COM 441 EXAM 11-13

6 Dimensions For Describing Multicultural Organization

1) Acculturation - modes by which 2 groups adapt to each other and resolve cultural differences 2) Structural integration - cultural profiles of organization members, including hiring, job placement, and job status profiles 3) Informal integration - inclusion of minority-culture members in informal networks and activities outside of normal working hours 4) Cultural bias - prejudice and discrimination 5) Organizational identification - feelings of belonging, loyalty, and commitment to the organization 6) Intergroup conflict - friction, tension, and power struggles between cultural groups

2 Challenges of Diverse Organizations

1) Avoiding Negative Effects of Diversity Management Programs - individuals may have lower views of self-competence if they benefit from affirmative action programs, others stigmatize those who benefit from the programs as incompetent, and aff initiatives can be seen as unjust, unfair, or unethical 2) Gender diversity: achieving a balance between work and home - institution of family-friendly programs like flextime, onsite day care, job sharing, family leave policies, telecommuting, creation of a culture that values various aspects of employees' lives. Concerns include employees who don't have children resenting the special treatment

Distributed Work (Grantham)

1) Central Office 2) Telework - accomplished at the same time, different place 3) Flextime - work is done at the same place, different time

6 Business Case for Diversity/Value-in-Diversity-Perspective: Opportunities

1) Cost argument - reduce costs 2) Resource-acquisition argument - you're not going to attract top talent if you have a reputation for being a toxic work environment, even if you're recruiting top talent from a dominant group 3) Marketing argument - better marketing 4) Creativity argument - greater creativity 5) Problem-solving argument - diversity of perspectives will prevent groupthink 6) Systems flexibility argument - reactions to environmental change will be faster and cost less with diversity

4 Individual and Organizational Coping Strategies

1) Dysfunctional - excessive drinking, drug use, absenteeism 2) Problem-centered coping - deal directly with causes of burnout; Peter delegates some of his responsibilities, talking to his supervisor about work reduction, or uses time management techniques - MOST EFFECTIVE 3) Appraisal-centered coping - change your attitude; Peter convinces himself he needs to work harder to advance the company and short-term family sacrifices are necessary for long-term security 4) Emotion-centered coping - dealing with the negative affective outcomes of burnout; Peter uses relaxation techniques designed to release job-related tension Workers can also get "time-outs"

Communicative Coping: 3 Types of Social Support

1) Emotional support - cry on my shoulder, i gotchu 2) Informational support - facts and advice to help someone cope; decrease role conflict and workload and provide suggestions to dealing with strain of burnout 3) Instrumental support - physical or material assistance that helps individual cope; coworker pitches in to help someone finish a project when that person is fighting tight deadline, spouse might cook dinner

Emotional display rules

1) Express emotions in a professional way 2) Express emotions to improve situations 3) Express emotions to the right people 4) Express emotions to help individuals 5) Do not manage emotions for personal benefit to the detriment of others 6) The expression of certain emotions is always inappropriate These rules are not hard and fast, and will vary from workplace to workplace and change over time

3 Pros of ICT channels > traditional channels

1) Faster message transmission 2) Communication between geographically dispersed participants 3) Asynchronous communication Emergent aspects: 1) technology greatly enhances possibility for collaboration across time and space 2) For good or bad, these factors can lead to communication going viral either within an organizational system or around the world

Multicultural Organization 3 Phases of Workplace Development

1) First-generation affirmative action - org is concerned with meeting legally mandated requirements for gender and ethnic diversity. Concern that focus on numbers can lead to intergroup conflict, distrust, hostility. 2) Second-generation affirmative action - firm has met affirmative action goals in terms of numbers, and emphasis shifts to supporting female and minority employees 3) Multicultural organization - moves beyond concept of support for minority members to the institution of policies that capitalize on cultural and gender diversity.

3 Challenges Facing Women and Minorities

1) Greater difficulty in getting job 2) Widespread pay inequity 3) Challenges with representation in particular sectors and at upper levels of organizational hierarchy

3 Ways to Combat Diversity Challenges

1) Merit criteria for hiring and promotions 2) Unambiguous public information regarding qualifications of hires 3) Mentoring and networks

6 Advantages of Virtual Work

1) Reduced expenses 2) Access to global markets 3) Environmental benefits 4) Increased productivity 5) Improved customer service 6) Enhanced profits

3 Challenges of Virtual Work

1) Setup and maintenance costs 2) Losses of cost-efficiencies 3) Workers feel isolated

3 Types of Supporters

1) Supervisors - provides informational and instrumental help 2) Coworkers - informational and emotional support 3) Friends and Family - emotional and instrumental help

