- 1990 - The code for the World Wide Web was written by Tim Berners-Lee, based on his proposal from the year before, along with the standards for HTML, HTTP, and URLs.

the first web cam

- 1991 - deployed at a Cambridge University computer lab - its sole purpose was to monitor a particular coffee maker so that lab users could avoid wasted trips to an empty coffee pot

first content-based search protocol

- 1991 - the first search protocol that examined file contents instead of just file names was launched, called *Gopher*

JOSS (Johnniac Open Shop System)

- ARPA-funded in 1965 - permits online computational problem solving at a number of remote electric typewriter consoles

NSF announces the award of five supercomputing center contracts in 1985:

- Cornell Theory Center (CTC), directed by Nobel laureate Ken Wilson - The John Von Neumann Center (JVNC) at Princeton, directed by computational fluid dynamicist Steven Orszag - The National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), directed at the University of Illinois by astrophysicist Larry Smarr - The Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center (PSC), sharing locations at Westinghouse, the University of Pittsburgh, and Carnegie Mellon University, directed by Michael Levine and Ralph Roskies - The San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC), on the campus of the University of California, San Diego, and administered by the General Atomics Company under the direction of nuclear engineer Sid Karin - By the end of 1985, the number of hosts on the Internet (all TCP/IP interconnected networks) has reached 2,000.

CYCLADES

- France began its own Arpanet-like project in 1972 - eventually shut down - pioneered a key idea: the host computer should be responsible for data transmission rather than the network itself.

1977

- Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs announce the Apple II computer - also introduced are the Tandy TRS-80 and the Commodore Pet - Cerf and Kahn mount a major demonstration, 'internetting' among the Packet Radio net, SATNET, and the ARPANET showing its applicability to international deployment

Sir Tim Berners-Lee

- a British computer scientist - graduated from Oxford University and became a software engineer at CERN - wrote the first web page editor/browser ("WorldWideWeb.app") - and the first web server ("httpd") - invented the World Wide Web in 1989 - moved to Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1994 - remains the Director of W3C to this day - In 2009, he established the World Wide Web Foundation

John Vittal

- a programmer at University of Southern California in 1975 - developed the first modern email program The biggest technological advance this program (called MSG) made was the addition of "Reply" and "Forward" functionality.

MP3

- becomes a standard in 1991 - was accepted as a standard in 1991 - MP3 files, being highly compressed, later become a popular file format to share songs and entire albums via the internet

Spam

- born 1978 - unsolicited commercial email message (later known as spam) - sent out to 600 California Arpanet users by Gary Thuerk

Usenet

- created by 2 graduate students in 1979 - an internet-based discussion system, allowing people from around the globe to converse about the same topics by posting public messages categorized by news groups

THEORYNET

- created by Larry Landweber of the University of Wisconsin in 1977 - provides email between over 100 researchers and linking elements of the University of Wisconsin in different cities via a commercial packet service like Telenet.

Domain Name System (DNS)

- created in 1984 along with the Arst Domain Name Servers (DNS) - made addresses on the Internet more human-friendly compared to its numerical IP address counterparts - servers allowed Internet users to type in an easy-to-remember domain name and then converted it to the IP address automatically

first web page

- created in 1991 - much like the first email explained what email was, its purpose was to explain what the World Wide Web was

Bulletin Board System (BBS)

- developed during a blizzard in Chicago in 1978

Ray Tomlinson

- developed email in 1971 - made the decision to use the "@" symbol to separate the user name from the computer name (which later on became the domain name)

PC Modern

- developed in 1977 - developed by Dennis Hayes and Dale Heatherington - introduced and initially sold to computer hobbyists

MUD

- developed in 1979 - the earliest form of multiplayer games - The precursor to World of Warcraft and Second Life - MUD (short for MultiUser Dungeon) - were entirely text-based virtual worlds, combining elements of role-playing games, interactive, Action, and online chat

Bob Taylor

- hired by Ivan Sutherland in 1965 - from NASA - in 1966, he succeeds Sutherland to become the third director of IPTO - he persuades Larry Roberts to leave MIT to start the ARPA network program

AOL

- launched in 1989 - Apple pulled out of the AppleLink program in 1989, the project was renamed and America Online was born - still in existence today - later on made the Internet popular amongst the average internet users

What happened with the adoption of the TCP/IP standard in 1987?

- made large numbers of hosts possible - Internet grows - by this time, there were nearly 30,000 hosts on the Internet (the original Arpanet protocol had been limited to 1,000 hosts)

"The Morris Worm"

- one of the first major Internet worms was released in 1988 - written by Robert Tappan Morris - caused major interruptions across large parts of the Internet.

proposal of the World Wide Web

- proposed in 1989 - written by Tim Berners-Lee - originally published in the March issue of MacWorld, and then redistributed in May 1990 - written to persuade CERN that a global hypertext system was in CERN's best interest - originally called "Mesh"; the term "World Wide Web" was coined while Berners-Lee was writing the code in 1990.

Scott Fahlman

- proposed using (smiley face emoji) after a joke, rather than the original :-) proposed by Kevin MacKenzie - the modern emoticon was born

Mosaic

- released in 1993 - first widely downloaded Internet browser - while not the first web browser, it is considered the first browser to make the Internet easily accessible to non-techies

1985: virtual communities

- the WELL (short for Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link), one of the oldest virtual communities still in operation - developed by Stewart Brand and Larry Brilliant in February of '85 - started out as a community of the readers and writers of the Whole Earth Review and was an open but "remarkably literate and uninhibited intellectual gathering" - Wired Magazine once called The Well "The most influential online community in the world."

CRAY-1 hardware

- the first vector-processor supercomputer - demonstrated by Seymour Cray in 1976 - the hardware is more compact and faster than previous supercomputers - no wire is more than 4 feet long - the clock period is 12.5 nanoseconds (billionths of a second) - the machine is cooled by freon circulated through stainless steel tubing bonded within vertical wedges of aluminum between the stacks of circuit boards (Cray patents the bonding process) - the speed and power attract researchers, who want access to it over networks.

wide area networks (WANs)

connect computers that are miles apart

1973

Arpanet made its first trans-Atlantic connection with the University College of London. During the same year, email accounted for 75% of all Arpanet network activity. - popularity of emailing

When did the web first become commercialized?

1995 While there were commercial enterprises online prior to '95, there were a few key developments that happened that year. First, SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) encryption was developed by Netscape, making it safer to conduct financial transactions (like credit card payments) online. In addition, two major online businesses got their start the same year. The first sale on "Echo Bay" was made that year. Echo Bay later became eBay. Amazon.com also started in 1995, though it didn't turn a profit for six years, until 2001.

1974

A proposal was published to link Arpa-like networks together into a so-called "inter-network", which would have no central control and would work around a transmission control protocol (which eventually became *TCP/IP)*

Steve Case

AOL founder

1990 ARPANET

ARPANET formally shuts down. In twenty years, 'the net' has grown from 4 to over 300,000 hosts. Countries connecting in 1990 include Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Greece, India, Ireland, South Korea, Spain, and Switzerland. Several search tools, such as ARCHIE, Gopher, and WAIS start to appear. Institutions like the National Library of Medicine, Dow Jones, and Dialog are now on line. More 'worms' burrow on the net, with as many as 130 reports leading to 12 real ones! This is a further indication of the transition to a wider audience.

An ____________ network was established between Harvard, MIT, and BBN (the company that created the "interface message processor" computers used to connect to the network) in 1970.

Arpanet

1981

By the beginning of the year, more than 200 computers in dozens of institutions have been connected in CSNET. BITNET, another startup network, is based on protocols that include file transfer via e-mail rather than by the FTP procedure of the ARPA protocols. The Internet Working Group of DARPA publishes a plan for the transition of the entire network from the Network Control Protocol to the TCP/IP protocols developed since 1974 and already in wide use (RFC 801). At Berkeley, Bill Joy incorporates the new TCP/IP suite into the next release of the Unix operating system. The first 'portable' computer is launched in the form of the Osborne, a 24-pound suitcase-sized device. The IBM PC is launched in August 1981. Meanwhile, Japan mounts a successful challenge to US chip makers by producing 64kbit chips so inexpensively that U.S. competitors charge the chips are being 'dumped' on the U.S. market.

This decision was announced in April 1993 and sparked a global wave of creativity, collaboration and innovation never seen before.

CERN would agree to make the underlying code available on a royalty-free basis, forever - thus allowing anyone, anywhere to use the web without paying a fee or having to ask for permission.