Waldron's 4 aspects of work relationships that create intense emotion

1) Tension between public and private - friends outside work are supervisor and subordinate in workplace 2) Relational networks and emotional buzzing - one negative comment in a meeting can lead to an uprising or panic 3) Conflicting allegiances - individual feels conflicting loyalties to various departments or individuals in an organization; allegiances might develop to subcultural groups that formed in the workplace. In any of these cases, intense emotions (betrayal, dedication, jealousy) 4) Emotional rights and obligations at work - when norms of relational morality (right, just, fair in the workplace) are disrupted, strong emotions are seen; woman accused of sleeping her way to a promotion

3 Aspects of Organizational Relationships and Systems that lead to Differential Experiences for Women and Minorities in Orgs

1) Women and ethnic minorities experience limited access to informal communication networks involving socialization, decision making, conflict management 2) Establishing mentoring relationships 3) Tokenism

Virtual Work

1) Working from home 2) Virtual teams that work across borders of time, space, organizational boundaries - hard to build trust when you're not physically together

3 Outcomes of Burnout

1) physiological results - coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, 2) attitudinal - lower job satisfaction 3) organizational - less commitment, greater turnover

Disabilities and LGBT

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted in 1990 and major amendments added in 2008. Prohibits discrimination based on disability and requires that organizations make "reasonable accommodations" for disabled workers. Although 11% of the US population is disabled, only 21% of them are members of the labor force. They can face discrimination or be treated differently because of "kindness norm" - believed to occur because institutions strive to follow legal letter of the ADA but not its inclusive spirit. Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) was introduced in 1994 but never passed. However, many businesses still include sexual orientation in their nondiscrimination policies. Over 6% of US workforce reported being gay or trans in 2012.

Aspects of emotional labor process

Antecedents of emotional labor (gender, task requirements, closeness of monitoring) Dimensions of emotional labor (frequency of emotional display, variety of expressed emotion, degree of emotional dissonance) Consequences of emotional labor (burnout and job dissatisfaction)

Stress process

Aspects of the environment (stressors) create a strain on the individual (burnout) which leads to negative psychological, physiological, and organizational outcomes

Tokenism

Because white males dominate the employee field, women and people of color in managerial positions are often tokens/highly visible representatives of their gender/ethnic minority. Tokens' performances are hindered because of the pressure to which their visibility subjects them and because members of the dominant group exaggerate differences according to stereotypes; i.e. only African American pressured to represent "black viewpoint" or men joke about curbing language bc "lady in the room"

Social Media

Can provide simple, inexpensive ways to organize members, arrange meetings, spread info, and gauge opinion - workers can find right colleague to help them complete tasks, can organize and locate internal data more easily, and boost productivity and reduce redundancy by better sharing what everyone is doing Social networking sites Negative - those looking for job should be careful of information available Positive - sites provide important ways to make contact Social media plays huge role in representing organization - FB, twitter, instagram ICT channels important in organizing political and social justice movements

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Change ways of addressing message: 1) Anonymity 2) Flaming, cyberbullying, shield for illegal activity 3) Differing memory, storage, and retrieval features - instant retrieval of arcane info Cues vary

Detached concern

Concern for clients can be maintained independent of strong emotional involvement

Discrimination against people of color

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission reports that "color discrimination in employment seems to be on the rise" Studies showed that black job applicants with lighter skin were more likely to be hired than those with darker skin, even when their qualifications were the same Black men are now less likely to be discriminated against in jobs requiring technical skills, but still discriminated against in jobs requiring social skills, and they experience greatest levels of unemployment in the recent recession

Emotional work

Genuine emotion on the job; nurse feels sorrow at death of patient, teacher feels joy when student understands concept - involves people not in frontline service jobs, but those who hold professional positions in industries such as health care, education, or human services

Emotion as Part of the Job

In many jobs, communication between employee and client involves some degree of emotional content Seen as way to increase success of organization Most research considers emotion controlled through training Most research considers emotional displays related through deep acting or surface acting; workers are aware they're acting Potential negative consequences like stress, anxiety, dissonance from faking - happens often with counselors, psychologists, funeral directors - harsher when faked emotions are negative

Equal Pay Act in 1963

In the last half century, women's pay has moved from 59 cents/1 dollar to 77 cents/1 dollar

Communication as cause of Burnout

Influences workload, role conflict and role ambiguity Emotional Labor --> emotional dissonance; closely linked to burnout, since emotions are not genuinely felt. Emotional contagion - "Feeling with" - affective response in which observer experiences emotions parallel to those of another person; funeral director who always feels sad when talking to grieving clients Empathic concern - "feeling for" - an affective response in which observer has nonparallel emotional response; counselor talking to hysterical client might be concerned but not share client's hysteria Conclusion: empathic concern helps employees communicate effectively, while emotional contagion hinders effective interaction. Empathic concern + emotional contagion --> communicative responsiveness --> burnout --> occupational commitment

Minority Employee Networks (affinity groups)

Members of a particular gender or ethnic background meet and minority employees experience the most success when they develop a differentiated network consisting of both majority and minority members and individuals on a wide range of hierarchical levels

Mentoring Relationships

Mentor - experienced, productive manager who relates well to less-experienced employees and facilitates his or her personal development for the benefit of the individual and organization Women prefer to work with women, but there's often a shortage of women mentors Research shows that male mentors who work with female protege signals to others that she is "someone to be reckoned with" in the org. However, concerns include how others perceive mentoring relationship between woman and man and women who have a hard time initiating relationships with men.