Donald Davies

English inventor of packet switching

Hand held calculators

Following the lead of Intel's 4004 chip, these range from the simple Texas Instruments four-function adding machines to the elaborate Hewlett-Packard scientific calculators immediately consign ordinary slide rules to oblivion in 1972

Universality

For anyone to be able to publish anything on the web, all the computers involved have to speak the same languages to each other, no matter what different hardware people are using; where they live; or what cultural and political beliefs they have. In this way, the web breaks down silos while still allowing diversity to flourish

Consensus

For universal standards to work, everyone had to agree to use them. Tim and others achieved this consensus by giving everyone a say in creating the standards, through a transparent, participatory process at W3C

Non-discrimination

If I pay to connect to the internet with a certain quality of service, and you pay to connect with that or a greater quality of service, then we can both communicate at the same level. This principle of equity is also known as Net Neutrality

When does the government join the internet?

In 1993, both the White House and the United Nations came online, marking the beginning of the *.gov* and *.org* domain names.

1970

In December, the Network Working Group (NWG) led by Steve Crocker finishes the initial ARPANET Host-to-Host protocol, called the Network Control Protocol (NCP).

1984

In January, Apple announces the Macintosh. Its user-friendly interface swells the ranks of new computer users. Novelist William Gibson coins the term cyberspace in Neuromancer, a book that adds a new genre to science fiction and fantasy. The newly developed DNS is introduced across the Internet, with the now familiar domains of .gov, .mil, .edu, .org, .net, and .com. A domain called .int, for international entities, is not much used. Instead, hosts in other countries take a two-letter domain indicating the country. The British JANET explicitly announces its intention to serve the nation's higher education community, regardless of discipline. Most important for the Internet, NSF issues a request for proposals to establish supercomputer centers that will provide access to the entire U.S. research community, regardless of discipline and location. A new division of Advanced Scientific Computing is created with a budget of $200 million over five years. Datapoint, the first company to offer networked computers, continues in the marketplace, but fails to achieve critical mass.

1983

In January, the ARPANET standardizes on the TCP/IP protocols adopted by the Department of Defense (DOD). The Defense Communications Agency decides to split the network into a public 'ARPANET' and a classified 'MILNET, ' with only 45 hosts remaining on the ARPANET. Jon Postel issues an RFC assigning numbers to the various interconnected nets. Barry Leiner takes Vint Cerf's place at DARPA, managing the Internet. Numbering the Internet hosts and keeping tabs on the host names simply fails to scale with the growth of the Internet. In November, Jon Postel and Paul Mockapetris of USC/ISI and Craig Partridge of BBN develop the Domain Name System (DNS) and recommend the use of the now familiar [email protected] addressing system. The number of computers connected via these hosts is much larger, and the growth is accelerating with the commercialization of Ethernet. Having incorporated TCP/IP into Berkeley Unix, Bill Joy is key to the formation of Sun Microsystems. Sun develops workstations that ship with Berkeley Unix and feature builtin networking. At the same time, the Apollo workstations ship with a special version of a token ring network. In July 1983, an NSF working group, chaired by Kent Curtis, issues a plan for 'A National Computing Environment for Academic Research' to remedy the problems noted in the Lax report. Congressional hearings result in advice to NSF to undertake an even more ambitious plan to make supercomputers available to US scientists.

Bottom-up design

Instead of code being written and controlled by a small group of experts, it was developed in full view of everyone, encouraging maximum participation and experimentation

But the four-year old Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense, a future-oriented funder of 'high-risk, high-gain' research, lays the groundwork for what becomes the ARPANET and, much later, the ____________.

Internet

hypertext transfer protocol (http)

Internet protocol that handles file transfers over the web

1980

Landweber's proposal has many enthusiastic reviewers. At an NSF-sponsored workshop, the idea is revised in a way that both wins approval and opens up a new epoch for NSF itself. The revised proposal includes many more universities. It proposes a three-tiered structure involving ARPANET, a TELENET-based system, and an e-mail only service called PhoneNet. Gateways connect the tiers into a seamless whole. This brings the cost of a site within the reach of the smallest universities. Moreover, NSF agrees to manage CSNET for two years, after which it will turn it over to the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR), which is made up of more than 50 academic institutions. The National Science Board approves the new plan and funds it for five years at a cost of $5 million. Since the protocols for interconnecting the subnets of CSNET include TCP/IP, NSF becomes an early supporter of the Internet. NASA has ARPANET nodes, as do many Department of Energy (DOE) sites. Now several Federal agencies support the Internet, and the number is growing. Research by David Patterson at Berkeley and John Hennessy at Stanford promotes 'reduced instruction set' computing. IBM selects the disk operating system DOS, developed by Microsoft, to operate its planned PC.