Minority representation

Minority representation is 36% throughout US labor force, but significantly lower in sectors like nonprofit org and government

Emotion in the Workplace

Most models governed by logic and rationality Interactions often governed by emotion Scholars beginning to appreciate emotional nuances Theorists moved away from purely logical models and moved to models that considered bounded rationality

Media Richness Model (Draft and Lengel)

Organizational communication tasks vary in their level of ambiguity (existence of conflicting and multiple interpretations of an issue) Endpoints of RICH --> LEAN Must choose media that match the ambiguity of the message to maximize effectiveness. Avoid data glut and data starvation. Rich media --> ambiguous task; firing someone Lean media --> unambiguous task; changing meeting room

Communicative Coping: Participation in Decision Making (PDM)

PDM can improve worker satisfaction and productivity through enhanced information flow (cognitive model) and satisfaction of workers' higher-order needs (attitudinal model) Reduces burnout by reducing the stressors of role conflict and role ambiguity PDM leads to a more accurate knowledge of the formal and informal expectations held by others for the worker and the formal and informal policies and procedures of the organization, as well as the discrepancies between the two

3 Paradoxes of Virtual Work

Paradox 1 - increased flexibility and increased structure - employee gets increased flexibility, but manager is required to keep better track of schedules and meetings because change encounters and informal discussions don't occur Paradox 2 - greater individuality and more teamwork - teleworkers are isolated on an individual basis, but they are also required to coordinate work to a high degree; teleworkers often see basic procedures as "mysterious" because they are expected to be independent, yet still adapt to the rules and regulations of the central org Paradox 3 - more responsibility and less control - nature of telework requires tasks that can be accomplished independently, yet managers often fear losing control of workers who are out of sight. Similarly, workers fear they're missing out on a promotion.

Celebrating Cultural Diversity

Sphere of activity - Education programs, Human resources system, Organizational culture, Mind-sets about diversity, Programs that support work-family health, Programs that combat problems Life in diverse org involves attitude and actions Managers and employees must see diversity as a challenge and opportunity Emphasize value of various kinds of diversity Focus on ability Argue for importance of interaction

Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination

Stereotyping - manager believes Japanese American workers are unassertive or that Mexicans are lazy; patient believes on men have mental capacity to be physicians while only women have nurturing qualities to be nurses Prejudice - negative attitudes toward an organization member based on his/her culture group identity Discrimination - observable behavior for the same reason Hard for women to communicate with men and gain their respect, especially in fields like engineering and sciences

Effects of Information and Technology

Technologies do not determine outcomes; effects of communication technology will depend on matter employed - can use smartphone just to make calls Overall levels of communication increased: new technologies add to existing technologies; video conferencing used in addition to face-to-face meetings Organizations that adopt new communication technologies marked by increase in amount of communications amount of info created in 2002 = amount of data created in 10 days in 2010; drowning in data Electronic message systems increase prevalence of upward communication Communication contacts more diverse Evidence computer technology will lead to greater equality Increased prominence of individuals' knowledge about technology COUNTEREFFECTIVE/INTUITIVE???

Mommy Track

Wants flexible work arrangements and family support in exchange for fewer opportunities for advancement Opt-in Opt-out Off-ramp - have children On-ramp - re-enter work world several years later; only 3/4 of women find a job and only 40% return to full-time work Women are advised to LEAN IN to career and leadership opportunities.

Summary of discrimination

Women, people of color, disabilities, and LGBT differ greatly from experiences of white men because they face stereotyping, prejudice, relational and systemic barriers, and a lack of legal protection

Technology Adoption/Use

Won't be widely embraced until critical mass of individuals use (Markus) Media Richness Theory combines notion of task ambiguity and media richness in technology use decisions If match between ambiguity and media richness isn't right, communication failure occurs

3 Aspects of Compassionate communication (Miller)

Workers in a wide range of human service occupations communicate emotionally in ways that involve processes of noticing, connecting, and responding. Workers must NOTICE the need for compassion and details of clients' lives that lead to appropriate communication. They must CONNECT to clients by taking the others' perspective and establishing an empathic bond. They must RESPOND with verbal and nonverbal behaviors that can make a difference for trouble clients. Developed through study of hospice workers.