1994: Netscape Navigator

Mosaic's first big competitor

1975

NASA begins planning its own space physics network, SPAN. These networks have connections to the ARPANET so the newly developed TCP protocol begins to get a workout. Internally, however, the new networks use such a variety of protocols that true interoperability is still an issue.

Decentralisation

No permission is needed from a central authority to post anything on the web, there is no central controlling node, and so no single point of failure ... and no "kill switch"! This also implies freedom from indiscriminate censorship and surveillance

SABRE (Semi-Automatic Business Research Environment)

On-line transaction processing debuts with IBM's SABRE air travel reservation system for American Airlines. links 2,000 terminals in sixty cities via telephone lines in 1964.

1986

The 56Kbps backbone between the NSF centers leads to the creation of a number of regional feeder networks - JVNCNET, NYSERNET, SURANET, SDSCNET and BARRNET - among others. With the backbone, these regionals start to build a hub and spoke infrastructure. This growth in the number of interconnected networks drives a major expansion in the community including the DOE, DOD and NASA. Between the beginning of 1986 and the end of 1987 the number of networks grows from 2,000 to nearly 30,000. TCP/IP is available on workstations and PCs such as the newly introduced Compaq portable computer. Ethernet is becoming accepted for wiring inside buildings and across campuses. Each of these developments drives the introduction of terms such as bridging and routing and the need for readily available information on TCP/IP in workshops and manuals. Companies such as Proteon, Synoptics, Banyan, Cabletron, Wellfleet, and Cisco emerge with products to feed this explosion. At the same time, other parts of the U.S. Government and many of the traditional computer vendors mount an attempt to validate their products being built to the OSI theoretical specifications, in the form of the Corporation for Open Systems. USENET starts a major shakeup which becomes known as the 'Great Renaming'. A driving force is that, as many messages are traveling over ARPANET, desirable new news groups such as 'alt.sex' and 'alt.drugs' are not allowed.

1978

The ARPANET experiment formally is complete. This leaves an array of boards and task forces over the next few years trying to sustain the vision of a free and open Internet that can keep up with the growth of computing.

International Conference on Computer Communication (ICCC) in 1972

The ICCC demonstrations are a tremendous success. One of the best known demos features a conversation between ELIZA, Joseph Weizenbaum's artificially-intelligent psychiatrist located at MIT, and PARRY, a paranoid computer developed by Kenneth Colby at Stanford. Other demos feature interactive chess games, geography quizzes, and an elaborate air traffic control simulation. An AT&T delegation visits ICCC but leaves in puzzlement.

1992:

The Internet becomes such a part of the computing establishment that a professional society forms to guide it on its way. The *Internet Society (ISOC)*, with Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn among its founders, validates the coming of age of inter-networking and its pervasive role in the lives of professionals in developed countries. The IAB and its supporting committees become part of ISOC. The number of networks exceeds 7,500 and the number of computers connected passes 1,000,000. The MBONE for the first time carries audio and video. The challenge to the telephone network's dominance as the basis for communicating between people is seen for the first time; the Internet is no longer just for machines to talk to each other. During the summer, students at NCSA in University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign modify Tim Berners-Lee's hypertext proposal. In a few weeks MOSAIC is born within the campus. Larry Smarr shows it to Jim Clark, who founds Netscape as a result. The *WWW bursts into the world and the growth of the Internet explodes like a supernova*. What had been doubling each year, now doubles in three months. What began as an ARPA experiment has, in the span of just 30 years, *become a part of the world's popular culture. *

1987

The NSF, realizing the rate and commercial significance of the growth of the Internet, signs a cooperative agreement with Merit Networks which is assisted by IBM and MCI. Rick Adams co-founds UUNET to provide commercial access to UUCP and the USENET newsgroups, which are now available for the PC. BITNET and CSNET also merge to form CREN. The NSF starts to implement its T1 backbone between the supercomputing centers with 24 RT-PCs in parallel implemented by IBM as 'parallel routers'. The T1 idea is so successful that proposals for T3 speeds in the backbone begin. In early 1987 the number of hosts passes 10,000 and by year-end there have been over 1,000 RFCs issued. Network management starts to become a major issue and it becomes clear that a protocol is needed between routers to allow remote management. SNMP is chosen as a simple, quick, near term solution.

1991

The net's dramatic growth continues with NSF lifting any restrictions on commercial use. Interchanges form with popular providers such as UUNET and PSInet. Congress passes the Gore Bill to create the National Research and Education Network, or NREN initiative. In another sign of popularity, privacy becomes an 'issue,' with proposed solutions such as PGP (Pretty Good Privacy). The NSFNET backbone upgrades to T3, or 44 Mbps. Total traffic exceeds 1 trillion bytes, or 10 billion packets per month! Over 100 countries are now connected with over 600,000 hosts and nearly 5,000 separate networks.

1989

The number of hosts increases from 80,000 in January to 130,000 in July to over 160,000 in November! Australia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand and the United Kingdom join the Internet. Commercial e-mail relays start between MCIMail through CNRI and Compuserve through Ohio State. The Internet Architecture Board reorganizes again reforming the IETF and the IRTF. Networks speed up. NSFNET T3 (45Mbps) nodes operate. At Interop 100Mbps LAN technology, known as FDDI, interoperates among several vendors. The telephone companies start to work on their own wide area packet switching service at higher speeds - calling it SMDS. Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf at CNRI hold the first Gigabit (1000Mbps) Testbed workshops with funding from ARPA and NSF. Over 600 people from a wide range of industry, government and academia attend to discuss the formation of 6 gigabit testbeds across the country. The Cray 3, a direct descendant of the Cray line, starting from the CDC 6600, is produced. In Switzerland at CERN Tim Berners-Lee addresses the issue of the constant change in the currency of information and the turn-over of people on projects. Instead of an hierarchical or keyword organization, Berners-Lee proposes a hypertext system that will run across the Internet on different operating systems. This was the World Wide Web.

1986: protocol wars

The so-called Protocol wars began in 1986. European countries at that time were pursuing the *Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)*, while the United States was using the *Internet/Arpanet protocol*, which eventually won out.

1988

The upgrade of the NSFNET backbone to T1 completes and the Internet starts to become more international with the connection of Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. In the US more regionals spring up - Los Nettos and CERFnet both in California. In addition, Fidonet, a popular traditional bulletin board system (BBS) joins the net. Dan Lynch organizes the first Interop commercial conference in San Jose for vendors whose TCP/IP products interoperate reliably. 50 companies make the cut and 5,000 networkers come to see it all running, to see what works, and to learn what doesn't work. The US Government pronounces its OSI Profile (GOSIP) is to be supported in all products purchased for government use, and states that TCP/IP is an interim solution! The Morris WORM burrows on the Internet into 6,000 of the 60,000 hosts now on the network. This is the first worm experience and DARPA forms the Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) to deal with future such incidents. CNRI obtains permission from the Federal Networking Council and from MCI to interconnect the commercial MCI Mail service to the Internet. This broke the barrier to carrying commercial traffic on the Internet backbone. By 1989 MCI Mail, OnTyme, Telemail and CompuServe had all interconnected their commercial email systems to the Internet and, in so doing, interconnected with each other for the first time. This was the start of commercial Internet services in the United States (and possibly the world).

Prestel

The world's first commercial videotex service was launched in Great Britain in 1979

1982

Time magazine names 'the computer' its 'Man of the Year.' Cray Research announces plans to market the Cray X-MP system in place of the Cray-1. At the other end of the scale, the IBM PC 'clones' begin appearing. An NSF panel chaired by the Courant Institute's Peter Lax reports that U.S. scientists lack access to supercomputers. It contains the testimony of University of Illinois astrophysicist Larry Smarr that members of his discipline have been forced to travel to Germany to use American-made supercomputers. The period during which ad hoc networking systems have flourished has left TCP/IP as only one contender for the title of 'standard.' Indeed, the International Organization for Standards (ISO) has written and is pushing ahead with a 'reference' model of an interconnection standard called Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) — already adopted in preliminary form for interconnecting DEC equipment. But while OSI is a standard existing for the most part on paper, the combination of TCP/IP and the local area networks created with Ethernet technology are driving the expansion of the living Internet. Drew Major and Kyle Powell write Snipes, an action game to be played on PC's over the network. They package the game as a 'demo' for a PC software product from SuperSet Software, Inc. This is the beginning of Novell. Digital Communications Associates introduces the first coaxial cable interface for microto-mainframe communications.