Social Information Processing Model

argues that communication between coworkers, supervisors, customers, and others affect media usage; academic department wants to increase use of online courses - Rebecca heard a lot about how difficult it is to teach an online class, and how some students hated it. As a result of these social influences, she may not choose to teach online class even if it provides an appropriate match to the ambiguity at hand. Sees use of communication technology as complex function of: 1) objective characteristics of the task and media 2) past experience and knowledge 3) individual differences 4) social information

Media Synchronicity Theory (Dennis, Fuller, Valacich)

choice of communication media should depend on the extent to which a medium supports a shared pattern of coordinated behavior among coworkers. Ideas about media synchronicity are important because they acknowledge the fact that communication technology choice often involves more than one individual working a task and might well involve multiple media. Important to think about communication media repertoires that individuals choose among as they consider how to accomplish individual and joint tasks in organizations.

Channel Expansion Theory (Carlson and Zmud)

considers the ways in which richness perceptions will depend on an individual's personal experience with a specific media; someone might not understand all the richness of a smartphone until after using it for several weeks.

Bounded Emotionality

emotional life is central focus of organization, focus on emotions will lead to new understanding look at emotional life as central focus - consider ways paying attention to emotion might lead to new ways of understanding

4 Stressors

environmental factors that are difficult for an individual to deal with: 1) workload - too much to do (quantitative) and too difficult (qualitative) 2) role conflict - two or more role requirements that clash 3) role ambiguity - uncertainty about role requirements 4) life events, home/work conflict

Surface acting

evoking superficial emotional behavior during interactions to satisfy work requirements Exp - flight attendants pasting on smile

Utopians

hopeful about positive impacts of technology on organization

Emotions at work

look at relationships with others in the workplace as the major source of organizational emotion Compassion is a form of "everyday talk" in the organization and can be nurtured through effective leadership

Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act (Obama)

makes it easier for women to sue for pay inequity

Deep acting

manufacturing real feelings, not just faking it, getting to know customers Exp - flight attendants imagining airplane cabin as a friendly living room/sympathizing with stress that irate passengers might be feeling

Virtual Organizations (protean places)

no brick-and-mortar presence at all. Named after Proteus, Greek being who could transform his shape to meet changing requirements of the situation.

Workplace bullying

persistent, verbal, and nonverbal aggression at work that includes personal attacks, social ostracism, and a multitude of other painful messages and hostile interactions. Experienced by 90% of adults at some point in their work lives. Victims find themselves dealing with the perceived loss of professional reputation, organizational identity and self confidence, and the long-term loss of core beliefs in justice or fairness

Luddites

pessimistic about technology

Dual Capacity Model

richness perceptions vary depending on interpersonal factors and media experience. Complicates the idea of media richness by proposing that every organizational medium has "data-carrying capacity" (aka media richness) and "symbol-carrying capacity" which involves additional meaning an individual might have for a particular medium; although meeting reminder can be sent in quick email, phone call might be chosen for personal touch. Lean media only carries data, while rich media can carry both data and symbols.

Emotional Intelligence

some people are naturally better at understanding and managing the emotional content of workplace relationships however, emotional intelligence is also a skill that can be trained It involves a clear understanding of emotional needs of a situation and the self-awareness and self-control to use the right emotional display to cope with the situation Criticized by scholars who argue that the concept of emotional intelligence is another example of how organizations are attempting to transform emotion into a marketable product that enhances organizational profits - to the detriment of the authentic feelings of organizational members

3 Aspects of Burnout - chronic condition

strain that results from ongoing stressors 1) Emotional exhaustion - fatigue, frustration, used up, unable to face another day on the job 2) Lack of personal accomplishment - workers see themselves as failures, incapable of effectively accomplishing job requirements 3) Depersonalization - relevant to workers who communicate interpersonally with others (clients, patients, students). When burnt out, workers view other people through "rust-colored glasses" - developing a poor opinion of them, expecting the worst from them, and even actively disliking them.

Glass ceiling

transparent barrier that prevents women and minorities from moving up in the management hierarchy "In 1994, women occupy 36% of management positions in the US, but less than 3% of top execs in Fortune 500 companies are women" --> by 2012, percentage had only risen to 3.6% A year out of school, even if they earned higher college GPAs in every subject, young women will receive on avg 80% of what their male colleagues do.

Job requiring emotional labor

waitresses flight attendants workers in emergency call centers cruise ship employees financial advisors correctional officers firefighters judges

Marginalized

women and minorities are often hampered by restricted access to power and being assigned suboptimal tasks in the workplace; many take on the role of an outsider within established organizational systems

Emotional labor

workers expected to display certain feelings in order to satisfy organizational role expectations - applies to front-line service workers; customer-service representatives -surface acting -deep acting