Web 2.0

a new way of using the Internet for collaboration and sharing of data among individual users

Internet2

a new, faster version of the Internet.

1971: Project Gutenberg and eBooks

a site with a global effort to make books and documents in the public domain available electronically-for free-in a variety of eBook and electronic formats. Michael Hart - manually typed (no OCR at the time) the "Declaration of Independence" and launched Project Gutenberg to make information contained in books widely available in electronic form. In effect, this was the birth of the eBook.

Alto

an experimental computer developed by the Xerox Corporation in the early 1970s, was the first personal computer - It boasted a mouse, a graphical user interface, and a high-speed local area network connection called *Ethernet, invented by Bob Metcalfe*

World Wide Web Consortium

an international community devoted to developing open web standards

Unix

another major milestone during the 60s was the inception of this the operating system whose design heavily influenced that of Linux and FreeBSD (the operating systems most popular in today's web servers/web hosting services)

social media

are media whose content is created and distributed through social interaction

protocols

are technical rules governing data communication.

browsers

are the computer programs that display information found on the Web

SAGE (Semi Automatic Ground Environment)

based on earlier work at MIT and IBM, is fully deployed as the North American early warning system. Operators of 'weapons directing consoles' use a light gun to identify moving objects that show up on their radar screens. SAGE sites are used to direct air defense. This project provides experience in the development of the SABRE air travel reservation system and later air traffic control systems.

1990

brought about the Arst commercial dial-up Internet provider, The World. The same year, Arpanet ceased to exist.

Leonard Kleinrock

completes his doctoral dissertation at MIT on queuing theory in communication networks, and becomes an assistant professor at UCLA

Modems ( modulator-demodulators)

convert digital data to analog signals and vice versa

ethernet

demonstrated in 1974 by networking Xerox PARC's new Alto computers.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

deployed in 1988, this paved the way for real-time chat and the instant messaging programs we use today

Ivan Sutherland

in 1962 he uses the TX-2 to write Sketchpad, the origin of graphical programs for computer-aided design

John van Geen of the Stanford Research Institute (SRI)

in 1967, he introduces a receiver that can reliably detect bits of data amid the hiss heard over long-distance telephone connections.

In 1984, Apple's Macintosh

introduced high-resolution graphics and multimedia to personal computers

local area networks (LANs)

link computers within a department, building, or campus

Apple's HyperCard software

popularized the hypertext concept, the "linking" function that makes it possible to navigate by "mouse clicking" on keywords or icons in a nonlinear method, made familiar by links on the Web.

cookies

small files that websites leave on their visitors' computers.

Transmission-control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP)

the basic protocol used by the Internet evolved largely through the efforts of Vinton Cerf

January 1, 1983

the deadline for Arpanet computers to switch over to the TCP/IP protocols developed by Vinton Cerf. A few hundred computers were affected by the switch. The name server was also developed in '83.

microprocessor

the first "computer on a chip" in 1971 the combination of memory and processor on a single chip reduces size and cost, and increases speed, continuing the evolution from vacuum tube to transistor to integrated circuit

Arpanet

the first real network to run on packet switching technology On the October 29, 1969, computers at Stanford and UCLA connected for the first time. In effect, they were the first hosts on what would one day become the Internet.

Syncom

the first synchronous communication satellite, is launched in 1963

Steve Wozniak's "blue box"

tone generators that enable long-distance dialing while bypassing the phone company's billing equipment

Hypertext markup language (HTML)

used to format pages on the web

The first message sent across the Arpanet network

was supposed to be "Login" but reportedly, the link between the two colleges crashed on the letter "g".

1992

when the timeline ends - the Internet has one million hosts - the ARPANET has ceased to exist - computers are nine orders of magnitude faster - network bandwidth is twenty million times greater

J.C.R. Licklider

writes memos about his Intergalactic Network concept, where everyone on the globe is interconnected and can access programs and data at any site from anywhere In October 1962, 'Lick' becomes the first head of the computer research program at ARPA, which he calls the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO)