Combo with "Combo with "BCS 111 Unit 3 Number and Congition" and 27 others" and 1 other
Confirmation Bias
People often only consider a subset of evidence - the subset that confirms their previous belief.
Behaviorism
Predict and control organism's behavior by observing and manipulating physical environment.
Behaviorism
Predict and controls organisms behavior by observing and manipulating physical environment --anti-mentalism --emphasize learning --de-emphasize contributions internal to learner
Polarity Matching Principle (Apparent Motion Perception)
Prefer matches between elements of the same contrast polarity. Example: Black image features in Frame 1 should match black image features in Frame 2 (not white image features in Frame 2).
subitizing
random collections of dots get flashed on a screen for .2 seconds, and subjects must recall how many dots appeared in the collection
sensory store
rapid decay unlimited capacity, pre categorical
Why can we recognize a car nearby and far away
size invariance
What is Cartesian Dualism?
the mind and the body are different "substances" that interact.
Modality Appropriateness Hypothesis
the modality most appropriate for the task at hand dominates
Recency
the most recent items are privileged
coarticulation
the overlapping of phonemes during human speech
Passive Vision
the parallel processing of a static image which progresses from a gray-scale retinal input to an internal representation in the head (in the end, we get an entire description of the scene)
passive vision
the parallel processing of a static image which progresses from a gray-scale retinal input to an internal representation in the head (in the end, we get an entire description of the scene)
inverse optics problem
the pattern of inputs on the retinal cells is ambiguous
Apparent motion
the perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations
Size
the physical magnitude of something (how big it is)
texture gradient
the principle of depth perception that lower-density elements appear to be closer than high-density collections of elements
interposition
the principle of depth perception that when one object hides or covers part of another, the obscured object is perceived as being farther away
Identical feature constraint
the principle that a feature in one image should match an identical feature in the other image (stereopsis)
segmentation
you "hear" spaces between words when you're listening to your own lagnuage
Implicit memory
you can't consciously remember it, but it still affects your behaviour. (damaged Amygdala=none).
Frequency estimates
your sample size to see what happened before and then how many of those had each specific outcome (ex. how many people did you know who took 111 last year? what grades did they get? based on that, how will you do?)
Priming
⁃ able to process stimulus if you get valid cues that match what actually happens
Visual Neglect
⁃ half of visual field does not exist ⁃ half of object/space? - follow on side as it turns
Just in time strategy
⁃ you are not taking in info all at once, just taking it in when you need it ⁃ only look at specific things in room when making peanut butter sandwich
Zonal
Number words are (universal/zonal)
Inverse optics problem
inherently ambiguous
Fodor
-swayed by Chomsky -mind composed of mental organs -2 types of faculties --genetically determined
Hebbian Learning
"Cells that fire together, wire together"
geons
3-D geometric solids that combine to form objects; 24 geons in 15 sizes
How do observers estimate cue reliability?
(1) A cue is reliable if the distribution of inferences given that cue has a small variance. (2) A cue is reliable if the inferences based on that cue are consistent with the inferences based on other cues.
Typicality effects
"Typicality" influences reaction time, generalization. People are faster at recognizing typical birds (little, round) than they are atypical birds (penguins, ostriches, etc.) This affects the kind of judgments you make.
The author highlights the ____ problem of identifying objects from their image patches and of interpreting image patches from knowledge of what objects they belong to.
"chicken and egg"
function
"mapping," maps inputs to outputs
algorithm
"recipe," series of steps
Derivational Morphemes
'un,' 'ness,' 'micro,' 'wave'
How can problems associated with template based theories be fixed?
(1) A possible solution to this problem is for more templates to be added. Meaning, a new template for each possible size and orientation. However, this poses another problem. An enormous number of new templates must now be added. (2) Another possible solution is to preprocess the visual signal so that its orientation and size are adjusted to that of the templates.
Problems with Passive Vision
(1) Aim is to form a mental representation (no notion of an observer's goal or task) (2) Ignores inhomogeneity of retina (3) Assumes trans-saccadic integration is flawless and easy (4) Ignores eye movements in its theories of attention.
Feature-Based Theories (Theories of Pattern Recognition)
(1) Describe objects in terms of their visual features and the spatial relations among these features. (2) Features and their spatial relations can often be abstract or qualitative (structural descriptions). (3) Often the pattern-recognition system consists of a number of layers where each layer consists of a number of feature detectors. The outputs of one layer of detectors are the inputs to the next layer of detectors.
What three events changed people's attitudes about cognitive science?
(1) George Miller (1956) and his magic number 7±2, (2) Verbal learning, and (3) Peterson and Peterson.
What are Marr's Four Levels of Visual Representations?
(1) Grey-level array, (2) Primal Sketch, (3) 2.5-D Sketch, (4) 3-D Model
Useful Applications of Metacognition
(1) Intrinsically interesting and fun, (2) Useful (Education, Intelligence, Human factors, Justice System, Artificial Intelligence).
What are the relationships between mental events and neural events?
(1) Mental events should be characterized independently of neural events. (2) Mental events should be characterized in terms of neural events.
What are some of the classical principles of grouping?
(1) No grouping, (2) Proximity, (3) Similarity of Color, (4) Similarity of Size, (5) Similarity of Orientation, (6) Common Fate, (7) Symmetry, (8) Parallelism, (9) Continuity, (10) Closure. Gestalt psychologists identified many different factors that govern which visual elements are perceived as going together in larger groups.
What are problems associated with template theories?
(1) Orientation and (2) size (3) Stimulus Equivalence (4) Objects not segmented
Template Theories (Theories of Pattern Recognition)
(1) There is a mental representation for each of the patterns to be recognized. (2) No (or little) abstraction: the representations code the stimulus properties of the patterns in a direct manner. (3) Recognition is accomplished by matching the sensory signal against the mental templates. The template that best matches the signal identifies the pattern that is present.
What are the problems associated with feature-based theories?
(1) There need to be as many feature detectors at the highest level as there are unique objects that you can visually recognize.
Visual Constancies
(1) Translation Invariance, (2) Size (Depth) Invariance, (3) Orientation (Shape) Invariance.
What are examples of visual perception?
(1) Using top-down information to determine what the ambiguous dog image is, (2) the necker cube, and (3) the illusion of a cube connected by dots.
Sensation
(Bottom-Up Information) Information about visual scene derived exclusively from the pattern of light that enters the eyes
In an experiment, a subject who is performing a task notices when the visual features of a task-relevant item are altered, but not when the features of a task-irrelevant item are altered. According to the article by Hayhoe and Ballard, this observation is consistent with:
(None of the above) It is the active vision school of thought
Memory
(Top-down Information) Information about visual scene derived from general knowledge of the world
In an experiment, it is found that a subject's eyes do not fixate at a point that is the most visually salient, but rather they fixate at a point that is most important for performing a task or achieving a goal. According to the the article by Hayhow and Ballard, this observation is consistent with:
(all of the above (The use of bottom up and top down information, the active vision approach to the study of visual perception, the use of :just-in-time strategies)
Sensation
(bottom-up information): Information about visual scene derived exclusively from the pattern of light that enters the eye.
short term store
(modal model) limited capacity, maintenance through rehearsal, working memory
The article by Ernst and Bulthoff discussed the "Modality Appropriateness" Hypothesis. Based on this hypothesis:
(none of the above) Do not equally weight vision and auditory capture, nor weight them equally
Memory
(top-down information): Information about visual scene derived from general knowledge of the world.
Behaviourism
- "Scientific" Psychology: you can predict and control an organism's behavior by observing and manipulating they physical environment. Only the objectively measurableis considered. - emphasis on learning - anti-mentalism
Syntactic Ambiguity
- "we will sell gas to anyone in a glass container" - we understand what is being said based on context
Attention
- A filter that blocks out unnecessary information - a searchlight that highlights important information - a gain control mechanism
It has been hypothesized that people do global processing of an image, meaning that a person's interpretation of each region of an image is based on both the image properties in that region and on the image properties in neighboring regions. Which of the following is consistent with this hypothesis?
- All of the Above. (Lightness constancy, Word superiority effect, face inversion effect)
Brooks
- Block-Letter task (H - what corners are inside the letter): Hard if spatial, easy if verbal - Sentence Task (is each word a noun?): Hard if verbal, easy if spatial
Information Theory
- Claude Shannon - Sender -- Noisy Channel -- Receiver
Level of Processing Hypothesis
- the greater the depth of processing the more durable the memory trace - different levels of processing correlate to response latencies (yes/no responses are fast) - memory is not a set of storage locations (STM, LTM)
Peterson and Peterson
- Forgetting - Rehearsal keeps item alive in short-term memory - Rehearsal helps item get to LTM - STM verus LTM systems
Induced false recall
- words presented all based on a missing theme word - had to recognize words they had already heard - most reported remembering the missing theme word even though it was never presented
Problems with Resemblance-Based View
- How do we know what features are relevant to compare (bats and birds vs. birds and ostriches) - Similarity isn't the only thing that matters.
Cross Model Correspondences
-tendency to associate stimuli type with certain modality -associating different things together (congruent, incongruent) low pitch with big object or high pitch with small object
Transcendental Method
- Immanual Kant - Begin with observable facts, move backwards to interpretation
Hypnagogia
-thalamus reduces activity -kinesthetic - feel like you're falling
Broca's area
- Language - Music - Mathematics - Logical structures
perfect supression ratio
0.0
Stereopsis- First Theory
- Left and right --> Stereopsis -> Shape analysis - Problem: False Targets
Shape-First Theory
- Left and right --> shape analysis and shape analysis --> Stereopsis - Problem: Object identification before depth?
Chunking
- Measurement of Miller's memory capacity. - People have different strategies for it. - People remember things better when they do this.
Memory codes
-Provided at each level of processing -Codes represent the info produced by the analysis of the stimulus at that level -Deeper codes are more enduring than shallow codes -Forgetting is a function of depth of perception
Limits to Behaviorism
- instinct unaccounted for - prior knowledge unaccounted for - "Salt Passing Behavior" - when different statements mean the same thing/yield the same result
Depth Cues
- interposition (one object blocks another) - size (further = smaller) - texture/gradient (further = denser, smaller) - linear perspective (vanishing point) - motion parallax (closer things move faster) - shadow - atmospheric blur (further = blurrier)
Behaviorism
- Predict and control organism's behavior by observing and manipulating physical environment - Anti mentalism - Emphasizes learning -S-S or S-R associations are fundamental units of behavior - Associations are context free (tree and leaves example)
Effects of Load
- low perceptual load = high rxn time - low cognitive load= low rxn time - high perceptual load = low rxn time - high cognitive load = high rxn time
Levels of attenuation
- nervous system (loudness, pitch) - syllables - words - grammar - meaning
Top-down factors
- Search for visual regions/objects potentially relevant to observer's task or goal - Can choose to attend to: specific spatial regions of the visual field, or specific objects
Characteristics of Working Memory
- no single location in the brain - highly active info processing system, not just a holding space - limited capacity based on chunks - contents are fragile and fade quickly
Perceptual load
- numbers of distractors (reaction time higher - not distracted by this)
Chunking
-Re-coding into larger chunks -Divide into more meaningful tasks
Problems with Broadbent's Filter Model
- people will stop if unattended tells them to - if language is different but they both say the same thing, bilingual people notice - Cocktail party name recognition - if it doesn't make sense, you will put both channels together to make sense. - galvanic shock reactions -if words in unattended channel are relevent, you will notice
Feature-Based Approach to Recognition
- recognition by component: represent objects in terms of the shapes that they could be made from (object-centered)
In Tresiman's Feature integration theory, what is the role of the attentive stage of processing?
- To combine visual features into representations of surfaces and objects
Visual/iconic memory (non-verbal info)
- Visual-short term memory -Sperling: PPs saw displays of letters and were asked to recall as many as possible -Whole report condition (recall as many letters as you can) : 4-5 letters -Row recall: depends on tone they hear -When long time before recall, worse memory for contents of row
Limits to Introspection
- We only have access to conscious experiences - There is no way to be completely objective
Problems with Template Theory
- What happens if it doesn't match exactly? - SO many templates needed - Preprocess the visual signal - turn it until it matches a template - viewer-centered
Automatically
- automatic tasks = resource-free, independent of awareness - can be achieved through practice
Retinal Disparity
- difference in images in each retina Stereopsis - correspondence problem may result -identical feature constraint - match up features identical in each eye -uniqueness constraint - one feature will match feature in other eye -continuity constraint - features are near each other/ at the same depth in both
Examples of Sensory Integration
- double-flash illusion (auditory won) - ventriloquism (visual won) -McGurk Effect (ga, ba, da) [both used]
Deush vs. Deush (bottle neck)
- info enters short term/working memory but limit capacity for stuff in short term memory
Theories of Pattern Recognition: Feature-Based Theories
--Describe objects in terms of their visual features and the spatial relations among these features --Features and their spatial relations can often be abstract or qualitative (structural descriptions)
Gestalt Perspective
--Emphasized that we are INNATELY predisposed toward seeing the world in terms of the whole objects, not in terms of their parts
Marr's Four Levels of Visual Representations: Grey-Level Array
--Gives intensity of light at each point in image --Photoreceptors measure light intensity at each point on retina
Evidence for Visual Feature Extraction
--Individual visual features (eg motion) can be adapted (ex waterfall illusion) --Segmentation "pop out" --Illusory conjunction errors at level 2
Wolfe's Passive Vision
--Progresses from a grayscale retinal input to an internal representation in the head -processing occurs in parallel across image --static image
TICS Article: Ernst and Bulthoff
--Robust perception requires integration of multiple sources of sensory info --Sensory combination --Sensory integration
Levels of Procesing Hypothesis criticized because...
--Sensory memories can have enduring memory codes --Subjects level of recall performance measures his/her level of processing explains his/her recall performance --Factors other than levels of processing also have strong effects on recall. Performance (state dependent memories)
Theories of Pattern Recognition: Template Theories
--There is a mental representation for each of the patterns to be recognized --No (or little) abstraction: the representations code the stimulus properties of patterns in a direct manner --Recognition is accomplished by matching the sensory signal against the mental templates. The template that best matches the signal identifies the pattern that is present.
Visual Constancies
--Translation Invariance --size (depth) invariance --orientation (shape) invariance
"Standard Equipment" by Pinker
--Visual perception ambiguous --Categories ambiguous --reasoning ambiguous
Two views of cue reliability
--a cue is reliable if the distribution of inferences given that cue has a small variance --a cue is reliable if the inferences based on that cue are consistent with the inferences based on other cues
Problems with passive vision
--aim is to form a mental representation (no notion of an observers goal or task) --ignores inhomogeneity of retina --assumes transsaccadic integration is flawless and easy --ignores eye movements in its theories of attention
Symbolic Information Processing: Mind/body problem
--computer simulation as cognitive theory --emphasis on intelligent activity (mental computation) irrespective of what physical entity carries out that activity (machine or human) --analogy to software/hardware distinction
Associative Agnosia
--difficulty recognizing a variety of visually presented objects --Normal recognition of objects through modalities other than vision --intact visual sensation
Active Vision
--emphasis on task: goal of vision is to enable observer to perform a task. what you see is what you need --mental representation of visual scene is incomplete. emphasize task-relevant details --blindness to task-irrelevant aspects of visual scene --relationship between vision and memory
No single cue...
--is necessary for depth or shape perception --Dominates our perception in all situations --is capable of supporting perception with the robustness and accuracy demonstrated by observers in natural settings
Marr's Levels of Representations: 2.5-D Sketch
--makes explicit orientation and depth at each point in image --assigns portions of image to surfaces in the world and specifies the distance and orientation of those surfaces relative to the viewer
Apparent Motion Perception: Element Integrity Principle
--prefer one-to-one mappings between elements in different frames
Subitizing
--random patterns of dots flashed on screen for 1/2 second. Below seven dots= good, above seven dots=errors.
Event change attitudes: Peterson and Peterson (1959) on Forgetting
--rehearsal keeps item alive in short-term memory --rehearsal helps items to get to long-term memory --short-term memory versus long-term memory systems
Coarticulation is...
--speech production overlaps over time --context dependent, carries infor from neighboring sounds --More fast and fluid because overlap --Speech sound influenced by surrounding segments
Verbal Learning Changed Attitudes
--subjects not recall words in random order, but rather in systematic order --semantic relatedness --shift in emphasis from learning to organizational schemes to recall
Vision is thought
--use assumptions about world --top-down knowledge about world
Jacoby and Dallas study
-3 different levels asked, PPs did recognition or perceptual task -Recognition memory increased w/ level processing -Memory improves depending on level of coding doing -Perceptual memory is independent of recall -No level of processing trend depending on type of question
Rosch and Mervis (1975)
-50 members of different categories -rated how good an example the object is of that category -quantified family resemblance as the number of features rated by their frequencies in that category -give people a list of members of a category -ask them to list properties of those members -some properties are more common, mentioned more frequently -they compared family resemblance scores with typicality ratings: high correlation -ex: bat rated lower on scale than sparrow as a bird, telephone lower on scale than chair for furniture, 1-7 1(very good) 7(very poor)
Forward model
-A model that generates the predicted outcome of a particular motor command -Plant: the part being moved -Efference copy: a copy of the motor command sent to the forward model -Feedback signal: the difference b/n the current state of the plant and the predicted state of the plant from the forward model
eye movements are task dependent
-Alfred Yarbus (1967) - demonstrated that people's eye movements depend on the task they are asked to perform
Multiple cues to depth: why they are needed
-Ambiguity •Multiple cues more constraints -Range of scenarios •Atmospheric blur is only good for far distances •Stereopsis is only good within 20 ft •Difference in depth closer to us shows bigger disparity in retinas, big difference in depth harder to perceive
Cowan: rethinking Miller
-Apparent limit shorter than 7 (Miller thought 7 bc people able to perform chunking) -Central memory store limit: 3-5 -WM and LTM processes and not necessarily sub-areas of cognition or the brain WM is a spotlight on LTM
Contributions of Neuroscience
-Cognitive Neuroscience: Brain imaging, Neurophysiology, Computational neuroscience, Cognitive neuropsychology
Motor Plan
-Creating successful motor plan includes knowing these constraints -Must be designed to fit the constraints at a particular situation -Motor command: sequence of commands to execute a movement
Object-Centered
-Description of object relative to itself -If object moves, description remains the same -If viewer moves, description remains the same
State-dependent learning
-Emotion provides a learning context -Being in the same mood during the learning improves memory performance
Computational theory of mind
-Framework for answering questions about cognition -Computers • Hardware, transistors • Rigid rules • Brute force -Minds • Neurons • Uncertainty • Inference
Prescriptive rules
Rules of language (ex. Grammar). How you should use language.
Marr's 4 levels of vision
-Grey-level array • Gives intensity of light at each point in image • Photoreceptors measure light intensity at each point on the retina • Calculating brightness across entire visual field -Primal sketch • Makes intensity change explicit, along w/ their geometrical distribution and organization • Step 1: detect where light intensity values change very rapidly • Step 2: group regions by intensity change • Areas w/ sudden change in intensity potential boundaries/edges -2.5 D sketch • Makes explicit orientation and depth at each point in the image • Only seeing front half ish of the object in visual field • Not quite full 3d space and can only see onse side of it • Depth from plane you can see, but not behind • Assign portions of the image to surfaces in the world, and specifies the distance and orientation of those surfaces relative to the viewer -3D model • describes shapes and their spatial organization in an object-centered coordinate frame
Patient HM
-Hippocampi surgically removed -No ability to form new explicit memories -Could still learn new tasks (ex. mirror drawing) so implicit memories able to be formed w/ practice -Hippocampus in memory: essential to moving info from WM to LTM
Miller's magical 7 +/-2 (George Miller 1956)
-How much info can human memory hold?-info theory -Binary codes for representing info -Since limit, Miller thinks we can keep 7+/-2 chunks in memory -Depends on the number of items stored, and can have varied amounts of into stored within it (no affect in remembering words, which are more complicated stimuli, compared to letters)
Altering and intervening effects
-If you slow down presentation and allow more time to rehearse, there is no effect on recency but pre-recency items recalled better -WM decays over time, and if we delay recall, recency effects are removed (bc no WM and can't store most recent items to easily pull out) -Interfering w/ maintenance blocks recency
Context-dependent learning
-Improved memory performance when tested in the same context that was in place during learning -Context influences how you think about info
Verbal Learning
-Interest in learning lists of verbal items via behaviorist principles - Minimize influence of pre-existing associations (e.g. semantics and memory) by using nonsense syllables and pseudowords
Miller's paper is foundational, but lacks complexity
-Items in list equal? -Speed of into transfer affect memory? -Memory change w/ task demands?
Contributions of Linguistics
-Linguistic knowledge is an understanding of the underlying structure of a language: 1. Hierarchy of linguistic units: phonemes, morphemes, words (e.g., nouns, verbs, adverbs), phrases (e.g., noun phrases, verb phrases), sentences, etc. 2. Set of rules that state how simpler units can be combined to form more complex units
Semantic similarity
-Meaning relations -Has little effect on memory
Unethical Experiments
-Milgram's Obedience Experiment -Stanford Prison Experiment -Tuskegee Syphilis Study
Behaviorism
-Predicting and controlling behavior to stimuli -Focus on behaviors, stimuli from environment and learning history. -Learning built from stimulus associations (Stimulus-stimulus/Stimulus-Response) -Standard Laws of Learning: Limit time by the way stimulus and response and repeated exposure needed.
Flashbulb memory
-Snapshot of a moment -Usually brought about by an emotionally charged situation
Absolute Judgments of Unidimensional Stimuli
-Subjects are presented with a tone and asked to match it with the right one - For two or three they are really good at matching - Once it gets up above six there is a struggle
Span of Immediate Memory
-Subjects can recall about 7 items regardless of the nature of the item
Threshold
-Threshold: activity in the brain must reach a certain level/state before we are conscious of it -Perceptual threshold: we only get to know about it when it wins out • 10 secs later for motor plans
Memory from simple story
-When only isolated details remembered: reasonable story created during recall to rationalize details -When general theme remembered: often detail is added to give credibility and coherence to story -Subconscious: we believe the recall as if it were reality
Phonological similarity (listening to lists)
-Words sounding alike -Leads to poor recall -Harder to differentiate b/n them and more difficult to remember differences
Retinal disparity (3)
-Zero disparity: the point is located on the horopter -Crossed disparity: the point is in front of the fixation plane -Uncrossed disparity: the point is behind the fixation plane
Two Views of Cue Reliability
-a cue is reliable if the distribution of inferences given that cue has a small variance -a cue is reliable if the inferences based on that cue are consistent with the inferences based on other cues
Three Central Processes to Memory
-acquire -store -retrieve
Human Mind
-agency/consciousness -personality -morality
Attention
-alertness/arousal (non-sexual) -concentration or mental state -consciousness
John B. Watson
-bunny and the baby and the noise and the poor baby cries
Thalamus
-central switchboard -relays info through different parts of the brain -damage = coma
Vertical faculties
-complex, insulated from one another -mathematics -music -metaphysics -language acquisition
Watson
-computer
Motor Association Cortex
-coordinating complex movement -abstract structural relationships
Selective Attention
-dichotic listening experiments listening thourgh different channels
Consciousness
-difficult to define -awareness -wakefulness
Two constants of the Scientific Method
-doubt -reason
Amygdala
-emotion/fear
Negative Reinforcement
-escaping from/avoiding an aversive stimulus -faking sick to avoid a creepy date
Working memory
-functional -limit on how much we can keep short term memory- is the older term for this
Childhood Amnesia
-hard to remember things from ages 2-4 -limbic system and prefrontal not fully developed
Daydreams
-help with playback and consolidation of memory
Access (A-consciousness)
-higher function, introspection, reasoning, perception
Sensory Association Cortex
-integrates sensory information
Subvocalization
-lasts longer than iconic memory -used in language
What makes a good hypothesis?
-limited scope -testable -verifiable -succinct (Occam's Razor)
Negative Punishment
-loss of rewarding stimulus -argue with boss and get fired
Induced False Recall
-make people think they have memory of a thing when they don't actually because it never happened
Typical Practice
-manipulate a single variable -randomize (trials, participants, conditions) -blind/double-blind experimentation
Visual Cue Combination
-many cues to visual depth and shape
Visual Cue Combination
-many cues to visual depth and shape -no single cue: 1) Is necessary for depth or shape perception 2) Dominates our perception in all situations 3) Is capable of supporting perception with the robustness and accuracy demonstrated by observers in natural settings
Hippocampus
-memory
Corresponding retinal points
-no disparity •Points at the same position on each eye correspond to one another and have the same retinal coordinates •On the horopter
Frontal lobotomy
-patients are left emotionally and intellectually stunted
Illusory covariation
-people's judgement is off when they have prior knowledge vs no prior knowledge, people tend to see a covariation even when none exists: handwriting and personality traits; weather and arthritis pain
Prefrontal Cortex
-problem solving -emotional modulation -complex thought -short term memory
Treisman
-process stuff but you turn it down (attenuate) based on recoginition threshold -turning down not filtering out
Visual Cortex and Dorsal and Ventral Streams
-process visual input -dorsal --> how -ventral --> what
Wernicke's area
-processing of sound -processing phonetic/phonological properties of language
Conjunction
-processing various features together and will acquire more attentional Not as independent and have feedback between levels
How to form a good hypothesis?
-question known premise -look for conflicting evidence -propose better solution -test it and eliminate hypotheses that do not fit new data
state-dependent learning
-recall better when you're in the state you were when learning material --better at pong while drunk because learned while drunk
Somatosensory Cortex
-receives sensory input
Positive Reinforcement
-receiving a rewarding stimulus -study hard get good grade
Positive Punishment
-receiving an aversive stimulus -slapping an *******
Animal Brain
-reflexes -basic awareness -no higher cognition
2.5-D Sketch
-represents orientation, depth, and the changes in them -assigns portions of images to surface -specifies distance and orientation of surfaces relative to viewer -changes at angles
Non-corresponding retinal points
-retinal disparity/difference •Objects that are not on the horopter will be projected to non-corresponding points on the two retinas •The direction of the disparity indicated whether an object is: •In front of the horopter (crossed disparity) •Behind the horopter (uncrossed disparity)
Operant conditioning
-reward/punishment to reinforce the behavior -Thorndike
Claustrum
-sensory integration -helps orchestrate experiences
Phenomenonal (P-consciousness)
-simple experience -color, shape, movement sound
Horizontal faculties
-simple, shared between higher functions -memory -judgment -volition -attention -imagination
Motor Cortex
-voluntary muscle movements
no supression ratio
0.5
3 store model of memory
1) Early Analysis 2) Short Term Memory 3) Long Term Memory
Divisions of the Somatosensory System
1) Exteroreceptive External Stimuli - (Touch, Pain, Temperature) 2) Proprioceptive Body Position - (Muscles, Joints, Balance) 3) Interoceptive Body Conditions - (Internal Organs)
Roles of Olfaction and Gustation in Nature
1) Finding food sources 2) Judging nutritional value and safety of foods 3)Avoiding pedators and hazardous environments 4) Social communication, mating ("pheromones")
Marr's Levels of Vision Analysis
1) Grey-level Array: intensity of light at each point in image 2) Primal Sketch: detect where light intensity changes rapidly, group areas of different intensities together 3) 2.5 D Sketch: Makes orientation and depth explicit at each point in image 4) 3D Models: Describes Shapes and spatial organization
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
1) Located in the postcentral gyrus 2) Input is largely contralateral 3)Organized according to a map of the body (somatotopic) 4)Somatosensory homonculus has more sensitive tactile discrimination, more cortex
Properties of Major Touch Receptors
1) Meissner - Rapid adaptation, Quality- Light touch, stroke 2) Merkel - Slow adaptation, Quality- Touch, Fine spatial details 3) Ruffini - Slow adaptation, Quality- Stretch, finger position 4) Pacinian - Rapid adaptation, Quality - Vibration, strong pressure
Transduction of Olfactory Stimuli
1) Odor receptors are metabotropic (G Proteins) 2) Activation opens ion channels (Na+,Ca++) 3) Graded depolarization depending on strength and duration of odor 4) Rapid adaptation (can respond quickly to new odor in next inhalation)
Milestones of language development
1- isolated words 2- rudimentary sentences 2-5- morphemes Independent of environment.
Marr's 3 levels of analysis
1. Computational (functional) • High level description of problem (goal) • Function, input/output • Why? • Ex. VOR, map pixels-> objects • Determines the elemental constituents of the environment 2. Algorithmic/representational • What are the algorithms and the mental representations that are used to solve the problem? • Ex. VOR, edge detection, statistical correlations, basic functions, etc. 3. Physical/Implementation • How are those algorithms realized in a physical system? • Ex. neurons, CPUs
Contributions of Information Theory
1. Emphasis on codes leads to an emphasis on representation 2. Efficient Codes-- some representations better or worse than others 3. Emphasis on channel capacity leads to limited cognitive capacities and strategies to deal with limitations 4. Studies on expertise
Three Events that Changed People's Minds about Memory
1. George Miller's 7+/-2 2. Verbal Learning 3. Peterson and Peterson on Forgetting
Marr's Four Levels of Visual Representation
1. Grey-level: intensity of light at each point 2. Primal sketch: marks explicit intensity changes 3. 2.5D sketch: marks explicit orientation and depth at each point 4. 3D model: describe shapes and models in 3D
Visual Depth Cues
1. Interposition 2. Size 3. Texture 4. Linear Perspective 5. Motion Parallax 6. Stereopsis 7. Shading 8. Atmospheric blur 9. Vergence angle 10. Accomodation
Problems with Template Theories
1. Orientation 2. Size 3. Different Shapes 4. Objects not segmented
Levels of processing
1. Shallow Processing (superficial level, no processing) 2. moderate processing (does it rhyme? etc.) 3. deep processing (engaging with material at level of meaning)
Rosch's Category Levels
1. Superordinate Level (animal) 2. Basic Level (dog): the best level 3. Subordinate Level (Corgi)
Problems with word-chain devices
1. They are based on transitional probabilities. 2. They do not account for long-range dependencies. They cannot show that either needs an or at a specific point in a sentence or that if needs a then. Complex when multiple long range dependencies. The word-chain model does not look at words at the beginning of the sentence, it only accounts for the words that come before it.
innate capacities for language
1. developmental milestones 2. linguistic universals
modal model
3 store model of memory: sensory store, short term store, long term store
Task similarity
2 tasks are similar to the extent that they will interfere- share same modality, make use of same stages of mental processing, same memory codes, or same response mechanisms
Viewer-centered frame of reference
2.5D sketch, description of the object relative to the viewer
Inverse Optics problem
2D retinal image to 3D interpretation -Solve by using assumptions to constrain possible matches. Illusion- Assumptions don't match
Geons
3D geometric solids that combine to form objects
Object-centered frame of reference
3D model, description of the object relative to itself
Spelke Experiment
4 month old saw 2 films on 2 screens; one has bouncing kangaroo and other has bouncing donkey at a different speed; played soundtrack for one or the other and infants preferred matching film; more auditory/visual matching: emotion- 7 month old match happy and sad voices with the right face.
how many visual areas of the brain are there?
5 areas
George Miller
7+/- 2 - A variety of different types of experiments suggest a limitation on our information processing abilities - Chuncking (or recording) is an important way of ameliorating those perceptual and memory limitations
Dominance
: if someone regards option A as better than option B in at least one circumstance, and at least as good as B in all other circumstances, then they should always prefer option A to option B.
Wernicke's Aphasia
A 'Fluent' aphasia, so difficulties in language comprehension. Patients speak freely, but don't make sense. Results from damage to Wernicke's area.
Horopter
A line connecting points that produce corresponding retinal points, objects are all at the same distance as the eye fixation point
Turing Machine
A basic abstract symbol-manipulating device which, despite its simplicity, can be adapted to simulate the logic of any algorithm. The turning machine is not an actual machine. It has symbols and rules for how to turn some symbols into other symbols. It can simulate any algorithm and is a universal machine.
Flashbulb memories
A big, emotionally significant event with vivid memories. Not necessarily accurate.
Category
A class of items that are referred to by a concept.
Suppose that an artificial language has an alphabet of 26 letters, and the average word contains 10 letter. That means that the language might contain as many as 2610 words. Based on the article by Dennett, this is an example of
A combinatorial explosion
Heuristic
A congnitive strategy that makes judgements and reasoning easier. Fast and efficient, but prone to error
Endogenous Cue
A cue from what you are focusing on that you mentally choose to focus on (ex. the road while driving)
Pirahãs
A culture of people who have little contact and little language
Tsiamne'
A culture of people with moderate contact and some bilinguals
Motion Parallax
A depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene. Things that are near you are more blurred, whereas things that are far away are less blurred (smaller displacement).
B. F. Skinner
A famous behaviorist
Identical Feature Constraint
A feature in one image should match an identical feature in another image
Identical feature constraint
A feature in one image should match an identical feature in the other image
Identical Feature Constraint (Stereopsis)
A feature in one image should match an identical feature in the other image. Example: A black dot in the left eye should match a black dot in the right eye image.
Congenital Prosopagnosia
A form of "face blindness" apparently present from birth, as opposed to "acquired prosopagnosia," which would typically be the result of an injury to the nervous system.
Why does Pinker consider grammar autonomous from cognition?
A grammar specifies how words combine to express meaning, independent of the meaning words convey. Some string of words can make sense and not be grammatical. The child seems sleeping. Other can be grammatical without meaning. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
Hypothetical construct
A hidden or latent variable that is not directly observable but is inferred or assumed for theoretical purposes (mental state, process, representation)
What are the characteristics for a highly reliable cue?
A highly reliable cue is one for which depth has a small variance and is assigned a large weight.
How do we control our legs?
A leg has to change its point of support all tat once, and the weight has to be unloaded to do so. The motors controlling a leg have to alternate between keeping the foot on the ground while it bears and propels the load and taking the load off to make the leg free to move.
What are the characteristics for a less reliable cue?
A less reliable cue is one for which depth has a large variance and is assigned a small weight.
fourier analysis
A mathematical theorem by which any sound can be divided into a set of sine waves. Combining these sine waves will reproduce the original sound.
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Linear Perspective
A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.
Central Executive
A multi-purpose processor in charge of response, decision, and planning. It controls mental activities of working memory.
Information Processing Perspective
A perspective on cognition that derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking process (such as memory).
Uniqueness constraint
A point in one image can be matched with one and only one point in the other image
Uniqueness Constraint (Stereopsis)
A point in one image can be matched with one and only one point in the other image.
False target
A point in one image can mistakenly be associated with a point in the other image
Stereopsis False Target Problem
A point in one image can mistakenly be associated with a point in the other image that is from a different physical location.
According to Anne Treisman's Feature Integration Theory, which of the following statements about singe feature search and conjunction search is correct?
A pre attentive stage of visual processing is involved in a single feature search
Algorithm
A procedure, rule, or formula for solving a problem.
Turing Test
A proposal for a test of a machine's ability to demonstrate intelligence. It proceeds as follows: a human judge engages in a natural language conversation with one human and one machine, each of which try to appear human. All participants are placed in isolated locations. If the judge cannot reliably tell the machine from the human, the machine is said to have passed the test.
Turing Test
A proposal for a test of a machine's ability to demonstrate intelligence. It proceeds as follows: a human judge engages in a natural language conversation with one human and one machine, each of which try to appear human. All participants are placed in isothermal locations. If the judge cannot reliably tell the machine from the human, the machine is said to have passed the test.
Focused Attention
A situation in which individuals try to attend to only one source of information while ignoring other stimuli; also known as selective attention
Which of the following is the best example illustrating the concept of "lightness constancy"?
A snowball looks white in a dark room, but a piece of coal looks black outside on a sunny day
Word-Chain Devices and Stimulus-Response Theories
A stimulus elicits a spoken word response. This response is perceived as the next stimulus, which elicits one of several words as the next response and so on. If a word is rewarded in that position, the speaker will use it again. If punished, no.
Visual Search
A task in which participants are asked to determine whether a specified target is present within a field of stimuli.
Dichotic listening
A task that requires a person to listen to one of two different messages being presented simultaneously, one to each ear, through headphones
Verbal Learning
A term applied to an approach to memory that relies principally on on the learning of lists of words & nonsense syllables.
Turing Test
A test proposed by Alan Turing in which a machine would be judged "intelligent" if the software could use conversation to fool a human into thinking it was talking with a person instead of a machine.
Prototype Theory
A theory in which concepts or word meanings are formed around average or typical values.
Working Memory
A workspace where we complete tasks. It doesn't just store info, but manipulates it to remember more easily
Concepts
An Idea and the information associated with that idea (Mental representations of a thing that tie together specific instances of interacting with that thing.)
Fusiform face area
Area of the brain that is active during facial recognition
Papillae
Accessory structures of the tongue in which taste buds are grouped in. 1) Vallate 2) Foliate 3) Fungiform
Which of the following sure to depth is a non-retinal cue?
Accommodation
Inhibition of return
Actively attended items are suppressed once attention is deployed elsewhere.
Intention to learn
Actively trying to remember material for a purpose (ex. a test). Much less important to memory than level of processing.
Threshold
Activity in the brain must reach a certain level/state before we are conscious of it (9 sec)
Solution to Template Theories
Add more templates Problem: will need to add an enormous number of new templates
Receptive Field
Area of the visual field within which it is possible for a visual stimulus to influence the firing of a neuron (Next Tab "Center Surround Organization")
Statistical learning in non linguistic domains
After exposure to a temporal sequence of visual shapes, infants as young as two could discriminate between familiar and novel sequences of shapes.
Superconditioning
After learning a false association, the fixed correct association is much stronger
Eye Movements (Task-Dependent)
Alfred Yarbus (1967) demonstrated that people's eye movements depend on the task they are asked to perform. This takes the active vision approach.
conversion errors
All T are P --> All P are T, this is wrong!
Late selection
All stimuli are processed fully, and attention prevents distractors from entering working memory e.g. Deutsch and Deutsch Model
Form question, rhyming question, meaning question. Best identified using word identification test (implicit)
All words identified equally well
Ciliary muscles
Alter the shape of the lens as needed
Imagine that two people look at the same object from different viewpoints. Each person is able to visually recognize the object. Which of the following statements regarding Marr's theory of visual representations is correct?
Although the e2.5 D sketches in each person's mind are different, the 3-D models are the same
Linear Perspective
Ames Room
linear perspective
Ames room illusion, conflicting cues to depth
Spoonerisms
An error in speech when the subject switches sounds between words by accident (dear old queen --> queer old dean). Proves that we sometimes plan far ahead before speaking.
What is the example associated with the information theory?
An example showing the information theory is flipping a coin and having it come up as heads. It landing on heads provides one bit of information because there was complete uncertainty before. If the coin is weighted and always comes up as heads there is no variance, meaning there were no bits of information provided.
Linking hypothesis
An explanation for how the dependent variable relates to the hypothetical construct
Auto-Stereogram
An illusory image where repeating patterns trick the eyes into making false targets. Ex. Flower Image
Twin Studies
An important way to study behavior and personality while accounting for genetic variability
Why do we categorize objects? Why classify one object as a "chair" and another object as a "table"?
An intelligent being cannot treat every object it sees as a unique entity unlike anything else in the universe. It has to put objects in categories so that it may apply its hard-won knowledge about similar objects, encountered in the past, to the object at hand.
Dermatones
Areas of the body that are innervated by the left and right dorsal roots of a given segment of the spinal cord Fibers from cutaneous receptors gather together in nerves and enter the spinal cord via the dorsal roots
Feature Integration Theory (FIT)
Anne Treisman 1. Pre-attentive 2. Attentive
Brain Damage and the Chemical Senses
Anosmia Ageusia
Stimulus Perspective
Argued that images are not ambiguous; all the information necessary to explain our perceptions are present in the stimulus
Constructivist approach to memory
Anticipate future -There are regularities from past experiences and people base future responses on those regularities -There are unexpected expectations to regularities
What interferes with keeping something in short-term memory?
Anything that interferes with the rehearsal of the information disrupts its ability to be kept in short-term memory. For example, if a person is asked to remember three letters while counting backwards by 3s, it is unlikely that they will remember those three letters. Similarly, if there is a delay period between the time the letters were given and when subjects were tested on remembering, performance is also expected to be poor.
Communication
Anything that involves a sender, a message, and a receiver. In order to communicate, we need to have shared knowledge. Animals have this but not language.
Universal
Approximate number is (universal/zonal)
Glomeruli within Olfactory Bulb
Are arranged in a consistent, systematic way: chemotopic Each individual glomerulus receives input from many receptors, all with the same receptor protein
FFA
Area of the brain that is active during face recognition
Correspondence problem
As your view changes, the perceptual task of determining which aspects of the current view correspond to which aspects of the view seen a moment ago.
Memory palace
Assigning memories to imagined locations can help in recalling them
A patient can recognize Obama when hearing Obama's voice. When shown a photograph of the face of Obama, a patient can create a drawing that perfectly depicts Obama's face. However, the patient is unable to visually recognize that this is the face of Obama. According to the article by Behrmann and Avidan, the patient is most likely to have:
Associative prosopagnosia
Problems with Feature Based Theories
Assumes we have clear categories with defining features - but hard to define abstract concepts; storing every single feature with every single item
Broadbent Selective Filter Model
Attention acts as a selective filter and it selects early, attention to task-relevant stimuli can exclude distractors from early perceptual processing
Bottleneck perspective
Attention as a limited capacity resources that constraints incoming input
Kahneman's theory of divided attention
Attention is a limited pool of processing resources, the amount of which depends on motivation and arousal; It can be focused on a single activity or divided among multiple ones. More difficult tasks require more attention.
Cocktail party effect
Attention is easily grabbed by -our own names -friends' names -movies we've seen recently -topics we're particularly interesting
How do linguistic differences in expressing spatial relations between objects affect how speakers reason about time?
Australians use absolute directions. They placed temporal progressions in order from east to west. English speakers read from left to right, and placed photos in this order. Hebrew speakers read from right to left and ordered progressions like this.
Chemotopic Organization: Bulb
Axons of olfactory receptors (1st cranial nerve) terminate on mitral cell dendrites in olfactory glomeruli within the olfactory bulb
Universal Listeners
Babies are this, it means then can distinguish between different sounds in the same category (Hindi 'da' vs English 'da'). Ends between 7 and 10 months.
Turing Machines
Basic abstract symbol-manipulating devices which, despite their simplicity, can be adapted to simulate the logic of any algorithm
De-emphasize contributions internal to learner
Behaviorists did not want to become involved with neuroscience or genetics.
Anti-Mentalism
Behaviorists did not want to think about thoughts or mental activities. Did not think one could build a rigorous science based on something unobservable.
Emphasize Learning
Behaviorists thought learning was everything. If they could understand learning everything else would follow.
Antonym, opposite meanings, XXX- high identification tasks. Results?
Best at identifying words paired with XXX and worst at identifying words generated in stage 1. Why? Because they generated the word, didn't see it so has no visual prime or stimuli.
Indirect Transduction: Bitter, Sweet, Umami
Bitter, sweet, and umami tastes are transduced by G protein coupled pathways: 1) binding to receptor activates G protein/PLC/IP3 cascade 2) IP3 causes release of Ca++ from internal stores 3) Opens unique Ca++ activated Na+ channel, depolarization 4) Opens voltage gated Ca++ channels 5) Transmitter release
Lightness constancy
Brain assumes that there is a consistent light source
Color constancy
Brain is able to take into account the ambient lighting conditions
Visual Agnosia
Brain-damaged patients with difficulties visually identifying objects. Difficulties are not due to impaired sensory abilities.
Visual Agnosia
Brain-damaged patients with difficulties visually identifying objects. The differences are not due to impaired sensory abilities.
Behaviorism
Branch of psychology that holds that behaviors can be rigorously described without referring to internal states
Chunking
Breaking a large amount of info into parts so that we may more easily remember it.
Early or Late selections
Broadbent - early because totaling filtering out (early) Deush vs. Deush -processs stuff but at end learns this for later (late) Load theory
fMRI and ERPs and Event related potentials
By combining you get better results.
Golds Paradox overcome what in language learning
By restricting grammars that are considered by a learner as a possible hypothesis. (Positive and Negative evidence-- to learn a language we need both. Children receive only positive evidence. Gold only considered learning from source of linguistic input, didn't consider 2nd source-- genetic endowment) Check for right answers, check for wrong so you don't know you're wrong. Can hypothesize language bigger than target language-- negative evidence helps understand that.
Unitary (general) intelligence
Different types of intelligence test-- scores often correlated.
Language acquisition in humans seems to involve a type of learning that is heavily constrained, or predisposed to follow certain limited courses, by our biology.
COOL
Grey-level array
gives intensity of light at each point in an image
Visual agnosia
Can see object features but can't put them together by sight alone
Prosopagnosia
Can't recognize faces, use other clues (hair, clothes)
Not considered a problem for passive theory
Cannot account for parallel processing of entire image
Associate Agnosia
Cannot recognize objects
Probabilistic view of categories
Categories are "fuzzy." They are organized around typical, similar properties, and membership can be graded (ex. a dog can be doggier than another).
Probabilistic View
Categories are organized around properties that are typical, but not necessarily defining
Classical View
Categories have necessary and sufficient conditions. That is, categories have defining features that act as a criteria for determining membership
Descriptive Rules
Categorizing language, not value judgement. Not looking for mistakes, just observing.
According to the article by Dennett, it is not the case that "a computer is intelligent if it wins the World Chess Championship". Why des Dennett hold this opinion
Championship-level knowledge of chess does not generalize other tasks
7 +/- 2
Channel capacity limit
grey level array
gives intensity of light at each point in image
Aslin and Newport: stat learning shows support for language learning because...
Children are sensitive to particular types of stats, which constrains the languages they learn (won't understand artificial languages such as computer programming), can only learn NATURAL language.
Regularization
Children pick up on patterns that happen around them, and know that the more common something is, the more likely it is to be correct (ex. ASL Simon vs. non-fluent parents).
What is chunking and what is it also referred to as?
Chunking is the ability to memorize several items as one. For example, memorizing 1,4,9,2 (4 items) as 1492 (1 item). It is an important way of ameliorating perceptual and memory limitations (as recognized by different experiments). Chunking is also referred to as recording.
Contributions of Neuroscience
Cognitive Neuroscience provides brain imaging, neurophysiology, computational neuroscience, cognitive neuropsychology
Behavior->Computation
Cognitive modeling/Connectionist modeling
What were the contributions of neuroscience?
Cognitive neuroscience became more serious during the 90s. It involved brain imaging, neurophsiology, computational neuroscience, and cognitive neuropsychology (the work done in this field is done on animals and has also provided a wealth of new knowledge).
When did cognitive science emerge?
Cognitive science started to form as a field in the mid 1960s, though it has roots in developments during the 1950s.
What's a main difference between cognitive scientists and behaviorists?
Cognitive scientists are mostly interested in what humans do, but behaviorists are interested in all types of animals.
Component (Trichromatic) Theory
Color is encoded by the ratio of activity in the three kinds of receptors
Base Rate Neglect
Common fallacy in which a person ignores the overall frequency of some behavior or characteristics in making a decision.
Baddeley's Model of Working Memory
Comprised of a visuospatial sketchpad, a phonological loop and a central executive
Marr's 3 Levels of Analysis
Computational - functional, elemental constituents of the environment Algorithmic - mental representations that solve problems Physical - how the algorithms relate in a physical system
Marr's Levels of Analysis
Computational level: What is the goal of the system? Algorithmic/Mechanistic level: What steps are needed to accomplish the task? Implementation level: How is the algorithm implemented in the hardware?
Computation->Brain
Computational neuroscience
Explicit(DECLARATIVE)
Conscious awareness of previous events or info semantic and episodic -Ex. facts
Expected Utility Theory
Considers losses, gains, and probability of losses and gains
Context
Constrains our interpretation of words (when words were said out of context, only 1/2 of the people comprehended them)
Limits to Behaviorism
Context ("Salt-passing behavior.) Effects your behavior.
Blocking
Contingency alone is not sufficient, one association blocks the learning of another association
How do we control our arms? How do we control our hands?
Controlling arms compared to shade of architects lamp and controlling hands each grip needs specific muscle tensions.
Binocular Clues
Convergence - amount your eyes focus inward/outward
Binocular cues
Convergence, retinal disparity
Visual Transduction
Conversion of light to neural signals by visual receptors Mechanism: 1) In the dark, photoreceptive cells are depolarized (na+ influx) and release neurotransmitters 2) Pigment absorbs light and changes shape 3) G-Protein receptors activated 4) In the light, cell is hyperpolarized (less neurotransmitters released)
The Retina
Converts light into neural signals Has 5 layers: 1) Receptors 2)Horizontal Cells 3) Bipolar Cells 4) Amacrine Cells 5) Retinal Ganglion Cells
Convergence
Eyes must turn slightly inward when viewing objects
Exact Number
Counting system that is arithmetic and specific to humans
Combinatory Rules
Create new words by combining morphemes
Sensory Combination
Different sources provide information about different aspects of an object or scene. Example: Object recognition via vision and haptics.
Prefrontal Cortex
Damage here leads to perseveration, lack of inhibition, planning problems
Evidence of innately biased learning processes in language aquisition
Deaf babies can learn grammatical rules of ASL even when get inconsistent ASL input from parents (second source of knowledge is genetic endowment)
Cones:
Deal with Photopic vision About: 1) Conical 2) Fovea 3) Low sensitivity (daytime) 4) High acuity (low convergence) 5) Color 3 types in Retina: Red, Green, Blue
Rods
Deal with Scotopic vision. About: 1) Cylindrical 2) Periphery 3) High sensitivity (nighttime) 4) low acuity (high convergence) 5) Provide no info on color 6) Not equally sensitive to all wavelegnths
Evidence for Visual Feature Extraction
Individual visual features (e.g., motion) can be adapted. Ex. Waterfall illusion - Segmentation "pop out"
Punishment
Decreases the probability of a response
Recognition memory test
Deep processing best for EXPLICIT memory only
Prototype model
Defines members, not boundaries. We make a 'prototype' in our heads of a concept, and the closer something gets to that the more 'in' the category it is.
Double Flash Illusion
Depending on task, we give more importance to visual info in localization task or in temporal task we give more importance to auditory info
Sensory Integration
Different sources provide information about the same aspects of an object or scene. Example: Estimate object size via vision and haptics.
Overshadowing
Different types of conditioning stimuli are not equal in producing behavior
Deaf children born to Hearing Parents
Deprived of linguistic stimulation. Goldin and Meadow studied ages 1-4. When hearing children began uttering words, deaf children began gesturing. At age 2, they sequenced their gestures in a pattern. Does not reach level of full languages.
Vergence Angle
Depth cue based on the angle of focus of eyes. A big vergence angle means than an object is close (thick lens) and a small vergence angle means that an object is far away (thin lens). Vergence angle only gives information (distance) from you to a fixation point, not between you and everything else in the scene.
Deep learning
Descendant of perception
Marr's Levels of Representations: 3-D Model
Describe shapes and their spatial organization in an object centered coordinate frame, meaning that the spatial coordinates of object parts are specified relative to a coordinate frame attached to the objects
3-D Model
Describe shapes and their spatial organization in an object-centered coordinate frame (meaning that the spatial coordinates of the object parts are specified relative to a coordinate frame attached to the objects). *Object centered coordinate*
3D model
Describes the shape and their spatial organization in an object-centered coordinate frame
Object Centered Coordinate
Describing an object relative to itself. Parts are described relative to the object not relative to the viewer. If object moves, description remains the same. If viewer moves, description remains the same.
Viewer-Centered Coordinates
Description of object relative to the viewer. If object moves, it has a new description. If viewer moves, it has a new description.
Wild Analogy
Determining how long numbers go on for
Interactive Activation Model
Diagram of neural network connections. Every unit represents a hypothesis. There is a number associated with every node. There are excitatory and inhibitory connections.
Broadbent
Dichotic listening guy
Motor and Somatosensory Homunculi
Different areas of the brain care about different body parts
Belongingness
Difficulties learning associations between certain stimuli pairings
Associative Agnosia
Difficulty recognizing a variety of visually presented objects. Normal recognition of objects through modalities other than vision. Patients have intact visual sensation. Good way of diagnosing is asking which image is the impossible figure.
Taste Receptor Cell Transduction
Direct Transduction Indirect Transduction
Asymmetric Perceptual Span in reading
Direction of asymmetry reverses when reading Hebrew (reading direction is right to left)
Asymmetric perceptual span
Direction of asymmetry reverses when reading Hebrew (reading direction is right to left)
Aphasia
Disruption of langugae
Language learning in blind children
Do not learn the word table after repeated exposure to the word table in the presence of tables. When told to look up, reach their hand up. When told to touch, put a hand on object. When told to look at an object, they feel around. They adapt their vocabulary to their circumstances.
Overlooked Evidence from Neuropsychology by Martha Farah
Does visual imagery involve some of the same mental representations of stimuli normally engaged by the visual perception of those stimuli? Evidence of brain imaging and brain injured patients.
Subitizing
Done without our being conscious of it
Two Streams from Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Dorsal stream to posterior parietal cortex: direct attention Ventral stream through secondary somatosensory cortex (bilateral) to prefrontal: perception of object shape
Two Major Somatosensory Pathways
Dorsal-Column Medial Lemniscus Anterolateral System
Descartes main point
Doubt everything
Deduction
Drawing a specific conclusion from general principals - there is a correct answer.
Shading Perception
During visual perception, we tend to prefer scene interpretations that are "cheapest" in the sense that they conform most closely with our assumptions about the visual world.
Shading Perception
During visual perception, we tend to prefer scene interpretations that are "cheapest" in the sense that they conform most closely with our assumptions about the visual world. Example: Painter, lighting designer, and sheet metal problem. Best solution was a combination of all three talents.
Visual perception starts with an array of numbers (p. 5)? What are these numbers? Why does visual perception start with this array?
Each number represents the brightness of one of the millions of tiny patches, the larger numbers from brighter patches. The brain must take this numbers and figure out what kinds of objected light that gave rise to them.
Taste buds and cells
Each papilla has 1-200 taste buds A person typically has 2000-5000 taste buds Each bud has 50-150 taste receptor cells. Receptors are regularly replaced
Computational Model (Apparent Motion Perception)
Each unit of this model represents a possible correspondence match. Excitatory connections between units representing compatible matches. Inhibitory connections between units representing incompatible matches.
Ganglion cells
Edge enhancement and detection
In class, we talked about the fact that the "stereo correspondence" and "motion correspondence" problems are closely related. The" uniqueness constraint" is often used to solve the stereo correspondence problem. What is the analgous principle in the domain of visual motion that is often used to solve the motion correspondence problem?
Element integrity principle
The Artificial neural network solving the motion correspondence problem
Element integrity principle (element in frame one can match only one element in frame two)
In terms of the information theory, what is the significance of emphasizing channel capacity?
Emphasis on channel capacity means that there are limited cognitive capacities and strategies to deal with limitations (e.g., attention). To get around such limitations one can use chunking and pay attention. By paying attention to something relevant to a test and ignoring what's not important, you're only storing necessary information.
Active Vision
Emphasis on task - Goal of vision is to enable observer to perform a task. What you see is what you need.
Inference Perspective
Emphasized that people must LEARN to visually perceive the world. ex. Lightness constancy-- how we tell how far an object is from us
Inference Perspective (Historical School of Thought)
Emphasized that people must LEARN to visually perceive the world. An example of this is lightness constancy.
Inference Perspective
Emphasized that people must learn to visually perceive the world
Gestalt Perspective (Historical School of Thought)
Emphasized that we are INNATELY predisposed towards seeing the world in terms of whole objects, not in terms of their parts. This perspective is focused on perceptual organization.
Gestalt Perspective
Emphasized that we are innately predisposed toward seeing the world in terms of whole objects, not in terms of their parts
Information Processing Perspective
Emphasizes that perception is a multi-staged process involving different levels of representations and operations that take us from one representation to the next.
Information Processing Perspective (Historial School of Thought)
Emphasizes that perception is a multi-staged process involving different levels of representations and operations that take us from one representation to the next. Example: Work of David Marr
Algorithm
Formula for finding a solution
How are causal relations understood differently by speakers of different languages?
English. "John broke the vase." Remember the agent even in the case of an accident. Blame and punish others. Spanish and Japanese. "The vase broke itself." Cannot remember the agent of an accident. Bad at eyewitness testimony. Less blame.
Why is inverse optics problem a problem?
Ernst and Bulthoff estimate a depth of an object in space based on two unreliable cues, which are combined to be more reliable.
Illusory Conjunctions
Errors at level 2 (serial)
Problem (2) - Wolfe
Is search serial or parallel? The same process can appear to be either serial or parallel depending on how you look at it.
ERPs
Event Related Potentials, time locking EEG signal to onset of an important event. good temporal information, bad localization information
Anti-mentalism
Everything must be observable
What is the example associated with subitizing?
Example: Random patterns of dots are flashed on a screen for 1/5 of a second. Subjects must say how many dots appeared in the pattern. Below 7 dots, subjects are very good. Above 7 dots, subjects make many errors.
Brain Imaging
Example: Roland and Friberg --Examines regional cerebral blood flow while subjects rested and while performing 3 cognitive tasks. Result: increased blood flow in visual cortical areas during visual imagery task, but not other cognitive tasks
What is the example associated with the span of immediate memory?
Example: Subjects are presented with a sequence of items at the rate of one per second. Afterwards, subjects must recall (in order) as many of the items as possible. If the items are binary digits (0 or 1), then there is one bit of information in each item; if the items are decimal digits (0,...,9), there are 3.3 bits of information in each item. If each item is a word from a set of 1000 possible words, then there are about 10 bits of information in each item.
What is the example associated with absolute judgements of unidimensional stimuli?
Example: Subjects are presented with a tone and asked to identify it (tone 1, and tone 2, etc.). When there are only 2 or 3 possible tones, subjects are very good. However, when there are 14 possible tones, subjects make many errors. Performance seems to asymptote at about 6 or 7 possible tones.
Span of Immediate Memory
Example: Subjects view a series of numbers and are asked to recall in order as many as possible - Result is that subjects can recall about 7 items regardless of the nature of the item (1 number is one bit, 1 word is 10) - By packing more information into each item, subjects can recall more information - Memory processes organize memorized items into larger and larger chunks so as to increase the capacity of our immediate memory
grey-level array
gives intensity of light at each point in image
Open-loop motor control
Execute a movement without sensory feedback, do automatically
Contrast effect
Expectation about reward changes response behavior
Inference perspective
Experience in the world teaches us about the relationship between visual inputs and the world
Distribution of Exteroceptors
Extereoceptors are not uniformly distributed across the body Finger tips are enriched in mechanoreceptors with small receptive fields There is high density of nociceptors in palms and soles There are more cold than warm thermoreceptors in the body, with the highest density being on face and ears
Inversion Effect for Faces
Faces are much harder to visually identify when presented inverted or upside-down rather than upright
Inversion Effect for Faces
Faces are much harder to visually identify when presented inverted or upside-down rather than upright.
Unilateral neglect
Failure to recognize or care for one side of the body. Means that the individual has no insight into their problems or give care to the affected side of the body. Client unaware of the existence of his or her paralyzed side.
Conjunction Fallacy
It is mathematically impossible for A+B to be more likely than A. (Linda: bankteller; feminist bankteller)
What is this an example of? Level 1: Detectors for horizontal, vertical, and oblique lines. Level 2: Detectors for groupings of lines into right angles or acute angles. Level 3: Detectors for larger groupings of groups detected at previous level.
Feature-Based Theory
"Illusory conjunction" are consistent with
Feature-based theories
Illusory Conjunctions consistent with
Feature-based theories
Primacy effect
First words get stored into long term memory
Lens
Focuses light on the retina
Visible light
For humans visible light is waves of electromagnetic energy between 380-760nm Wavelength determines color Intensity determines brightness
Permastore Effect
Forgetting a lot in first years of learning, then becomes a very steady memory. This occurs when you have extensive training or experience with the subject.
Decay
Forgetting due to the passage of time
Cones
Function in higher light, color
Rods
Function in low light, no color discrimination
Function of Chemical Senses
Function is to monitor chemical content of the environment through: 1) Olfaction (smell) - airborne 2) Gustation (taste) - mouth
Unitary Intelligence
General Knowledge is also known as
Forward model
Generates the predicted outcome of a particular motor command, model will simulate what the outcome of the motor command should be
Grey-level array
Gives intensity of light at each point in image, hypothetical level
To account for linguistic universals and developmental milestones during language acquisition, a statistical learning mechanism would need to be constrained. In what ways could a statistical learning mechanism be constrained?
Genetics?
What is George Miller associated with?
George Miller (1956) is associated with the magic number 7±2. Miller realized that there is a limited capacity for memory storage. However, such limited capacity can be surpassed by a memory organization technique called chunking.
Retrieving LTM
Getting things out of memory
Normative Account of Reasoning
Given the info available from the environment, what is the "optimal" way to reason about this info?
Active Vision
Goal of vision is to enable observer to perform a task
fMRI
Good localization information but bad temporal information. Images of activities in the area of the brain.
Lateral Inhibition
Greatest when a receptor is most intensely illuminated, and the inhibition has its greatest effect on receptor's immediate neighbors
David Marr's 4 Levels
Grey-Level Array -different intensity of light information for different points in image Primal Sketch -light intensity is obvious (outline of image almost) sketch (viewer-centered) -orientation and surface information of object -if viewer moves, object changes 3D Model (object-centered) -describing shape, spatial orientation, etc. -orientation of viewer does not matter
Grey-level Array
Grey-level array is the simplest level of visual recognition. It requires one to merely open their eyes. When one opens their eyes the intensity of light at each point in an image is given. Photoreceptors then measure the light intensity at each point on the retina. *Viewer centered coordinate*
Syntactic parsing
Grouping a sentence into phrases to determine meaning
Resemblance-Based View
Grouping by visual similarities
Central Taste Pathways
Gustatory afferent Neurons leave the mouth as part of the 7th, 9th, and 10th cranial nerves to the solitary nucleus of the medulla Medulla -> Ventral posterior nucleus of thalaus -> primary and secondary gustatory cortext (ipsilateral) Neurons in cortex respond to a wide range of tastes Chemical sense first emerge in orbitofrontal cortex
Phineas Gage
Guy with severe brain damage who experienced significant personality changes after his accident (iron rod through skull). Crucial to lesion studies.
H Block
H block test to talk about corners -affect performance - tasks rely on same modality or task processing had more trouble focusing ⁃ reduce attention resources needed for task ⁃ practiced tasks can or cannot improve
Lesion Studies
H.M had a missing a majority of if hippocampus which is in change formulating new memories.
induced false recall(Roedinger and Mcdermott)
Had lists with critical words missing (words about sleep, critical word is sleep)- words presented audibly. given a bunch of words and had to circle which words were on the list, critical words were on the list. 'Recall' of non-studied words occurred at the same level for studied words
Retrieval Cues
Hints to help you find the correct node.
The Fovea
High acuity area at center of retina Thinning of the ganglion cell layer reduces distortion due to cells between the pupil and the retina
Formant
High energy peaks that allow us to recognize speech sounds
Cross Modal Correspondence
High pitched sounds are associated with a small size Low pitched sounds are associated with a big size
Basic Level
Highest level at which category members have similarly perceived overall shapes
Inference Perspective
Historical Approach emphasizing that people must LEARN to visually perceive the world because input is very ambiguous.
Pupil
Hole in the iris. Changes size in response to changes in illumination
A strong "inversion effect" for the visual recognition of faces is consistent with?
Holistic Processing
Availability
How active a word is in our minds when we are planning our utterance
Perceptual Organization
How can parts be grouped into wholes
Response strength
How long does a response continue after removing the US
PDP Model
How neurons algorithmically pass signals on in a branching manner.
Folk Biology
How people classify the world around them (an oak is a tree)
Descriptive Accounts
How things actually go (what people actually do when they make judgements and inferences)
Normative Accounts
How things ought to go based on probability and reasoning
Human vs. animal brains
Human mind: agency/consciousness, personality, morality Animal Brains: reflexes, basic awareness, no higher cognition
Recognition by Components Model
Idea: represent objects in terms of the 3D geometric solids
Stereognosis
Identification of objects by touch
Bransford and Johnson (1972)
Identified the processing stage(s) at which schemas are likely to exert influence with 3 experimental conditions
Template Approach to Recognition
Identifying a stimulus by pairing it with a pattern in memory
Template approach to object recognition
Identifying objects involves matching a stimulus with a pattern in memory, viewer centered
Modus Tollens
If JD smiles at me, I am happy I am not happy JD did not smile at me (denying the consequent)
Modus Ponens
If JD smiles at me, I am happy JD smiles at me I am happy (Affirming the antecedent)
modus ponens
If P, then Q-- P is true -- Q is true, we are good at these
Perceptual Priming
If a person reads a list of words including the word table and is later asked to complete a word starting with tab, the probability that he or she will answer table is greater than if they are not primed
Perceptual Priming
If a person reads a list of words including the world table, and is later asked to complete a word starting with tab, the probability that he or she will answer table is greater than if they are not primed.
Continuity constraint
In stereopsis, the observation that, except at the edges of objects, neighboring points in the world lie at similar distances from the viewer. This is one of several constraints that have been proposed to help solve the correspondence problem.
How does a universal grammar contradict the idea that language shapes the way we think?
If all languages are fundamentally the same, there is no way they could lead to differences in thinking.
Orientation Invariance
If an object was rotated we get exactly the same description.
Turing Test
If computers can converse with you, they are thinking beings
Linear Model (Visual Cue Combination) **
If depth perception based on texture, depth perception based on motion, linear coefficients associated with texture, and linear coefficients associated with motion all line up with one another. **
Context-Dependent learning
If items are learned in the same environment as they are later tested, people will do better (ex: scuba study)
Adaptation
If the brain uses an internal model, it should be able to use the feedback signal to adapt to different environments
Gambler's Fallacy
If the first six tosses of a coin are heads, most people will predict tails - though the chance is still 50/50
Increased Test Taking Skills in the Flynn Effect
If this was the cause of rising IQ scores, the largest gain would be in subjects most closely related to school content. Even students who take the same test twice only improve 5 points. Limit to how large of an effect test familiarity can have.
Visual illusions
Illusions give us insight into the tricks our brains use in order to solve the problem of vision
Prosopagnosia
Impaired ability to identify faces.
Prosopagnosia
Impaired ability to recognized faces
Phonological similarity ___ short term (immediate) recall memory for list of words
Impairs. Words sound alike, impairs memory.
Template Vs. Feature Debate
Important debate in the field of BCS/ A special case of debate over whether people use mental representations of specific events or if they use representations that abstract over many events. Example: Categorization: Exemplar vs. Prototype theories.
Marrs Theory of Levels of Representation
Important difference between 2.5D and 3D model
Pre-Attentive Visual Processing
Individual "features" are extracted simultaneously (for the entire visual field at once) and automatically (without attention being focused on any one part of the visual field). Ex. Milk in fridge & Car in parking lot. Requires search for single feature: Parallel, level 1
Coarticulation in tack v. tap
Imposition of the acoustic properties of a speech sound on the sounds that appear next to it. The a in tack has a higher formant than the a in tap because the ck sound is higher frequency than p.
Context Reinstatement
Improves performance on test when it is in the same context as it was learned.
To what extent do people show perfect lightness and orientation invariance?
In almost all cases people are very close to perfect but not 100%.
Uniqueness constraint
In stereopsis, the observation that a feature in the world is represented exactly once in each retinal image. This constraint simplifies the correspondence problem.
What do grammars characterize.
In the field of Cognitive Science, grammars are typically used to characterize natural languages (e.g., English, German, Chinese, Swahili, etc.). However, they can be used to characterize any type of data with spatial (e.g., strings of amino acids) or temporal (e.g., music) structure.
Anosmia
Inability to smell Causes: blows to the head that damage the olfactory nerves; tumors on the olfactory tract Results: Can lead to loss of interest in eating (weight loss & malnutrition) or depession
Ageusia
Inability to taste Is rare because there are multiple pathways that carry taste information to the mouth
Examples of Ambiguity Resoln
Incorrectly spelt words in paragraph, but the first and last letters are correct -using top-down info because first and last letters -using bottom up because you can see the differences
Priming
Increased ability to identify or detect a stimulus as a result of its recent presentation
Reinforcement
Increases the probability of a response
Pre-attentive
Individual "features" are extracted simultaneously (for the entire visual field at once) and automatically (without attention being focused on any one part of the visual field)
The learner must select the correct structure in a given set of data from an infinite number of potential structures. Why is it infinite?
Infants have to see a certain number of dogs and create a general rule. It is very ambiguous. What is a dog? Animal, color brown, furry coat, four legs.
Recognition
Info is presented, you have to decide if it is the sought-after information
Self-Reference Effect
Info related to you is less easily forgotten
Information Theory Preliminaries
Information = variance - A bit of information (two bits lol) = amount of information needed to decide between two equally likely alternatives
Eye tracking
Information about regressive secades (eye movements "jump" between words and also regressive go back if you miss an important word. Latency: At least 150-175 milliseconds to plan and execute. Incrementaility of lexical representation (each word has an onset and there are different sounds that narrow down what the word is as it is said or word recognition.
Sensation (bottom-up information)
Information about visual scene derived exclusively from the pattern of light that enters the eyes
Memory (top-down information)
Information about visual scene derived from general knowledge of the world
Bottom-Up Information
Information coming from sensory receptors to the brain.
Top-Down Information
Information determined by from general knowledge of the world.
Sensory combination
Input from different senses from different inputs
Sensory Integration/Combination
Integration - integrating info from different sources about same aspects Combination - combining info from different senses about different aspects of object
good
Intelligence tests have _________ predictive validity (good/bad)
Dual-Task Paradigm (Memory)
Interference effects the ability to remember
Monocular Cues
Interposition - things block each other and create depth Size - objects further away project smaller image in retina Texture gradient - finer, denser textures are farther away
Monocular cues
Interposition, relative size, texture gradient, shadow, motion parallax, linear perspective, atmospheric blur, lens accommodation
Shape constancy
Interpret shapes as being the same shape despite the fact that the visual image has changed
Visual input is inherently ambiguous. This idea is illustrated by the:
Inverse optics problem
Saffran, Aslin and Newport
Investigated whether 8 month olds could discover words in a stream of 4 nonsense 3 syllable words. The only source of information they had was the probability that certain syllables occurred in certain orders. They were able to
Passive Vision
Involves static image, processing occurs in parallel across image, progresses from a gray-scale retinal input to an internal representation in the head.
Which of the following cannot be considered a problem for a "passive" theory of vision?
It cannot account for the parallel processing of features across an entire image
Salient dimensions constrain statistical patterns
It is easiest to learn groupings constrained by temporal proximity and perceptual similarity
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Why is this significant with regards to the word chain model?
It is grammatical but has never been uttered due to its lack of semantic sense. Word Chain Model- you determine the order of words through transitional probabilities. The probability that green comes after colorless would be 0, but because this sentence is grammatical, the word chain model fails.
Non-human animals can distinguish speech sounds with training. What does this tell us about speech perception?
It is not specialized for speech but uses the same components of general audition.
Classical conditioning
Pairing 2 stimuli changes the response of one of those stimuli
What was discovered from verbal learning studies?
It was discovered that people tend to recall related items. People usually have a strategy for remembering because memory is organized in a specific way. This helps lead to the study of cognition and NOT behaviorism.
Word Superiority Effect
It's easier to recognize letters when they are imbedded in a word vs. when they aren't. Ex. Fash AEDR vs. READ and ask if the 2nd letter was E or I.
Second Language Learning
Johnson & Newport. In early stages, adults are more efficient than children. After a few years, children know a language fluently whereas most adults do not. Studied Korean and Chinese speakers in America at different ages. Those exposed to English before 7 performed like native English speakers, the rest did not.
Animal mind
Just have brains, no higher level cognition, reflexes and basic awareness
Off-Line Method
Just looking at outcome and assessing output
Hill-climbing approach
Keep moving forward/up, no back-tracking. This doesn't always work. Sometimes you have to go down a valley to climb to the top of the mountain you want to be at.
Both
Language acquisition is through ___________ (nature/nurture/both)
Pidgin
Language developed for communication between groups of people speaking varying languages. They are rudimentary, one clausal and no function words.
Gold's'Paradox
Language is not learnable without negative evidence, Children do not receive negative evidence, Yet children learn natural languages.
Wharfian Hypothesis
Language plays a unique role in shaping thought, and has a lifelong impact in determining ideas and worldview
Model/Theory
Larger explanation for how the observed variables related to cognition
Singleton and Newport- child of two late learners of ASL
Late learners have problems with complex structures. Their children are creole speakers. Between 4-7, these children refine, grammaticize and expand ASL with complex sentences and function elements.
Color
Light at different wavelengths
Principles of Optics
Light is changed by objects it encounters in its path: can be reflected or refracted, diffracted and absorbed
"Inside-out"
Light passes through several cell layers before reaching its receptors
Reflectance
Light reflecting properties of a particular surface
working backwards
Lilly problem
What has linguistics contributed to cognitive science?
Linguistic knowledge has allowed for an understanding of underlying structure of a language. It provides a set of rules that states how simpler units can be combined to form more complex units.
Contributions of Linguistics
Linguistic knowledge is the underlying structure of language. - Language learning means rules not associations - Emphasize innate capacities for language - Developmental milestones - Linguistic universals
Olfactory Receptor Cells
Located in the upper part of the nose (nasal epithelium) Are regularly replaced Many kinds of receptor proteins and each type is scattered throughout the epithelium. Mice have about 1,500 and humans about 1,000
Inversion effect
Loss of our normal proficiency at face perception when faces are inverted
2 groups of rats-- A. light followed by a shock, B. light, loud noise, shock. What is rat B afraid of?
Loud noise is salient (overshadowing) Never learn to be afraid of light because of shock, think noise is the cause.
Animal Communication
Made up of requests and demands, not concepts
George Miller (1956) Magic Number
Magic number 7 plus or minus 2. Limited capacity memory store. Memory organization=chunking.
Lexicon
Mental dictionary of all the words a person knows and the concepts they stand for.
Anterolateral System
Mainly pain and temperature First synapse in the spnal cord 3 Tracts
Dorsal-Column Medial Lemniscus
Mainly touch and muscle/joints. First synapse in the dorsal column nuclei of the medulla
Marr's Four Levels of Visual Representations: Primal Sketch
Makes explicit intensity changes and their geometrical distribution and organization Step 1: Detect regions where light intensity values change very rapidly Step 2: Group regions of intensity change
Primal Sketch
Makes explicit intensity changes, and their geometrical distribution and organization. Requires two steps. Step (1): Detect regions where light intensity values change very rapidly. Step (2): Group regions of intensity change. *Viewer centered coordinate*
2.5-D Sketch
Makes explicit orientation and depth at each point in image. Assigns portions of the image to surfaces in the world and specifies the distance and orientation of those surfaces relative to the viewer. *Viewer centered coordinate*
2.5D sketch
Makes explicit orientation and depth at each point in the image, specifies the distance and orientation of the surfaces relative to the viewer
Primal sketch
Makes intensity changes explicit, along with their geometrical distribution and organization, sudden changes in intesnity
Evidence that perception compensates for coarticulation
Mann said when the ambiguous consonant was preceded by al (high frequency offset), the target is perceived as ga. When preceded by ar (low frequency offset), the target is perceived as da. When high frequency tones are presented before a syllable with an ambiguous F3 frequency, the listener hears ga. When low frequency tones are presented, the listener hears da.
Touch Mechanoreceptors of the Skin
Many kinds of cutaneous receptors with specialized endings: 1) Meissner's Corpuscles 2) Merkel's Disk 3) Ruffini endings 4) Pacinian corpuscles
Inverse Optics Problem
Mapping from a 2D image to a 3D scene. Associate this with perception.
Forward Optics Problem
Mapping from a 3D scene to a 2D image. Associate this with computer graphics.
Function
Maps inputs to outputs
grey-level array, primal sketch, 2.5-D sketch, 3-D model
Marr's four levels of visual representations
Better Nutrition in the Flynn Effect
Maybe. Brains have grown- higher intelligence? No studies have reliably proven a connection between diet and intelligence. Malnutrition in childhood leads to negative cognitive effects, but there are too many other deprivations to say that this is the cause. NOT ENOUGH EVIDENCE.
Content words
Meaning connects to concept, we invent new ones (eg. verbing words)
Properties of light
No light no vision Can thought as photons or waves
Blind Spot
No receptors where retinal ganglion cell axons exit the eye (optic nerve)
Operational Span
Measures our ability to retain information, varies between individuals.
Part-Whole Effect for Faces
Memory for a face part is more accurate when it is presented within the whole face rather than on its own
Part-whole Effect for Faces
Memory for a face part is more accurate when it is presented within the whole face rather than on its own.
Rhyme vs. Semantic Cues
Memory is better when learned with semantic connections, but if you are hinted with sound on the test, it is the opposite.
Constructionist Approach
Memory is designed to anticipate the future
The article by Wolfe discusses "inhibition of return". This phenomenon suggests that:
Memory plays a role in how visual attention is allocated
Recency Effect
Memory resources are limited, only recent items are still in short term
Explicit Memory
Memory that you can consciously recall (damages hippocampus=none)
Eye Tracking
Method of gathering information regarding what the subject is focusing on, based on eye movement
Why might the nearest neighbor principle be sensible?
Methodology: Motion competition paradigm.
Symbolic Information Processing
Miller, Gallanter, and Pribram - Primitive mental units are combined in a manner to form more complex units which can be combined to form even more complex units - Algorithms, Turing Machines, and Turning Tests
Symbolic Information Processing
Miller, Gallanter, and Pribram (1960): primitive mental units are combined in a manner to form more complex units which can be combined to form even more complex units. Such ideas caught on in a bigger way during the 60s and are exemplified through algorithms, Turning Machines, and Turing Tests.
Cartesian Dualism
Mind = immaterial; Body = material
Advantages of Phrase Structure Grammar
Modular. The NP can be the subject, object, or specifier. We don't need to know that an adjective precedes a noun in each case, because we have noun phrases that can be "snapped into" the sentence in any location. This accounts for the fact that nonsense sentences can be grammatical. The highest level of the tree is an over-arching plan for the sentence. Either S or S.
Human mind
Morality, consciousness, personality
Is there a single approach to understanding the mind/brain?
No single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind and brain.
Red Cone
Most sensitive to long wavelengths
Relative Velocity Principle
Motion correspondence assigned to one element is not independent of correspondences assigned to other element
Relative Velocity Principle (Apparent Motion Perception)
Motion correspondence assigned to one element is not independent of correspondences assigned to other elements. Frame I elements that are near one another will be assigned motion correspondence matches which are consistent with movements of similar direction and speed.
Broca's Aphasia
Motor speech disorder - patients unable to speak. Nonfluent Aphasia (bc unable to speak, but able to understand). Results from damage to Broca's area.
Specific Language Impairment (SLI)
Mutation to a certain gene, causes a much slower rate of language learning with normal intelligence.
Constraint Satisfaction Models
NOT TRUE. Tests one hypothesis at a time.
Continuity constraint
Nearby points in an image tend to represent points in the scene at about the same depth
Continuity Contraint (Stereopsis)
Nearby points in an image tend to represent points in the scene at about the same depth.
Apparent Motion Perception
Nearest neighbor principle: Motion correspondence matches are created between Frame I elements and their nearest neighbors in Frame II.
Brain->Behavior
Neuropsychology/Brain imaging
What age does ASL need to be learned before in order to achieve native fluency? How does this relate to hearing critical period?
Newport studied the production and comprehension of ASL of people who learned it at different stages of life. Only those exposed before 6 had native fluency. Other groups had deficits in function morphemes and complex sentences. Same as hearing.
According to the article by Dennett, a "brute force" solution to an unrestricted Turing test is not feasible because:
No conceivable computer could store all possible conversations
Corresponding retinal points
No disparity
Every learner is an isolate
No learner is exposed to all information about language. When they learn dog, they learn it based on a Chihuahua and a German Shepard. They have to apply this to every other dog they see but not cat or monkey. They learner is isolated from direct information about word meanings.
Is the Flynn effect the same for all types of intelligence tests?
No. Little change in tests related to schooling material or general intelligence. Big change in tests that measure "g" like Raven's Progressive Matrices.
According to Gardner, will different intelligences generally be correlated with each other?
No. Spatial intelligence does not predict anything about how a student will do on other tests. Each person has certain strengths and weaknesses.
Universal grammar
Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a common underlying structure
Is the fact that different languages reason differently about time and number enough to show that language shapes the way we think?
Not sufficient. Maybe language does not shape thought, but thought shapes language. However, if people change how they talk, they change how they think. By learning a new language they learn a new way of thinking about the world.
Motion Parallax
Objects farther away when moving tend to move more slowly than objects moving closer to you
TICS Article: Hayhoe & Ballard
Observers position their eyes at each moment in time at the point in a scene that is currently most important for an ongoing task - Very few irrelevant areas are fixated - "just-in-time" strategy: observers acquire the specific visual info they need just at the point it is required in the task. Eye movement patterns must be learned - Expert/novice differences.
Bottom Up Processing
Of information (stimulus) that is determined solely by aspects of the stimulus.
Methods of Getting Data
Off-line: Assessing the output of processing eg. Ratings studies, judgement tasks. Higher RT time and harder task. On-line: Attempt to capture and characterize the time course of processing as it occurs.
Dependent measure
On-line where is the eye fixated at any given moment. (information about the time course of processing) Off-line: Where does the participant click? Information about result of processing.
Why do template-based theories require more memory than feature-based theories?
One needs to store many templates in order to achieve translation, size and orientation invariances
Self-paced reading + Comprehension Q
Online: How long the word is displayed. Offline- accuracy in comprehension
Hemi-spatial neglect
Only have one side of visual field
Monocular
Only requiring one eye
Task Specific Resources
Only used in specific situations - each task draws from it's own specific pool of resources
Operant conditioning
Organisms own actions being used to build associations between US and CS
Theory-Based View
Organization of concepts is based on our view of them. Deep features are more important than surface ones. Theories give you coherent concepts.
Indirect Transduction
Other (non-ionic) taste stimuli bind selectively to specific G prorein-coupled membrane receptors
stimulus-stimulus association
Pavlov's dog, who eventually began to salivate at the tone of a bell because he learned that food was to follow
Because we only have two feet, we are very unstable (i.e., we are always in danger of tipping over as we walk). How do we successfully walk?
Our body has to keep the center of gravity of the body within the polygon defined by the feet so the body doesn't topple over.
Top down
Our knowledge/assumption of the world
Belief Bias
Our prior beliefs influence whether we rate a syllogism as valid (if we already believe it, we will always say it's valid).
Exemplar Model
Our representation of the concept includes all the info you have of the concept
Nociceptors
Pain receptors
Parallell vs. Serial
Paralell Processing is when different information can be processed everything at a time - Serial processing is when you can process one thing at a time
What is parallel processing?
Parallel processing is doing more than one thing at a time.
Increased schooling and child-rearing in the Flynn Effect
Partially. Uneducated students have lower IQs. Education effects content and not reasoning, while the rise in IQ scores has been the result of reasoning and not content. Children's IQ scores have risen the same amount as adults even though elementary school has been universal since 1930. Only intensive, all day daycare programs have shown increased IQ scores, and only by 5 points.
Interpolated Activity Paradigm
Participants performa another task in between learning and recall - does not affect long term memory, only working memory
Brain-Injured Patients
Patient with visual object identification difficulties was unable to draw familiar objects despite being able to draw relative locations of furniture in his house and vise versa (what vs where in visual perception)
How do patients with prosopagnosia identify others?
Patients rely on voices. Upon hearing a person's voice, his or her face is "snapped into focus" all at once.
Unilateral Neglect (hemi-neglect)
Patients who seem visually unaware of one region of space
Unilateral Neglect (aka Hemi-Neglect)
Patients who seem visually unaware of one region of space due to damage of parietal cortex. Person usually neglects left side of space due to a lesion in the right part of the brain. Ex. Dog video/Clock image. Very rare for people to show neglect in object-centered coordinates.
Classical conditioning
Pavlov's dogs Unconditioned stimulus/response and conditioned stimulus/response
Case-based reasoning
People often show correct reasoning about a problem in one set of circumstances, but faulty reasoning about an equivalent problem in another set of circumstances
Panglossians
People tend to have a different understandings of experimental tasks than the experimenters. People's responses are optimal according to an evolutionary perspective. Contrary to Meliorist view, people are optimal reasoners/decision makers
What evidence is there for left context effects (Marslen Wilson)?
People were asked to rapidly repeat sentences as they heard them. They would correct mispronunciations at the end of words. They anticipated the word and planned their production of it before the mispronunciation even occurred. Hearing an early part of a word elicits the percept of the word due to top down perception. People were given four objects and eye movements were tracked. When given the word "tap", people were more likely to fixate on "tack" than deer. There is a gradual shift in interpretation over time. People were told to locate the tap, but the tap had the vowel from tack. They subjects were more likely to fixate on tack.
Meliorists
People's decisions often deviate from normative standards. They have thinking habits that often lead to suboptimal actions and beliefs. People's thinking is not as good as it could be, but it might be improved
Interposition
Perceive object being more distant
Shorter
Perceptual inspection times: __________ inspection time correlates with higher IQ scores
Top Down Processing
Perceptual processing in which previous experiences, existing knowledge, expectations, motivations or the context in which perception takes place, affect how a perceived object is interpreted and classified.
In an experiment, subjects are shown two images of faces, and then judge whether the faces are the same or are different. On trials when two images are different is might be because 1) the facial features are different, or because 2) the facial features are the same but the spacing among the features is different. According to the article by Behrmann and Avidan, patients with congenital prosopagnosia:
Perform well ib trials in which the facial features differ, but perform poorly on trials in which the spacing among features differs
Parts of WM- Auditory
Phonological buffer •Stores input in a sound-based code •Subvocalization: inner speech •Sounds may be more time-dependent than images, since sound inherently unfolds over time •Lasts longer than iconic memory (up to a few seconds)
Critical Period
Period in which it is essential that language be learned. Time the bird must learn his father's song. 7 is not too late to learn language, 13 and 31 are.
Genetics
Personality seems to have a relationship with ___________
Big Five
Personality traits of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness
What was the conclusion made by Peterson and Peterson (1959) about forgetting? What is this evidence of?
Peterson and Peterson (1959) are known for their forgetting curves. They discovered that rehearsal keeps an item alive in short-term memory and helps get item to long-term memory. However, once an item is in long-term memory it does not require rehearsal. This experiment is evidence that there is more than one type of memory.
Leading Questions
Phrasing a question is such a way that it primes the subject to answer a certain way. It can bias the recall of facts.
Creole
Pidgin that develops into a full language. Native speakers- child learners between 4 and 7 expand upon and refine the pidgin.
Uncrossed disparity
Point located behind the horopter/fixation plane
Crossed disparity
Point located in front of the horopter/fixation plane
Zero disparity
Point located on the horopter
In class, we talked about the fact that the "stereo correspondence" and "motion correspondence" problems are closely related. The" identical feature constraint" is often used to solve the stereo correspondence problem. What is the analogous principle in the domain of visual motion that is often used to solve the motion correspondence problem?
Polarity matching principle
Element Integrity Principle (Apparent Motion Perception)
Prefer one-to-one mappings between elements in different frames.
Record-keeping approach to memory
Preserve past
Columnar Organization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Primary Somatosensory is composed of four strips and each strip is most sensitive to a different kind of somatosensory input
Priming
Priming is an implicit (unconscious) memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus.
Symbolic Information Processing (Miller, Gallanter, and Pribram)
Primitive mental units are combined in a manner to form more complex units which can be combined to form even more complex units --algorithms, turing machines, and turing tests
transition probabilities
Probability of going from one letter to the next
Introspection (Wilhelm Wundt)
Problems conscious vs. unconscious subitizing
Implicit(Non declarative)
Procedural; memory is not consciously available priming and skills -Ex. learned skills
Recursion
Process for generating an infinite number of sentence. Embedding a sentence in another sentence. If either the girl eats ice cream or the girl eats candy then the boy eats hot dogs.
Introspection
Process of objectively examining one's own mental processes as a part of an experiment
Illuminance
Properties of the ambient light
Natural constraint
Property of the visual world that is almost always going to be true
Muscle spindle
Proprioceptor that is in parallel with muscle fibers. They signal muscle length
Golgi Tendon Organ
Proprioceptor that is in series with muscle fibers. They signal muscle tension
Who studies visual perception?
Psychologists, computer scientists, neuropsychologists, neuroscientists.
Who studies language?
Psychologists, linguists*, computer scientists, neuropsychologists, neuroscientists.
Information
Quality that characterizes the amount your believes change from t to t+1. Decrease in uncertainty is measured in bits. Lower probabilities + more bits= more information. Things that you expect carries less information. Capacity limits: 2.5 bits Alleviate these limits by chunking (grouping items into bigger blocks of information)
Subitizing
Random dots are flashed on a screen for 1/5 of a second. Subjects must say how many dots appeared in the pattern. - Below 7 dots the subjects are very good at it. - Above 7 dots, the subjects begin to make lots of errors.
Perfect suppression
Ratio = 0.0, CS eliminates action
No suppression
Ratio = 0.5, CS has no effect
Hirst Experiment
Read while dictating sentences, could write and comprehend at the same time, no automaticity.
Olfactory Receptor Sensitivity to Odors
Receptor cells express only one type of protein molecule. However each protein responds to a variety of odors Odor is encoded by component processing, by the pattern of activity across receptor types
Holistic recognition
Recognition depends not on inventory of a face's parts, but on holistic perception of the face
Feature-based approach to object recognition
Recognize objects by detecting features of these objects, feature-based representations stored in memory, object centered
Opponent-Process Theory
Red/Green Blue/Yellow White/Black
Lightness Constancy
Refers to the fact that, despite changes in the amount of light falling on an object (illumination), the apparent lightness of the object remains unchanged., We perceive an object as having a constant lightness even while its illumination varies
In class, we talked about the fact that the "stereo correspondence" and "motion correspondence" problems are closely related. The" continuity constraint" is often used to solve the stereo correspondence problem. What is the analgous principle in the domain of visual motion that is often used to solve the motion correspondence problem?
Relative velocity principle
Procedural Memory
Remembering how to do things
Rehearsal
Repeating item to yourself over and over
Maintenance rehearsal
Repeating items over and over (shallow level)
Visual Imagery
Requires top-down processing.
Binocular
Requiring both eyes
Importance of the intersection of cognitive science and artificial intelligence.
Retailers and technology companies (Netflix) learn about individual customers and users.
Non-corresponding retinal points
Retinal disparity
Recall
Retrieval cue presented, and you have to come up with the sought-after information yourself
What were S-S and S-R associations thought to be?
S-S and S-R associations were thought to be fundamental units of behavior; all complex behaviors can be built by combining simple associations. Classical conditioning can be seen in Pavlov's dog experiments.
Direct Transduction: Salty & Sour
Salty: Na+ ions enter through Na+ channels, depolarizing membrane Sour: H+ ions (protons) enter Na+ or H+ channels and block K+channels, depolarizing membrane Depolarization opens voltage-gated Na+ and Ca++ channels, leading to AP's (sometimes) and transmitter release, respectively
Motherese
Scientists tested the theory that mothers present all basic sentences and then become more complex with time. The properties of the mother's speech, such as simplicity, did not predict the rate at which children learned language.
Nativists
Scientists who believe that most of language is preprogrammed into us
Empiricists
Scientists who believe that we are skilled learners
Duplex theory of vision
There are two types of photosensitive cells called rods and cones. They mediate different kinds of vision
Information Theory-Miller & Shannon
Sender--> Channel (noisy) --> Receiver is useful framework for studying cognition miller provides meta-analysis of numerous experimental studies.
Steropsis
Sensation of depth, each eye receives different input
Bottom-up info
Sensation. Info from visual scene derived exclusively from pattern of light that enters eye.
What is meant by associations are "content-free"?
This means that understanding is required. Behaviorists did not want to focus on meaning. Ex. Leaves and trees.
Blue Cone
Sensitive to short wavelengths
Green Cone
Sensitive to the mid-range of wavelengths
3-Stage Model
Sensory Store, shirt-term store, long term store
3-Stage Model
Sensory Store, short-term store, long term store
When viewing and grasping a cup, you receive visual information about the front of the cup, and receive tactile information (primarily) about the back of the cup. You use the visual and tactile information to learn about the cup's shape. According to the article by Ernst and Bulthoff, this is an example of
Sensory combination
Bottom-up processing
Sensory information. Information is exclusively from the pattern of light that hits your eyes.
Synesthesia
Sensory or cognitive stimuli constantly and automatically induce the experience of different perceptions (ex: people see always see certain letters in specific colors)
Temporary Ambiguity
Sentences are filled with these as they are unfolding.
What is serial processing?
Serial processing is doing one thing at a time.
Algorithm
Series of steps, implements functions
St. Petersburg Paradox
Sound assumptions made by Daniel Bernoulli led to absurd results. Game in which one player pays another for tails before heads. Probability shows expectation should be infinite.
The fact that people can perceive depth in random-dot stereograms provides evidence against:
Shape-first theory
Consider an experiment with two groups of subjects. Group G1 was shown a sequence of random letters, and then asked to recall the sequence after a 60 second waiting period. Group G2 was shown the same sequence, but asked to count backwards during the waiting period before recalling the sequence. G1 performed well on the task, but G2 performed poorly. This experiment was used to support the idea that:
Short term and long term memory systems are distinguishable
Memory
Short term memory & long term permecy remember early words recency effect - remember last words delay makes recency effect disappear rehearsal stay alive longer in short term memory (memory rehearsal model)
Scalar Adjectives
Size adjectives (differences between English and Spanish).
Size
Size alone can influence perceived depth. Ex. Square diagram
A person can visually recognize an object when it is nearby and when it is far away. This is an example of
Size invariance
What type of data did Gardner use to identify the seven intelligences?
Skills in normal children People with brain damage Prodogies Idiot Savants Autistic Children Animals of different species People of different cultures Used subjective reasoning to create categories
What were the views of Skinner and Chomsky in terms of linguistics and who's idea was refuted?
Skinner thought that children try out different word orders until they are rewarded. For example, a child says the sky blue and mother says "huh" (punishment) and then the child says the sky is blue and the mother says "yes it is" (reward). Chomsky refuted this idea and proposed that language learning is about learning combination rules, not about learning associations.
stimulus-response association
Skinner's lever experiment, where pressing one level resulted in a treat, and pressing another resulted in a shock
Saccades
Small involuntary quick eye movemnents with which we continually scan the world.
Morphemes
Smallest meaning-bearing unites of language
Polarity matching principle
Solve motion correspondence problem in domain of visual motion
Direct Transduction
Some taste stimuli are ions that carry currents through ion channels
Exogenous Cue
Something unexpected and exterior that grabs your attention (ex. a sudden loud noise that distracts you from driving).
Exemplar Models
Specific mentally represented examples (if you see one dog a lot your idea of a dog will be a lot closer to that dog). Acknowledges that different things are typical depending on context.
Why do Holt & Lotto feel speech is not special?
Speech perception and auditory processing mutually enhance one another. Ex: one of the formants in da begins at a higher frequency than ga. To distinguish the d from g, speakers use this pattern recognition. Speech perception balances co-articulation. Following al, speech production is more da like, while following ar, speech is more ga like. This is not speech specific. If a bird is trained to peck to da or ga, they change their pecking patterns based on whether the preceding sound is al or ar.
What does "speech is special" mean?
Speech perception is done by a specialized perceptual system distinct from general auditory processing. It is clear the auditory system processes the d's in dean, den, dune and dawn differently but we still perceive them as the same letter.
Phonemes
Speech sounds of a language, defined in terms of features (voicing, place of articulation, manner of production).
faster
Speed of mental processing: _______ perception, decision-making and action correlates with higher IQ scores
Jacoby and Dallas (1981)
Stage 1: Three types of questions followed by word Q1: Constituent letters of words Q2: Rhyme Question Q3: Meaning question
What is the difference between statistical learning and rule learning
Statistical learning involves learning about elements present during exposure, while rule learning can be applied to novel elements and combinations. Gave infants short strings of nonsense words that formed categories similar to nouns and verbs. They could recognize that a new grammatical noun-verb pair was familiar. Showed that 7 month olds who listened to three word strings containing a repeated word in the first two or last two positions could generate that repetition rule using novel words.
David Marr on Stereopsis
Stereo images are ambiguous. In order to solve the stereo correspondence problem, we need to make assumptions about the world.
Stereopsis First Theory
Stereopsis occurs before shape analysis
Transduction in Exteroceptors
Stimuli applied to the skin deform, bend, or stretch the membrane of the receptor, and this in turn changes its permeability to ions
How does the author show rule learning and statistical learning are the same thing?
Stimuli presented during statistical learning may be stored, not in terms of specific details, but in terms of their most important properties. Some stimulus dimensions are more salient than others, and the author proposes we store specific instances in terms of salient dimensions. This makes it easy to generalize rules by applying them to all stimuli with the same salient dimensions. A 10 year old playing a video game cannot remember specific sounds and objects that fly across the screen. He will remember that the objects are falling or the sounds are high pitched, which may mean hostile invader.
Mary is mad because her housemate Joe rarely washes the dishes. To change Joe's behavior, Mary decides to give Joe a chocolate every time he washes the dishes. What method of learning is Mary using here to influence Joe's behavior?
Stimulus response conditioning
Behaviorist View of Learning
Stimulus-Stimulus or Stimulus-Response (Conditioning)
Behaviorist view of learning
Stimulus-stimulus: associations as fundamental units of behavior. All complex behaviors built by combining simple associations.
exemplar theories
Store every instance in memory. You're not comparing something to an ideal cat; you're comparing it to all the cats you've seen before.
Rehearsal
Strategy to convert working memory into long term memory
Syntax-First View
Structure based purely on syntactic preference, than re-interpret if it doesn't make sense
Verbal Learning
Studied people and how they learned verbal material - Interest in learning lists of verbal items. Verbal learning people were very much on board with behaviorist principles.
In terms of the information theory, what have studies on expertise shown?
Studies on expertise have shown that people who are experts in a field can do things others can't do without their amount of knowledge. Trained over many years to have advanced skills, experts have increased their cognitive resources in ways novices can't. They have increased their limited cognitive capacities.
Composite Effect for Faces
Subjects are presented with two half faces of different individuals. The half faces are either aligned or unaligned. Performance on tasks requiring perception of only one half face is impaired when the half faces are aligned compared to when they are unaligned.
Sperling partial report paradigm
Subjects briefly presented with visual display containing multiple items (letters); 3 rows, 4 letters per row - typically report 4 items. paradigm allows experimenters to distinguish between what is seen vs. what is remembered - maybe they did see more, but unable to report those letters because memory traces for those letters faded over time
What were the results of the experiment testing the span of immediate memory?
Subjects can recall about 7 items regardless of their nature (*compare to 7±2*). By packing more information into each item, subjects can recall more information (*compare to chunking*). Memory processes organize memorized items into larger and larger chunks so as to increase the capacity of our immediate memory.
Corsi Block-tapping test
Subjects have to reproduce the order in which blocks were tapped. Usually 4+/-1 items can be remembered.
Mental Rotation of 3-D Objects: Shepard and Metzler
Subjects view two images of objects, and must decide if the objects are the same or different. If the objects are the same, the images depict the object at different orientations. Reaction times are measured.
Texture gradient
Surface that has consistent texture and provides info about depth
H.M.
Surgery removed part of the brain (part of hippocampus) related for epilepsy, he could form no new memories.
ANS (Approximate Number System)
System of numbers based on estimation, scale and variability. Also the most evolutionarily ancient.
Clive Wearing
THE MAN WITHOUT MEMORY
Semantic (conceptual) Priming
Table will show priming effect on chair because table and chair belong to the same category.
Semantic (Conceptual) Priming
Table will show priming effects on chair because table and chair belong in same category
Closed-loop motor control
Take into account feedback and make adjustments as the movement is ongoing
Task resources
Task-specific resources - for specific task Task-general resources - for general tasks
Problems with Behaviorism (Innately Guided Learning)
Taste aversion: -Rats avoid food that has the same smell/flavor. (Rodents see with their nose) -Rat vs. quail- made them sick to certain color water and then tasted what senses were associated the sickness (quail with color, rat with smell) Quail use their eyes. -Taste aversion is different depending on the associations the species is capable of doing.
Tongue
Taste is primarily a function of the tongue Taste buds are grouped in 3 of the four accessory structures called papillae There are subtle regional differences in sesnitivity to different tastes over the lingual surface, but most of the tongue is sensitive to all tastes
Taste
Taste refers to the sensations relayed by taste receptor cells Foods activate combinations of 5 basic tastes: 1) Sweet 2) Sour 3) Salty 4) Bitter 5) Umami (meaty)
Consider a researcher in the field of Artificial intelligence who wants to create a compuer system capable of visual object recognition. The researchers computer has a very large disk drive (memory), but a very weak processor (computational power). What type of theory of visual object recognition should the researcher attempt to implement?
Template based theory
Garden Path Sentences
Temporary ambiguous sentences and are initially biased towards the wrong meaning
Primacy Effect
That it is easier to remember the first parts of a list.
A person views a display with many objects, and needs to decide if the display contains an image of a book. At some point, one of the distractor objects disappears from the display, but the person fails to notice this. This failure would be predicted by:
The "active vision" school of thought
The Subset Problem
The Child's hypothesized language is completely disjoint from the language to be acquired. In this case child needs to hear positive feedback
The Otolith Organs
The Otolith organs sense changes of head angle (position of head) and linear accelerations
Learners are innately biased to assume that generalizations in natural languages will always be structure dependent and not serial-order dependent.
The child knows how to form questions based on NPs. You cannot just move the first verb of the sentence to the beginning to form a question. The child has to understand main and subordinate clauses. They know this innately.
Information
The Quantity that characterizes the amount your beliefs change from time X to time X+1
Balance: The Vestibular System
The Vestibular system monitors the movement and position of the head, giving us our sense of balance or equilibrium. The system includes two structures: 1) The semicircular canals 2) The otolith organs
Tsimane'
The __________ have both exact and approximate number
Pirahã
The __________ lack words to represent numbers
Gain Control
The ability to attenuate information
Stereopsis
The ability to perceive depth visually in three dimensions.
Visual Constancies
The accurate perception of objects as stable or unchanged despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce
Priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
The poverty of the stimulus information
The amount of information children receive when learning language is limited. They are given one type of dog and must learn the meaning of the word "dog." They are never told how to make sentences or questions, but they do it.
Stereopsis - Disparity
The angular discrepancy in the position of the image of an object in the two eyes. Step 1: A particular location on a surface in the scene must be selected from one image. Step 2: The same location must be identified in the other image. Step 3: The disparity between the two corresponding image points must be measured.
Binocular Disparity
The difference in the position of the same image on the two retinas
Cross-modal Correspondances
The association of a high pitch with a small object and a low pitch with a large object
Prototype
The average of all of your experiences with a concept. Becomes the idea you measure things against to see if it is in the same category.
The "word superiority" effect is consistent with:
The combination of bottom-up and top-down information
Arbitrary but Conventional
The connection between the meanings and their linguistic units (eg. microorganism is a big word, and whale is a small one)
What occurs to higher level feature based detectors?
The detectors at higher levels become increasingly refined to the point where they respond only to a very specific object or event (sort of like templates).
Triesman's Attenuation Model
The early filter doesn't totally filter, it simply attenuates (dials down) irrelevant information
Availability
The ease with which something comes to mind; often used as a substitute for frequency estimates (ex. if several friends who got an a in 111 come to mind, you estimate the frequency of As to be high).
Universal
The facial expressions of the six basic emotions are (universal/zonal)
Wilhelm Wundt
The father of cognitive science. (Introspection)
Fan Theory
The fewer connections attached to a node, the faster you can find the information.
Treisman's Capacity Model of Attention
The filter doesn't completely eliminate input from unattended sources. Information in unattended channels just receive less semantic analysis.
Cowan' Definition of Working memory
The focus of attention
Temporal Integration
The gathered bits of information from saccades are then summated over time
In Marr's theory of visual representations, the "primal sketch" is a representation of:
The geometrical organization of regions of light intensity change
Priman Sketch is a representation of...
The geometrical organization of regions of light intensity change
Stereopsis Correspondance Problem
The task of identifying events in the two images as images of the same event in the physical world.
Implementation level
The hardware (circuit boards in computers/ our brains in us)
Load Theory
The higher the perceptual load, the more difficult cognitive/executive tasks. Our ability to attenuate distractors depends on load.
Belongingness
The idea that a subject's evolutionary history causes some responses and relationships to be more easily learned.
Feature Integration Theory (FIT)
The idea that focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that comprise a stimulus but is required to bind those individual features together
Stereopsis
The impression of depth that results from binocular disparity—the difference in the position of images of the same object on the retinas of the two eyes.
What does the information theory compare people to?
The information theory compares people to communication systems (like a telephone communication system). The information theory puts an emphasis on codes and representation. If a code is efficient the representation is good. If it is not efficient then the representation is not good.
Subvocalization
The internal speech made when reading a word. Reduces cognitive load and helps the mind process and remember info.
Reliability
The inverse of variance
Count-List Knower
The level at which a person can recite the count list "one.. two.. three... etc"
One Knower
The level at which a person can understand the concept of "one"
Two Knower
The level at which a person can understand the concepts of "one" and "two"
Primal Sketch
The level of visual processing in Marr's model in which the visual features have been extracted from a stimulus.
Word Length Effect
The longer it takes to articulate the word, the harder it is to remember
Bits
The measure of a decrease in uncertainty (eg. 1 bit of information)
Individual-Centered School
The mind is pluralistic. Discrete parts of cognition, each person has different cognitive abilities. These schools would develop each students strongest intelligence. People will feel more competent and more willing to contribute to society.
What is the mind/body problem with respect to symbolic information processing?
The mind/body problem is an emphasis on intelligent activity (mental computation) irrespective of what physical entity carries out that activity (machine or human).
Typicality Effects
The more common/typical of the category something is, the more likely people are to think of it
Retrieving memories
The more connections it has, the easier it is to retrieve from memory.
Expertise Paradox
The more knowledge you have, the more structured your connections become. You have more connections for each node, and because of the better network you remember things faster and more effectively.
Problem (1) - Wolfe
The nature of pre-attentive processing --> Typically associated with "basic features" extracted by early visual system. Not correct because vertical targets can be defined by many different surface properties, not just luminance contrast.
Utility Theory
The normative model for decision making: we should make the decision that minimizes expected costs and maximizes expected benefits
Information theory
Transmitter-(x)-> Channel (noisy)-(y)-> receiver x= input y=output Channel= human mind (not perfect) Channel capacity: the amount of info/bits that can be passed through the channel
Viewer-Centered Coordinates
The object description is relative to the viewer- if the object moves or the viewer moves, it gets a new description
Projections from the Bulb
The olfactory tract projects bilaterally to medial temporal lobe structures including the piriform cortex and the amygdala Is the only system that does not first pass through thalamus before cortex Two pathways from medial lobe: 1) Limbic system: emotional response to odors 2) thalamus-orbitofrontal cortex: conscious perception
Apparent Motion
The perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations.
Coarticulation
The placement of the tongue in a speech sound depends on where it came from and where it is going next. This is context dependent.
Irrelevant Speech Effect
The presence of background sounds that are not relevant impair serial recall abilities
Behaviorist schools of thought hypothesized that:
The principle of learning are the same across all species
Motion Correspondance Problem
The problem of identifying image features in frames 1 and 2 that are projections from the same portion of a surface or object in the physical environment. There are multiple false matches, and only one "true" match. In short, it has to determine "what went where" before motion can be filled in.
Sensory Integration
The process by which the brain combines information taken in through the senses to make a whole. The use of all the senses to fully experience what's going on.
Algorithmic Level
The process we go through to perform a task
Memorized
The reason why children can understand "one" and "two" but not other numbers is because they have ____________ sets of that many objects
The Semicircular canals
The semicircular canals detect turning movements of the head, in particular angular acceleration. The semicircular canals are paired with another on the opposite side of the head. Rotation in one axis excites hair cells of one canal and inhibits the other canal.
Bottom up
The sense/perception
Imagine that when holding an object in your hand, you are able to guess its temperature within ten degrees. When placing the object on your foot, you can guess its temperature within five degrees. Which of these guesses would you assign a greater weight to when estimating the object's temperature based on both guesses?
The temperature estimated from your foot
Shape-First Theory (Stereopsis) Solution (1) to CP
The shape-first theory assumes that images in the two eyes are matched by comparing the results of two separate shape analyses. First identify the various objects in the scene. Then identify the parts of each object, and match the objects' parts in each image. Then match the objects' subparts, and subsubparts, etc. Finally you get down to a basic feature unit that is matched in each eye. Problem: Object identification before relative depth?
Lexical Unit
The smallest unit of utterance planning
morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in a language.
Phonology
The sound system of language, formed by combining phonemes.
Right Context Effects
The sounds and syllables that follow a phoneme can alter the perception of it. For example: Did anyone see that gray ship? can be made to sound like great when a pause is inserted before ship or the sh is elongated. When given type and an ambiguous sound (t/d), people perceive t because that is a word. The ambiguous sound can also be determined by words that come later in the sentence (tent/dent in the forest/fender). This disproves the idea that we process speech in a linear fashion.
Processing Fluency
The speed and ease with which the pathway carries activation
Number Acquisition
The stand theory of how number concepts are learned
Stereopsis-First Theory Solution (2) to CP
The stereopsis-first theory assumes that stereopsis occurs before shape analysis. Perception of random dot stereograms supports the stereopsis-first theory. Match the individual intensity values for each point on one retina with the corresponding values on the other retina. Problem: False target problem.
Stimulus Perspective (Historial School of Thought)
The stimulus perspective argued that images are not ambiguous; all the information necessary to explain our perceptions are present in the stimulus. Stimulus features that provide direction information for a perception are present in the stimulus. Example: Gradient of texture density gives rise to perception of depth.
What is the subitizing effect?
The subitizing effect is the ability to recognize how many dots there are instantly without counting.
Dichotic Listening
The subject is instructed to monitor/shadow either channel A or B and ignore the other.
Bottleneck theories
The theories of attention that propose that there is a narrow passageway in human information processing that limits the quantity of information to which people can pay attention. When one message is flowing through the bottleneck, other messages must be left behind.
Independent variable
The thing you manipulate or change
Dependent variable
The thing you measure
Longer
The time for Tsimane' children to understand numbers is much ____________ than that of children in other cultures (shorter/longer)
Sensitive Period
The time in infancy and early childhood where is is really easy to learn new languages, and subjects have the ability to become fully native speakers.
CP transition
The transition to understand that "one more" object is "one more" in the counting list
Utility
The value of an outcome
Subjective Utility
The value of an outcome to you
Completetion
The visual system interpolates the blind spot based on surrounding detail and information from the other eye
Retrieval Paths
The way we find memories in our brain (connections).
Our minds need to figure out where one surface ends and the next begins. Perhaps this can be done by looking at image regions that quickly go from light to dark or dark to light. In what ways will the use of this strategy be useful? In what ways will it be problematic?
The world as it is projected into our eyes is a mosaic of tiny shaded patches. The brain looks for regions where a quilt of large numbers abuts a quilt of small numbers.
Category of objects "dog bed", "collar" --> identified as things dog owner has in home. Example of what?
Theory Theory because it is CONTEXT/knowledge based. Dog bed and collar are not similar in properties.
Schema Theory
Theory that information is stored in long-term memory in networks of connected facts and concepts that provide a structure for making sense of new information.
Group-Factor Theory
Theory that the correlations among subset scores are better explained by a set of underlying mental abilities rather than by a single overarching factor
Cues to Visual Depth Perception
There are 10 cues to visual depth perception. (1) Interposition, (2) Size, (3) Texture, (4) Linear Perspective, (5) Motion Parallax, (6) Stereopsis, (7) Shading, (8) Atmospheric Blur, (9) Vergence Angle, and (10) Accommodation. *The first 8 cues are called retinal cues and the last 2 cues have to do with the position/lens of the eye (non-retinal cues).
Proprioception from Joints
There are 4 types of mechano-sensitive proprioceptors in joints. They respond to changes in angle, direction and velocity of the joint.
Visual Cue Combination
There are many cues to visualize depth and shape. However, there is no single cue necessary for depth or shape perception, that dominates our perception in all situations, and that is capable of supporting perception with the robustness and accuracy demonstrated by observers in natural settings. The key issue here is cue reliability.
Distribution of Rods and Cones
There are no rods in the fovea, only cones. Rods predominate outside of the fovea
Do thermostats think?
Thermostats exhibit limited forms of perception, reasoning, and action.
Why were the behaviorists anti-mentalistic?
They did not want to build theories based on unobservable phenomena
Relative Size
Things farther away tend to look smaller
Problem of Induction
Things that happened in the past might not happen in the future.
Elaborative rehearsal
Thinking about items ad building up of associations (deep level- relate stimulus to other knowledge)
Elaborate rehearsal
Thinking about items and how they relate to one another. Vastly superior to maintenance.
What is Spearman's general factor, g?
This factor accounts for positive correlations among different intelligence tests. It is genetically determined. It is best measured by the test that has the highest correlation with other tests. Raven's Progressive Matrices.
ERPs or Event related potentials
Time-locking the EEG signal to the onset of some important event. Decent temporal information but bad localization
How do we recognize objects? What is a "template? In what ways will the use of a template be useful? In what ways will it be problematic?
To build a template or cutout for each object that duplicates its shape. When nan object appears, its projection on the retina would fit its own template. The template would be labeled with the name of the shape and whenever the shape matches it, the template announces the name. Problematic when the shape is slightly similar to another shape, moved, too far/near, etc.
Regarding prosopagnosia, what does a face look like?
To people who suffer from prosopagnosia, faces look like a pizza with the parts jumbled around. Meaning, you can see the parts one at a time but not all together.
Visual imagery illustrates use of...
Top Down information (can close eyes and have visual imagery)
Pain and Temprerature Receptors
Transduction of paonful and thermal stimuli occurs at free nerve endings Nociceptors may respond selectively to strong mechanical, thermal, or chemial stimuli, or all 3 (polymodal)
Do not
Tsimane' children ________ elicit verbal counting
If cognition can be characterized using an algorithm, then artificial intelligence is possible. What fact makes this claim valid?
Turing machines are universal computers—they can carry out any algorithm
Repetition blindness
Two identical things presented at two different times, people do not remember the second time
Phonological Loop
Two parts: a store and a rehearsal component
Attentional blink
Two stimuli occur in such quick succession that the second one gets lost
Proprioception from Muscles
Two types of Muscle proprioceptors: 1) Muscle spindles 2) Golgi Tendon Organs
Retinal images are two-dimensional. How do we see the world in three-dimensions (including the depth dimension)?
Typically classified into binocular cues that are based on the receipt of sensory information in three dimensions from both eyes and monocular cues that can be represented in just two dimensions and observed with just one eye
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
Use a powerful magnet to disrupt the electric signals in an area of the brain
Ernst and Bulthoff Sensory Combination
Use visual and tactile info to learn about the cups shape
What is a characteristic of verbal learning?
Verbal learning requires interest in learning lists of verbal items via behaviorist principles. This means that the influence of pre-exisiting associations (e.g., semantics) is minimized. Instead, nonsense syllables and pseudowords are often used to avoid such association.
Frames of Reference
Viewer-centered vs. object-centered
Vision is Thought?
Vision is a form of problem solving the ambiguous environment information
McGurk effect
Visual and auditory cues both provide information about which syllable is being uttered (ba da ga)
Reading (Visual Behavior)
Visual behavior during reading depends on what is being read.
Attentive Visual Processing
Visual features are combined into representations of surface and objects (vis the use of attention). Requires search for conjunction of features: Serial, level 2
Attentive
Visual features are combined into representations of surfaces and objects (via the use of attention)
What type of processing does the Gestalt school of thought particularly emphasize?
Visual grouping
Temporal Synchrony
Visual motion of mouth moving matches auditory speech
Visual Perception
Visual perception is a type of problem solving skill because the information provided by the environment is AMBIGUOUS. In this case, top-down information is needed to interpret ambiguous images.
Shape-first theory
We first identify the various objects in the scene, then identify the parts of each object, and match the objects' parts in each image, then match the objects' subparts, and subsubparts, etc. We finally get down to a basic feature unit that is matched in each eye. (Part of stereopsis)
shape-first theory
We first identify the various objects in the scene, then identify the parts of each object, and match the objects' parts in each image, then match the objects' subparts, and subsubparts, etc. We finally get down to a basic feature unit that is matched in each eye. (Part of stereopsis)
Size invariance/depth invariance
Visually recognize image from near and far away
Parts of WM- Visual
Visuospatial buffer •High capacity: must be able to store full array in order to perform row-report •Brief: starts to decay immediately •Pre-categorical: not interpreted/coded
What is not a feature that distinguished between different vowels in English?
Voicing--all vowels are voiced.
Shape constancy
W/ good depth info available, shapes at a slant look the same as they do in frontal plane
TMS
Wand thing that administers electricity to the specific area of the brain to see how people react/change behaviour (can stimulate or block areas).
Gestalt perspective
We are predisposed toward seeing the world in terms of whole objects and shapes
Multiple Parallell Constraints
We build up a structure based on integrating multiple sources of info (including syntactic preferences) in parallel, and reinterpret if it doesn't make sense.
Repetition Priming
We can process material we have already seen more easily, even when we don't explicitly remember where we have seen it before
Miller (1956)
We can use a process called chunking or recoding in order to remember things.
Neisser's take on the Flynn Effect
We change our way of thinking with out culture. Visual media- picture books, tests, video games, McDonald's cups, tv, movies, ads. We have developed skills specifically in the field of visual analysis. The Raven scores have improved bc it uses this skill. We are smarter than our ancestors in visual analysis, not general intelligence. There is no general intelligence.
Inattention Blindess
When you are not attending to something specific and therefore don't recognize even major changes to it.
Shape-first Theory
We first identify the various objects in the scene, then identify the parts of each object, and match the objects' parts in each image, then match the objects' subparts, and subparts, etc. We finally get down to a basic feature unit that is matched in each eye. (Part of stereopsis)
Shape-first theory
We first identify the various objects in the scene, then identify the parts of each object, and match the objects' parts in each image, then match the objects' subparts, and subsubparts, etc. We finally get down to a basic feature unit that is matched in each eye. (Part of stereopsis)
Contributions of Information Theory
We have channels of memory to most effectively retrieve information. Some channels are more effective than others. Studies on expertise Studies on serial versus parallel processing
Why is it remarkable that we can distinguish between the /d/ in dean, den, dune and dawn?
We have invariant perception in the face of varying acoustic signals. Although each d is different, we perceive them as the same. The way the d sounds depends on the words before and after, the speaker's gender and accent
Grammar as a Discrete Combinatorial System
We know a finitie number of discrete elements (phonemes, morphemes, words) that we can combine in a infinite number of ways to create larger structures with completely new properties.
Recency Preference
We like to 'attach' new words to the most recent possible place in the sentence
Lightness constancy
We perceive an object as having a constant lightness even while its illumination varies
Cohort Model
We're Able to understand what word is being said before we hear the end of it
High perceptual load, low cognitive load
What are the circumstances under which people can most effectively "tune out" distracting information?
animal brain
reflexes, basic awareness, no higher cognition
Correspondence problem
What input from eye 1 lines up with what input from eye 2.
Memory-Rehearsal Model
What keeps memory from decaying
Why does attention to meaning lead to better recall?
What the meaning of an item is attended to, many more memory links are provided to that item so retrieval is easier
Problem of Stimulus Equivalence
When an object can take on many different shapes.
Individuals deprived of first language until late life
When deprived of language until 7, regained full use of language abilities in one year. When deprived until 13, linguistic ability never fully recovered. Put vocabulary together like a 2 year old. When deprived until 31, had vocabulary but could not structure it in any way.
Why does syntactic ambiguity lead to semantic ambiguity?
When groups of words can be grouped into phrases in different ways, the meaning of the sentence can be ambiguous. Discuss sex with Dick Cavett.
Contrast fixation
When looking at two different pictures of similar objects, do you look at one to help you describe the other?
Semantic Priming
Words that are semantically related are more easily associated, and linked in your mind.
Cohorts
Words that have the same beginning (eg. beaker and beetle)
What did scientists agree on regarding cognitive science?
Workers in many scientific disciplines converged on a number of common problems and explanatory ideas.
Interposition
When one object obscures part of another, the obscured object is perceived as the most distant one. Ex. Sailboat diagram
In the article by Wolfe, the author criticizes Feature Integration Theory because this theory claims that the visual features processed by the pre-attentive stage of visual processing are detected by early regions of the brain's hierarchy. Which of the following supports Wolfe's criticism?
When searching for a vertical line in a display, this target does not" pop out" when the distractor lines are oriented 10 degrees clockwise or counterclockwise from vertical
Artivcle by Wolf criticizes Feature Integration THeory
When searching for vertical line display, target does not pop out from distractor lines oriented 10 degrees clockwise or counterclockwise from vertical
Lens Accomodation
When the lens changes shape to get the right focus (close up = thick)
Syntactic ambiguity
When the structure or grammar of a sentence renders the meaning of a word or phrase uncertain.
Automaticity
When we first start learning a task, it requires a lot of attention. With practice, less and less conscious effort is required.
Expected Utility Theory
When we have several options open to us, we choose the one that provides the most favorable balance of benefits and costs on average
How does top-down information influence visual perception?
When we perceive the world through top-down processing we are using our experience to fill in the gaps in front of us. Ex. Once you are told that the ambiguous picture is of a dog, you can easily spot it in the picture.
What are other characteristics of verbal learning?
With verbal learning there is no notion of other linguistic units. Serial learning or paired-associate learning is common as well as different "mentalistic" concepts (e.g., meditation). It is important to note that with verbal learning memory experiments nonsense material is used.
Information Theory
Within this theory information is also known as variance. Bits of information are equivalent to the amount of information needed to decide between two equally likely alternatives.
Performing a verbal task while counting interferes with English speakers ability to count. Is this similar to the Piraha not being able to count?
Yes. Students can count while drumming, but not speaking. They need language skills to count. The Piraha tribe cannot count because they do not have the language skills.
Motion parallax
a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene
information theory
sender-->noisy channel-->reciever
Is Visual Face Recognition Special?
Yes: based on holistic (or configural) processing, whereas visual recognition for other objects involves feature-based (or part-based) processing No: although visual face recognition is based on holistic processing, it is not unique in this regard. People show holistic processing in other visual domains for which they are experts.
Lightness Constancy
You can change the shade of something based on the colors around it. Example: Shadows on buildings, we know the true color and the color of the shadow
Language
You can convey anything. Use it to transmit info and acquire new knowledge, and socially interact with others. Language is productive.
Because grammar is a discrete combinatorial system, language is infinite
You can keep combining more and more verb phrases and noun phrases. There is no end to the number of sentences you can create.
Spotlight
You can only focus on a certain area in your vision (the center)
Not All
________ cultures have number words (all/not all)
Behaviorsim
_______________ shows that fear can be conditioned
word chains
a "toy language" where sentences are mapped by linear order and sequence as based on the minimal assumption theory
Attentional Blink
a brief period after perceiving a stimulus, during which it is difficult to attend to another stimulus
associative agnosia
a broad class of visual agnosia where patients show difficulties in recognizing a variety of visually presented objects, though can identify using alternative sensory cues; not a problem with vision, but with perception
heuristic
a cognitive strategy that makes judgement and resigning easier, usually gets the right answer but not always
convergence
a coordinated turning of the eyes to bear upon a near point
Syllogisms
a deductive reasoning task that looks at premises and the conclusion. The conclusion should always follow the premises.
visual agnosia
a difficulty visually identifying objects as a result of brain damage but NOT impaired sensory abilities
Blocking
a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
Associative agnosia
a failure to understand the meaning of objects due to a deficit at the level of semantic memory
identical feature constraint
a feature in one image should match an identical feature in another image
identical feature constraint
a feature in one image should match an identical feature in other image
Stereopsis: Identical Feature Constraint
a feature in one image should match an identical feature in the other image. Ex. black dot in left eye image should match a black dot in rt eye image
information theory
a field outside of psychology developed in the post- WWII era when a large focus was on communicative technology
discrete combinatorial system
a finite number of discrete elements that allow the child to produce an infinite number of sentences
spectrogram
a graphic representation of the three major parameters that describe the acoustic characteristic of any sound: time, frequency, and intensity
hypothetical construct
a hidden variable that is not directly observable but is inferred or assumed
cotermination
a junction of two edges on an object tends to appear as a junction from all views
Cotermination
a junction of two edges on an object tens to appear as a junction from all views
lexicon
a language user's knowledge of words
model/theory
a larger explanation for how the observed variables relate to cognition
horopter
a line connecting points that produce corresponding retinal points
mediation
a mental construct that allows one to commit items to memory ("bac" and "fod" example)
Late Selection Model
a model of selective attention that proposes that selection of stimuli for final processing does not occur until after the information in the message has been analyzed for meaning
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
nduction
a pattern of reasoning in which one seeks to draw general claims from specific bits of evidence
Deduction
a pattern of reasoning in which we start with general claims, and ask what follows from these premises
Invariance Principle
a person's preferences should not depend on how the options are described
Uniqueness Constraint
a point in one image can be matched with one and only one point in another image
Uniqueness constraint
a point in one image can be matched with one and only one point in another image
uniqueness constraint
a point in one image can be matched with one and only one point in another image
Stereopsis: Uniqueness Constraint
a point in one image can be matched with one and only one point in the other image
uniqueness constraint
a point in one image can be matched with one and only one point in the other image
false target problem
a point in one image can be mistakenly associated with a point in another image that is actually from a different location
false target
a point in one image can mistakenly be associated with a point in the other image
False Target Problem
a point in one image can mistakenly be associated with a point in the other image that is from a different physical location
False target problem
a point in one image can mistakenly be associated with a point in the other image that is from a different physical location
false target problem
a point in one image can mistakenly be associated with a point in the other image that is from a different physical location
False target problem
a point in which one image from eye 1 is confused with a point in another image from eye 2, that is actually in a different physical location.
What is a "homunculus"?
a representation of a small human being
formant
a resonant frequency of the vocal tract
stimulus perspective
a school of thought that argues that images are not ambiguous; all the information necessary for explaining our perceptions is present in the stimuli
inference perspective
a school of thought that emphasizes that people must learn how to interpret visual input in order to get a clear picture of the world
information processing perspective
a school of thought that emphasizes that perception is a multi-staged process involving different levels of representations and operations that take us from one representation to the next
Gestalt perspective
a school of thought that emphasizes that we are naturally predisposed to see the world in terms of whole objects, not in terms of their parts
What is the "perfectly transparent" mind?
a single entity, aware of mental activity, always right. not always aware of the physical world, our senses can be wrong.
Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) paradigm
a subject receives a stream of pictures at 10 slides per second, and then must monitor the stream for 1+ specific targets
Partial-Report Paradigm
a task that allows experimenters to distinguish between what the subjects see and what they remember
Confirmation Bias
a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
Late selection
a theory of attention in which all incoming information is processed up to the level of meaning (semantics) before being selected for further processing
Exemplar Theory
a theory of categorization that argues that we make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category
unilateral neglect
a type of associative agnosia where patients seem to ignore the left (or right) side of space due to a lesion in the right parietal cortex; a disorder of visual attention
prosopagnosia
a type of visual agnosia limited to difficulties in the perception of faces
eye tracked reading
additional information like when people have to go back
Segmentation problem
acoustic information about adjacent sounds overlap in time, so we cannot segment
Three central processes
acquire new, store, and retrieve memories
Apperceptive Prosopagnosia
acquired prosopagnosia with some of the earliest processes in the face perception system
Associative Prosopagnosia
acquired prosopagnosia with spared perceptual processes but impaired links between early face perception processes and the semantic information we hold about people in our memories
central capabilities of memory
acquisition, storage, retrieval
working memory
active process, mental work space, what we are thinking about right now
Vowels
air flow from lungs to lips is unobstructed (no turbulence or blockage from articulators)
algorithmic/representational level
algorithms and mental representations used to solve the problem
Broadbent's Filter Model
all higher level processing occurs post-filter
Classical View of Concepts
all instances of a category have fundamental characteristics in common - there is a clear boundary between things that are 'in' and 'out'
late selection
all stimuli are processed fully and attention prevents distractors from entering working memory
combinatorial rule
allows us to create an infinite number of sentences
central executive
allows us to mentally manipulation information, allows us to focus attention o selected aspects of an environment or our thoughts
Gaze-Contingent Methodology
altering text on a screen based on a subject's gaze
Bits of info
amount of info needed to decide between two equally likely alternatives
Bit of information
amount of information needed to decide between two equally likely alternatives
Information
amount your beliefs change
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
an algorithmic model, using the basic neural network model and applying this to computers
Behaviorism
an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior
Perseverance
an earlier segment replaces a later one (while also being articulated in its correct location)
syllogisms
an example of a deductive reasoning task, in a valid syllogism, the conclusion always follows logically from the premises, we are bad at reasoning about syllogisms
linking hypothesis
an explanation for how the dependent variable relates to the hypothetical construct
symbolic information processing
an extension of Chomsky's theory (there are basic building blocks that can be combined to form more and more complex structures) to apply to all thought
Auto-Stereogram
an illusory image where repeating patterns trick the eyes into making false targets
auto-stereogram
an illusory image where repeating patterns trick the eyes into making false targets
Priming
an implicit (unconscious) memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus
operant conditioning
an organisms own actions are used as the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
semantic order
an organization of items, one right after the next (if you recall "doctor", you next recall "nurse")
echoic memory
analogous to iconic memory but for auditory domain, seems to last longer however because it is used in language
visual world paradigm
apple on the towel problem
Stimulus Perspective
argued that images are not ambiguous; all the information necessary to explain our perceptions are present in the stimulus
Stimulus Perspective
argued that images are not ambiguous; all the information necessary to explain our perceptions are present in the stimulus --stimulus features that provide direct info for a perception may be very complicated --ex. gradient of texture density gives rise to a percept of depth
Turing Machine suggests...
artificial intelligence is possible.
temporary ambiguity
as sentences unfold they may have temporary ambiguity
gaze-contingent methodology
as the subject reads a phrase, some letters are covered while the ones near fixation are clear; the subject reads the text only seeing the letters upon which he or she is fixating.
Problem Solving Protocol
ask people to explain what they're doing as they solve a problem (way of understanding, gathering info on problem solving)
Positive framing
asking a question in a manner that predisposes most people to choose one answer by focusing on the benefits. This tends to make people risk-averse
Negative framing
asking a question in a manner that predisposes most people to choose one answer by focusing on the costs. This tends to make people risk-seeking.
off-line
assessing the output of processing
elaborative rehearsal
assigning meaning to items
Method of Loci
assigning memories to imagined locations makes them easier to remember
Taste aversion
associate certain foods with bad experience, avoid the food
Representativeness Heuristis
assume al categories are homogenous, which allows us to draw conclusions from a small sample and to generalize properties (kind of stereotyping)
stereopsis first theory
assumes stereopsis occurs before shape analysis perception, random dot stereograms support this
shape first theory
assumes that images in the two eyes are matched by comparing results of two separate shape analyses. problem: object recognition before relative depth
Linking hypothesis
assumptions made to have the ability to analyze our data
Primacy(serial position effect)
at beginning of presented series of words, STM is available and the first few words get high amounts of attention and rehearsal
Apparent Motion Perception: Computation Model
at one moment in time you're going to see one still image and then at another moment you're going to see another still image and your brain will assume motion occurred. --each unit represents a possible correspondence match --excitatory connections between units representing compatible matches --inhibitory connection between units representing incompatible matches
Apparent Motion Perception: Motion Correspondence Problem
at one moment in time you're going to see one still image and then at another moment you're going to see another still image and your brain will assume motion occurred. Multiple false matches, only one true match.
Recency(serial position effect)
at the end of presented series of words, the last few words don't get displaced as did the previous words (nothing comes after the last few)
Atmospheric Blur
atmosphere is dirty so things farther away are blurry
on-line
attempt to capture or characterize the time course of processing
online
attempt to characterize processing as it occurs, ex. higher RT harder task
Neisser Experiment
attend to 3 black shirted player vs 3 white shirted and gorilla walks through. change blindness
reason for change blindness
attention is specialized, does not account for things that shouldn't happen like the person changing
early selection
attention to task relevant stimuli can exclude distractors for early perceptual processing
Early selection
attention to task relevant stimuli can exclude distractors from early perceptual processing e.g. Broadbent's Filter Model
series v. parallel
attentive stage of processing is serial according to FIT
Tonotopic mapping
auditory map
Spatial Congruity
auditory stimuli a mouth is producing should come from the same spatial location as the mouth
episodic memory
autobiographical memories
Pons
awake/sleep -stroke causes Locked-in Syndrome
Ambiguous
based on only bottom-up info, with no way to ID correct stereo correspondent
Turing Machines
basic abstract symbol-manipulating devices which, despite their simplicity, can be adapted to simulate the logic of any algorithm
Consider a connectionist network modeling how an observer uses left-eye and right-eye images to estimate the depth of objects in a scene. According to the "continuity constraint", two nodes of the network representing nearby locations at the same depth from an observer should:
be connected by excitatory connections
Consider a connectionist network modeling how an observer uses left-eye and right-eye images to estimate the depth of objects in a scene. According to the "uniqueness constraint", two nodes of a network representing locations in a scene lying along the same line of sight (from either the left-eye or right-eye) should:
be connected by inhibitory connections
Transcendental Method
begin with observable facts, work backward from those observations to interpret them
Behaviorism
behaviors can be explained without thought or emotion
Innate
behaviors that are inherent to the organism
Lucid dreaming
being aware you are dreaming and controlling the dream
positive testing effect
being tested on material improves performance on later tests, but producing or choosing misinformation initially has negative consequences
fMRI
blood flow to an area of the brain increases when cellular activity increases, localization information and low temporal resolution
mental models
book worm problem
Expected Utility Theory
breaks down decision making into a comparison of utility; proposes that decisions ultimately boil down to a consideration of possible alternatives
Magical Number Seven
chunking or recoding is an important way of ameliorating limits of what we perceive
conditioned stimulus
can be paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response
interference effects
can disrupt rehearsal with an intervening attention demanding task certain tasks interfere with each other more than others
articulatory supression
can eliminate the phonological similarity effect by forcing participant to do another task that engages articulation
limited capacityq
can only attend to a portion of input at once
visual agnosia
can see faces, cannot see objects - must use other senses to determine object
capacity limits
can't possibly process all of information that's available to our sense at once
Visual Prosopagnosia
can't recognize faces/connect visual input with relation to family, need environment/clothes, etc. to help
specific language mpairment
cannot make normal word associations, slow to learning language "I like to blife. today I bilfed. Yesterday I ______"
prosopagnosia
cannot recognize faces, only objects
NIRS
cap on head that shines light through skull to see nervous activity, monitors oxygenation of blood.
serial processing
carrying out one operation at a time, such as pronouncing one word at a time
probabilistic view
categories are fuzzy, organized around set of typical properties or correlated attributes
representativeness heuristic
categories are relatively homogenous so we generalize properties of a category based on a small number of examples
unconditioned stimulus
causes a particular response (unconditioned response)
Hebbiban learning
cells that fire together wire together
priming and perceptual adaption
changes in perception/performance brought on by previous experience
Johnston and Heinz
combined the bottleneck theories and capacity theory, multimode theory creators
endogenous cues
come from inside our mind, we can direct our attention towards something
endogenous cues
come from inside our mind, we can direct our attention towards something, voluntary, driven by knowledge
exogenous cues
come from outside our mind, not visual but capture our attention
exogenous cues
come from outside our mind, these are things that capture our attention, automatic reflexive attention
Means-end analysis
compare current state and goal state
Marry's levels of analysis
computational level, algorithmic level, implementation leve
Marr's Level of Analysis
computational level: goal of the system Algorithmic level: what series of steps does the system perform to accomplish tasks? Implementation level: how algorithm implemented in hardware
Marr's three levels of analysis
computational, algorithmic, physical
Shadow
concave or convex images based on shadows
Divided Attention
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
what are the problems with behaviorism?
conditioning, mental states exist
explicit memory
conscious recollection of previous experiences or information
human mind
consciousness, personality, morality
biological evidnece
different types of memory rely on different aspects of brain functioning
binocular cues
convergence, retinal disparity
correlation and contingency
cooccur
central executive
coordinates behavior of buffers
Cue-conflict experiment
create a condition in which visual cues conflict to determine which cue individual relies on more
functional evidence
different types of memory systems follow different rules
Associative Agnosia
difficulty recognizing a variety of visually presented objects
clive wearing
damage to brain, semantic memory is spared, but episodic memory is severely disrupted
Temporal decision
decision across time
Spatial decision
decision determining location/space
prototype models
define category centers not boundaries, boundaries are fuzzy, more prototypical of a bowl, all reasoning about category is done in relation to the prototype
Task difficulty
demands for cognitive resources of two tasks when performed together are often greater than the sum of the demands of the two tasks when performed separately
Visual Behavior in Reading
depends on what is being read. Improves with age.
Viewer-Centered
depends on your EXPERIENCE with different views of objects. different templates for different views. more evidence for this view
Vergence angle
depth cue based on the angle of focus of eyes
3D model
describes shapes and their spatial organization ina n object centered coordinate plan
3-D model
describes shapes and their spatial organization; object-centered frame
object centered frame of reference
description of object relative to itself, if object or viewer moves, same description
object-centered frame of reference
description of object relative to itself, if object or viewer moves: same description
object centered frame of reference
description of object relative to itself, object or viewer moves, same description
Object-Centered Coordinates
description of object relative to itself- if anything moves, the description remains the same
viewer centered frame of reference
description of object relative to the viewer, if object or view moves new description
viewer-centered frame of reference
description of object relative to viewer, if object or viewer moves: new description
viewer-centered frame of reference
description of object relative to viewer, new description if object or viewer moves
base rate neglect
despite initial information when framed with a question you can stereotype you deviate from what you actual know (chines professor vs. psychology professors)
conjunction fallacy
despite math we believe things like less likely to be a bank teller than a bank teller and a feminist
Non-linguistic context
destination vs. modifier interpretation ("put the apple on the towel in the box") - compatible competitor vs. Incompatible competitor
Shape First Theory
determine a shape in one eye, look for that shape in the 2nd eye
Attenuation
dial down information rather than completely filtering it out
Sensory Combination
different senses provide different information about different objects in a scene
Sensory combination
different sources provide info about diff aspects of an object or scene (ex object recognition via vision)
Sensory Integration
different sources provide info about the same aspects of an object or scene (ex estimate object size via vision)
sensory combination
different sources provide information about different aspects of object
sensory integration
different sources provide information about the same aspect of an object
saccades
discontinuous ballistic eye movements
Saccades
discontinuous, very fast, ballistic eye movements
aphasia
disruption of lanugage
anterograde amnesia
disrupts memory for experiences after the injury
retrograde amnesia
disrupts memory for experiences before the injury
Retrograde Amnesia
disrupts memory from before a specific traumatic event (injury, accidents, disease)
Active vision school of thought
distractor images disappear
People with a high operational span:
do better on tests of reasoning, reading comprehension, and standard intelligence tests; and are more likely to stay on task.
syntax
the rules for combining words to form phrases, and for combining phrases
Championship level of knowledge...
does not generalize to other tasks
correlation
does not imply causation
classical view
doesn't explain typicality effects or graded memory
Pre-attentive
dont' have to pay attention, just extracting visual features without attentional processing -pick out red square n sea of blue -feature search
Iris
donut-shaped bands of contractile tissue that give they its color
induction
drawing a general conclusion from a specific set of facts or observations about evidence. no sure answer, only more probably one
Induction
drawing a general conclusion from specific facts or observations about evidence - no one answer is sure to be right, some are just more probable.
deduction
drawing specific conclusion from general principles, there is a correct answer
stereopsis
each eye receives different information
stereopsis
each eye receives different input
Stereopsis
each eye receives different input of the same source
Stereopsis
each eye receives different inputs, both are viewing the same scene however
compositional
each utterance built up from smaller units of language
Schema
easier to remember things if you give them a title - "Doing the Laundry"
ganglion cells
edge enhancement and detection
Active Vision
emphasis on task: goal of vision is to enable observer to perform a task. what you see is what you need
Inference Perspective
emphasized that people must LEARN to visually perceive the world
Gestalt Perspective
emphasized that we are INNATELY predisposed toward seeing the world in terms of whole objects, not in terms of their parts
Gestalt Perspective
emphasized that we are innately pre-disposed toward seeing the world interms of whole objects, not their parts -Principles: proximity, similarity of color, closure, etc. Descriptive but not explanatory
Gestalt Perspective
emphasized that we are innately predisposed toward seeing the world in terms of whole objects, not in terms of their parts
Information Processing Perspective
emphasizes that perception is a multi-staged process involving different levels of representations and operations that take us from one representation to the next
deep processing
engaging with material at level of meaning, does a word fit into this sentence
shallow processing
engaging with material in a superficial fashion, reporting about upper/lower case letters, counting letters
illusory conjunctions
errors in attentive/serial processing
Conversion Errors
errors that arise form converting statements from one (non-equivalent) form to another (All S are R --> All R are S is wrong. Not all rectangles are squares).
Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
categorical perception
even if a stimulus varies continuously, we perceive there to be category boundary
geon theory
everything can be described in terms of a set of 3-D objects (cylinders, cubes, pyramids, etc.)
cocktail party effect
evidence of Treisman's attenuation model
availability heuristic
examples that come to mind quicker must be more frequent, errors when availability and frequency are not aligned
Exogenous vs. Endogenous Cues
exogenous is stimuli from outside -endogenous is based on internal cues like goals
spoonerisms
gives us clues about how far ahead someone has already planned in a sentence
What is behaviorism?
external behaviors are conditioned and separate from internal consciousness, learner starts as a clean slate
Convergence
eyes are at different angles to one another (closer = cross-eyed)
Belief Perseverance
failure to modify beliefs based on disconforming evidence
change blindness
failure to notice a change in the visual scene
DRM paradigm
falsely recalling a word on a list of similar words
open-loop
fast and does not require attention; errors are executed
Identical feature constraint
feature in one eye should match an identical feature in the right eye image
Linguistic Universals
features that are found in all (or virtually all) languages.
Shape first theory
first identify the various objects in the scene. then identify the parts of each object and match the objects' parts in each image. then match the objects' subparts and subsubparts, etc. finally you get down to a basic feature unit that is matched in each eye.
Cognitive Neuroscience Methods
focused on cog, not behavior - when and where in the brain (eg. fMRI, ERP)
Passive Vision
focuses on static images, processing occurs in parallel across an image, progresses from grayscale retinal input to an internal representation in the head
Inverse Optics Problem
for any 2D image, there's an infinite number of 3D worlds consistent with that image
inverse optics problem
for any 2D image, there's an infinite number of 3D worlds consistent with that image
episodic memroy
for specific episodes/events in your life
Interference
forgetting due to some other factor (number of occurrences since then, etc.)
nearest neighbor principle, relative velocity principle, element integrity principle, polarity matching principle
four principles of apparent motion perception
context reinstatement
improved memory performance when tested in the same context that it was in place during learning
cones
function in higher light, better with color
rods
function in low light
risk averse
gains
On-Line Method
gathering information as processing is occurring (usually based on reaction time).
mental model
given a set of premises, we create a model that fits them and reason based on that model
fMRI
good localization information, bad temporal information
Shading
graded markings that indicate light or shaded areas in a drawing or painting
Chomsky's Theory of Grammar
grammar is a formal device with a finite set of rules that generates an infinite set of well-formed sentences; we're born with a capacity to learn language
Marr's levels of VISUAL analysis
grey scale array, primal sketch, 2.5 D sketch, 3D model
Marr's 4 levels of visual analysis
grey-level array, primal sketch, 2.5-D sketch, 3-D model
perceptual organization
grouping parts into wholes (such as in the dot-dog illusion)
Patient H.M.
had hippocampi removed; showed that removing hippocampi destroyed the ability to form new memories
Iconic Memory
has high capacity and memories in this store fade quickly.
slowing down presentation for more rehearsal time
has to affect on recency pre recency items recalled better
familiarity
have a strong sense of familiarity when you see the information (remember v. know)
vision
information processing; the way the brain interprets the physical world
irrelevant speech effect
hearing speech unrelated to task impairs recall
Auxiliary verbs
helping verbs
iconic memory
high capacity
iconic memory
high capacity storage, very brief, decays rapidly
Iconic Memory
high capacity, very brief, starts to decay immediately
Cross-modal correspondences
high frequency should match a small size, low frequency should match a large size
cross modal coresspondances
high frequency sound associated with small size, opposite for low frequency
computational level
high level description of problem
People tune out distracting information most often when...
high perceptual load and low cognitive load
anchoring
high starting price tends to bias people towards a higher final price
Broadbent's Filter Model
higher level of processing occurs post-filter
Inversion effect consistent with...
holistic processing
Cognitive loads
how hard of task in terms of cognition (reaction time lower Know when we tune out info best = high perceptual load, low cognition load
implementation level
how is algorithm implemented
acoustic properties
how something sounds
articulatory properties
how something sounds when coming from a speaker
descriptive accounts
how things actually go
normative accounts
how things ought to go, probability theory and statistical data
inverse optics problem
how we match up the different images on our retina to get one picture, we solve it with assumptions and constraints
Syntactic Knowledge
how words fit together
Cohort Model
hypothesis about lexical (word) representations: word recognition is an incremental process
ERPS
identified by time-locking the EEG signal to onset of some important event, very hard to localize but good temporal resolution
template approach
identifying an object involves matching a stimulus with a pattern in memory; viewer-centered frame
template based approaches
identifying object involves matching a stimulus with a patter in memory--problem: you would need to many templates
modus tollens
if P, then Q -- Q is not true -- P is not true
gambler's falalcy
if first six tosses are heads, most people would say tails next, but it is still only 50/50, only when you look at all sequences does the 50/50 pattern emerge
Sure-thing principle
if someone prefers option A to option B if event X occurs, and also prefers option A to option B if event X does not occur, then they should prefer A to B when they are ignorant of whether or not X occurs
Transitivity
if someone prefers option A to option B, and prefers option B to option C, then they should prefer A to C.
Dual Task Methodology
if we have a good working model of the process we're interested in, we can devise an experiment such that one task taxes the part of the system we want to "knock out", and look at how performance is affected on a second task
confirmation bias
if you think big dogs tend to be mean, you'll notice more big dogs
mind
immaterial
contingency
implies causation
pop-out search
in an image of green x's and o's, a red o immediately "pops out" because it is the only element in the image with the basic feature of "red". The search for the red o is conducted in parallel, because you only have to discern color patches.
conjunction search
in an image of red and green x's and mostly green o's, it's difficult to find the red o due to the distractors. Target features are identified by the conjunction of "red" and "circle" and thus must be found via attentive processing (because binding occurs in this stage). This search is conducted in serial, because each item must be tested.
Anticipation
in anticipation of a forthcoming segment, we replace an earlier segment with a later one
Context and priming
in information is highly expected or "primed" this lowers the threshold for recognition
Stereopsis-first theory
in stereopsis, we first match the individual intensity values for each point on one retina with the corresponding values on the other retina
stereopsis-first theory
in stereopsis, we first match the individual intensity values for each point on one retina with the corresponding values on the other retina
Overshadowing
inability to infer a relationship between a stimulus and response due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus
Prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces
Visual Agnosia
inability to recognize or interpret objects in the visual field
bottom up information
information we get form our senses
visual cues
informational bits that rely on the pattern of light falling on the retina
Pre-Attentive
individual "features" are extracted simultaneously (for entire visual field at once) and automatically (without attention being focused on any one part of visual field)
pre attentive processing
individual features are extracted
Pre-attentive processing
individual features are extracted simultaneously and automatically
sensitive period of language acquisition
infants and young children learn language easily without specific structure
extrapolation
inferring something about an individual based on its membership in a particular category
how many algorithms are there for any function?
infinite
how many physical implementations for a given algorithm
infinite
context
influence how we interpret words
Top down info
info about visual scene derived from general knowledge of world. Memory.
bottom up
information about a visual scene derived exclusively from pattern of light that enters the eyes
Base rates
information about how common one event is relative to other events in the absence of diagnostic information about what event actually occurred
visual sensation
information about the visual scene derived exclusively from the pattern of light that enters the eyes
top down
information about the visual scene derived from general knowledge of the world
visual memory
information about the visual scene derived from general knowledge of the world
top-down information
information derived from memory and previous knowledge about the world
bottom-up information
information derived from what the environment provides (what we sense)
Broadbent's filter model
information in the unattended channel should not be comprehended by the listener, higher level of processing occurs past filter
recognition
information is presented and you have to decide whether it's the sought after information
parallel processing
information processing about a global entity (the big picture)
serial processing
information processing about specific entities, one right after the other
Gesalt perspective
innately predisposed toward seeing the world in terms of whole objects Problem: descriptive, not explanatory
Sensory integration
input from different senses about same input
Cue Integration
integration of information from cues
Trace Model
interaction model - assumes the listener will use all the information at his disposal, all at once to identify what is being said
monocular cues
interposition, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, motion parallax, shadow, atmospheric blur, lens accomodation
Orbitofrontal cortex
interprets emotions associated with various stimuli. Damage here prevents risk aversion/seeking
Reliability
inverse of variance, more variable a cue is, the less reliable it is narrower the curve, more reliable
perception
involves interpretation, bunny v. duck
Flavor
is a multisensory percept depending on taste, smell, texture, temperature, and pain
Lexical retrieval
is word identification, with form to meaning and form to grammatical function
Word Superiority Effect
it is easier to identify letters when they are in a word as opposed to by themselves or in a scramble of letters
Representativeness Heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information
dual task method
keep on part of system occupied, see how performance is on the second task
semantic memory
knowing fact information
procedural memory
knowing how to do things
top down information
knowledge we already have
damage to prefrontal cortex
leads to perseveration, lack of inhibition, planning problems
classical conditioning
learning associations between stimuli
Verbal Learning
learning of words (or facts expressed in words)
Language
learning rules, not associations
requirements for learning language
learning speech sounds, finding boundaries between words, learning words, learning rules for putting words together
Accommodation
lens bends more based on closer objects
recursive rules
let us embed sentences inside of other sentences in order to make more complex sentences
Color
light at different wavelengths
color
light at different wavelengths
reflectance
light reflecting properties of a particular surface
path constraints
limitations on which options you can take
phonological loop
limited capcity buffer, allows information in our buffer to be rehearsed, recodes visual information
Atmospheric blur
long distance depth cue based on blurring of light traveling a long distance
world length effect
longer words result in fewer items recalled, it isn't about the syllables, it's about the amount of time it takes to pronounce them
self paced reading
look at how long it takes participants to read each sentence
Prosopagnosia
loss of visual ability is limited to visual face regonition
risk seeking
losses
Connectionism
lots of neurons, learning and feedback shape abilities
Retinal Acuity
measurement of grating acuity at various locations in the visual field shows the blind spot
operation span
measures our ability to retain information while we are working on it
fMRI
machiene that shows blood flow to an area of the brian to see which areas are more active - localization info
ERP
machine that monitors electrical activity along scalp, look for any big changes at an important event
Associative Memory
made up of nodes (pieces of information), links between nodes where associations are present that activate all related nodes.
2.5 D sketch
makes explicit orientation and depth at each point in image
2.5-D sketch
makes explicit orientation and depth at each point in the image; viewer-centered frame
primal sketch
makes intensity changes explicit along with their geometrical distribution and organization
primal sketch
makes intensity changes explicit, along with their geometrical distribution and organization
temporal integration
making sense of visual information that occurs across time
Inverse Optics Problem
mapping from a 2D image to a 3D scene
Forward Optics Problem
mapping from a 3D scene to a 2D image of that scene
Stereopsis-First Theory
match the individual intensity values for each point on one retina with the corresponding values on the other retina. Problem? false target problem
body
material
semantic memory
memory for general knowledge, not related to specific time or place
Record-Keeping Approach
memory functions to preserve the past--it is designed to retain records of precious experiences
inhibition of return
memory plays a role in how visual attention is allocated
Recency Effect
memory resources are limited, so the last items on a list are remembered better.
implicit memory
memory that is not consciously available, memory for learned skills
Top-down
memory, assumptions, experience, knowledge from the world. Come from two sources (innate knowledge and experiences) Combine both to make sense of the world.
offline
method for getting data, assessing the output of processing ex. judgement tasks
inattentional blindness
miss things when we focus our attention specifically, can only attend to a portion of the input at once
Phonological similarity
mix up phonological sounds in memory
Early Selection Model
model of attention that explains selective attention by early filtering out of the unattended message
perceptual span
modifications made to letters within 3-4 spaces to the left of fixation point or 15 spaces to the right of fixation point result in slower eading speeds
Perceptual Span in Reading: Gaze-contingent methodology
modifications made to letters within 3-4 spaces to the left of fixation point or 15 spaces to the right of fixation point result in slower reading speeds
Interposition
monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away
High cognitive load
more cognitive/executive control processes
high cognitive load
more difficult cognitive/executive control processes
High perceptual load
more difficult perceptual processing
high perceptual load
more difficult perceptual processing
moderate processing
more in depth than counting letters, but not connected to meaning--rhyming
Apparent Motion Perception: Relative Velocity Principle
motion correspondence assigned to one element is not independent of correspondences assigned to other elements. Frame one elements that are near one another will be assigned motion correspondence matches that are consistent with movements of similar direction and speed.
Nearest Neighbor Principle
motion correspondence matches are created between frame 1 elements and their nearest neighbors in frame 2
Apparent Motion Perception: Nearest Neighbor Principle
motion correspondence matches are created between frame one elements and their nearest neighbors in frame two
Heuristics
narrow search space to help us find a solution
Continuity Constraint
nearby points in a scene tend to represent points in the scene at about the same depth
Stereopsis: Continuity Constraint
nearby points in an image tend to represent points in the scene at about the same depth
continuity constraint
nearby points in an image tend to represent points in the scene at about the same depth
Temporal attention
needed to segment rapid streams of temporal events, i.e. use spatial/temporal cues to indicate the time at which target is likely to appear
proximity, color, size, orientation, common fate, symmetry, parallelism, continuity, closure
nine principles of Gestalt grouping
Dennett "brute force" solution to turing test not feasible because...
no conceivable computer could store all possible conversions
History of Cognitive Science
no single approach to explain the mind (started in the 1950's and 60's)
Accumulation
non-retinal cue
Mach Bands
nonexistent stripes the visual system creates for contrast enhancement. 1) Makes edges easier to see 2) A consequence of Lateral Inhibition
content-free
not based on semantics or meaning
self-driving cars
o 2D image to 3D world o Trying to solve this issue, working on it
Contingency
o A future event or circumstance that is possible but cannot be predicted with certainty. o Unconditioned stimulus has to follow conditioned stimulus more often than occurring without conditioned stimulus happening o Necessary
Hypothetical construct
o A hidden/latent variable that is not directly observable but is inferred/assumed for theoretical purposes • Mental state • Process • Representation o Explanatory variable that is not directly observable • Ex. intelligence and motivation explain concepts, but cannot be directly observable o Process in the mind
Model/theory
o A larger explanation for how the observed variables relate to cognition • What you think is going on in the mind • Contains linking hypotheses
What's in a research article
o Abstract • Whole article "in a nutshell" • Get almost all of the important info here, if well written o Introduction/Background • Where the researchers lay out their motivation for doing work • Prior work and its limits • Why this work matters • Theory/model/hypothesis clearly stated o Experiments • Methods • Subject/PP info o Who took part in the experiment? Do the have special characteristics/demographic features? • Procedure o What did PPs do? What variables did the experimenters manipulate/measure? • Results • Summary statistics (raw %) • Figures or graphs • Statistical analysis (significance testing) • Discussion • The researchers' interpretation of the results o Hypothesis • Motivation for next experiment o General Discussion • Researchers' take on: • Overall picture of experiments • Implications of their results to the larger question of interest • Possible limits of their research • Ideas about future directions for research
Linking hypothesis
o An explanation for how the dependent variable relates to the hypothetical construct o Ex. responses that take longer are more difficult or response more difficult bc of the nature of the process that is going on
Operant Conditioning/ beavior
o An organism's own actions are used as the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli • Associations between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are reinforced o The probability of a behavioral response can be changed when followed w/ either reward or punishment: • Reinforcement • Positive behavior rewarded and increases probability of wants response • Punishment • Punished when doesn't do correct action and decrease that behaviored response bc of punishment • Controlled by consequences
Shape-first theory
o Analyze shape first, only one way we can identify the objects o Figure out images in left and right eyes and use shape analysis to calculate depth w/ both images and using stereopsis o Assumes images in the two eyes are matched by comparing the results of two separate shape analyses o Problem: object identification before relative depth?
Puzzle/Skinner boxes
o Animals learn how to escape w/ more exposure o Random accident can become conditioned response o Project pigeon
Little Albert
o Behaviorism example o Baby initially doesn't fear rabbit, but paired w/ loud noise baby starts to fear it
Prosopagnosia
o Can't recognize faces o Use other cues like hair, clothing, and voice
Simon and Levin
o Change blindness • A change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it o We cannot represent all visual details of every object and instead must focus on a few important images o People in first experiment more likely noticed change when experimenter close in age to them • Ingroup: members of one's own social group • People tend to focus on individualizing features and pay little attention to person's social group membership • Outgroup: members of social groups distinctly apart from one's own • Attention on outgroup as a whole and generally do not focus on features that distinguish one individual from others in the group
Object recognition
o Connecting visual info w/ knowledge about things in the world: hard problem o Fundamental to survival and adaptation (ex. knowing what we can eat) o Allows for knowledge to be created, stored, and used • Basis for learning and memory
Political party vs state of the economy demo
o Data in the interactive tool can make either hypothesis correct bc it requires lots of choices that can shape the results • Much easier to get the result than the answer • P-value
Manipulandum
o Experiment where subjects movements eventually compensated for the forces o Subjects move manipulandum to bring cursor into a target square on screen o Sometimes after movement, manipulandum exhibited forces on arm o Subjects' movements eventually compensated for the forces o Aftereffects were observed when the force was suddenly removed and when subjects made movements to new parts of screen o The brain uses an internal model w/ feedback to adapt to novel situations o We use visual feedback continuously while making reaching movements • Fixation: landing point of the eye • Saccade: movement of the eye b/n fixations
Lightness constancy
o Explored human visual perception of neural colors (colors that have brightness but no hue: white, gray, and black) o Although these colors, when seen in isolation on a blank screen appear to emit light, when paired w/ a surrounding ring of brightness, those items will no longer appear to emit light • Ex. moon only lit in dark
Stereopsis-first theory
o First figure out depth then use images to create shapes o Assumes that stereopsis occurs before shape analysis o Cannot identify object w/ single eye o Problem: false targets
Blocking
o Having a conditioned stimulus that can predict an unconditioned stimulus is sufficient • If an animal learns that a conditioned stimulus is a reliable predictor for an unconditioned stimulus, then the animal will not become conditioned to another conditioned stimulus or learn that any other conditioned stimulus predicts that unconditioned stimulus • Ex. pigeon learn light reliably predicts shock, pigeon will not become conditioned to another CS, pigeon will not learn that bell predicts onset of shock same way light did, once pigeon learns one reliable association w/ the CS, it essentially "blocks" further associations o Contingency alone is not sufficient
Correlation
o High probability in one thing leads to a high probability in another o Correlation does not equal causation o Differences in correlations lead to differences in response behavior o Some amount of time unconditioned stimulus followed the conditioned stimulus happening
Clever Hans
o Horse responds to questions by tapping foot, but could only answer correctly if he could see the questioner and questioner knew the correct answer • Hans picked up in subtle involuntary cues from questioner • Experimenters can accidentally affect their studies by producing small involuntary cues
Visual agnosia
o Impairment in recognition of visually presented objects o Faces spared o Can see object features, but can't put them together by sight alone • Can use other senses
Robot challenge
o Infinite depth/slant combinations • Visual object recognition • Function mapping from point brightness values to labels • Ill-posed- more than one solution • Infinite depth/slant combinations • Varying • Brightness (day/night/indoor/outdoor) • Color (natural vs. artificial light) • Shape (seeing from every angle) • Scale (up close vs. far away) • Location (corner of visual field vs. center of visual field) • All combos above • Recognition system invariant to brightness, color, etc.
Cognitive Revolution
o Intellectual movement in the 1950s that began cognitive sciences • Psychology, anthropology, linguistics, computer science, artificial intelligence, neuroscience • Possible to make testable inferences about human processes o Response to behaviorism
Behaviorism
o Introspection doesn't lead you to testable predictions o Focus on observable behaviors of humans and animals • Not the unobservable mind-states • Emphasize learning o The branch of psychology that holds that behaviors can be rigorously described without referring to internal states, like thought and emotion o Predict and control organism's behavior by observing and manipulating physical environment o Laid foundation for learning and well-controlled experiments o Challenges: • Behaviors suggest causal reasoning/expectations • Species specific effect • Limited scope
Reflex
o Involuntary movement o Controlled by central nervous system o Reflex arc • Receptors are excited (touch a pan), sensory neurons-> spinal cord, motor neurons-> muscle (trigger to pull hand back) o Don't decide reflexive action, used to protect you
Mind-body problem
o Issue of what is the mind and how is the mind related to the body o Aristotle: organic different from inorganic • Obey different principles o Descartes: organic not different from inorganic • Organic material (the body) is subject to the same physical rules as inorganic material • Body is a "machine" • Mind is special (nonphysical substance) • Identified the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and distinguished this from the brain as the seat of intelligence
Retina
o Light enters the eye and goes to the brain
Reflectance
o Light reflecting properties of a particular surface • Snowball vs. lump of coal • Reflecting radiant energy o We assume consistent light source and differences in reflectance in something in same lighting are assumed to come from different lighting differences and the way the light is hitting it • Brain makes use of constancy/lightness
Necker cube
o Optical illusion • Each part of the picture is ambiguous by itself, yet the human visual system picks an interpretation of each part that makes the whole consistent
Stage set metaphor
o Painter, lighting designer, sheet-metal worker creating illusion o Idea that working together on stage set instead of apart makes process go much faster and is less costly • Working together they could collaborate, which is the interpretation we perceive • We have certain assumptions we take into account when we perceive the world • Use multiple constraints to arrive at the best interpretation of a visual scene • Ex. rectangles more common than polygons, right angles more common than odd angles • Lighting conditions tend to be the same over the entire visual field • Assumptions cost effective in some way
Inference perspective
o People learn to visually perceive the world • Experience in the world teaches us about the relationship b/n visual input and the world • Ex. lightness constancy
Face recognition
o Pretty much the same if we think in terms of geons o Ability to recognize/discriminate faces is good compared to other objects o Orientation matters
Illuminance
o Properties of the ambient light • Direct sunlight, fluorescent light, shadow...
Superconditioning
o Rats associate tone w/ shock o When their expectations are violated, they will learn much quicker o Causal relationship
Motor/somatosensory homunculi
o Representation of human where certain features emphasized (exaggerated) o Way of representing how in our brain proportionally number of sensations we get from those areas • Body looked from how many sensations we get
Law of Effect
o Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation o Responses that produce discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation
Contrast Effect
o Some perception will appear greater/lesser depending on the perception that came immediately before it • Bc they contrast so strongly and the memory of one affects your perception of the other o The enhancement/diminishment, relative to normal, of perception, cognition or related performance as a result of successive (immediately previous) or simultaneous exposure to a stimulus of lesser or greater value in the same dimension. o Expectation about the reward changes the response behavior even more • Rewards swapped (bigger to smaller and smaller to bigger) • Group bigger to smaller less motivated to run after receiving smaller reward
Suppression ratio
o Suppression/end of a behavior follows punishment (get rid of a particular behavior by punishment) o Rat pressing bar • Ratio=b(a+b) • How much pressing before vs. after presentation of CS • No suppression, ratio=.5 • Rat pushes bar exact same number of times before and after CS • CS doesn't have any affect on how often rat presses bar • Perfect suppression, ratio=0 • Rat does not push bar after CS • CS eliminates bar pressing • Ratio>.5 • Rat pushes bar more after CS
Belongingness
o Taste aversion • A learned response to eating toxic/spoiled food • Garcia and Koelling rat experiment • Rats avoided drinking water from plastic bottles in radiation changes bc rats associated plastic-tasting water w/ sickness experienced from radiation • Rats that received highest doses of radiation strongly associated sweetened water w/ the illness following the radiation • We often have to learn arbitrary relationships (ex. red means stop) • We also have built-in predispositions to learn certain relationships very quickly • Ex. innate knowledge and language learning
Color constancy
o The context in which an object we are viewing appears in influences the way we perceive the color of that object o Able to factor out frequencies present in order to interpret colors being the same o Brain takes into account ambient lighting condition and turns into reflectance of surface according to that
Independent variable
o The thing you manipulate • Changed by the experimenter o How changing affects output
Dependent Variable
o The thing you measure o What is affected during the experiment o Responds to the independent variable o Ex. time takes to perform task
Overshadowing
o Two or more stimuli are present, and one stimulus produces a stronger response than the other because it is more relevant or salient • Dog example: asking dog to sit while holding treat, smell of food stronger than speaking o Easier for rats to learn association b/n noise (tone) and shock than light and shock • Focus on behavior and not mental processes for explaining behaviors
Depth perception
o We need constraints to interpret visual input • Illusions help us understand constraints o Issue: retinal image is 2D projection of what's going on in actual world and must figure out 3D world, which can lead to various kinds of depth illusions (when looking at images)
Inverse Optics Problem
o We perceive things the way we do bc it lines up best w/ what we already know and assume about the world o Forward optics problem: 3D object projected onto our retina in 2D o Inverse: 2D retina image-> 3D representation • Many interpretations for each 2D perception
Chomsky's Review of Skinner
o What is a stimulus for language? • Use behaviorism to explain language use and learning • Stimulus leads to verbal response • History of reinforcement • Contribution of internal workings of speaker is minor • Stimulus • We cannot know the stimulus until the speaker responds and how stimulus leads to that response • Why people say what they do • More likely to say friend's name in absence- what was the stimulus leading to say that person's name
Hebbiban learning
o When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased • Cells that fire together wire together • More cell a fire, more cell b will fire • Building connections b/n cells and controlling a response o A change in the strength of a connection is a function of the pre - and postsynaptic neural activities o Usefulness • Increases chances of survival if you can detect: correlations and contingencies • Two things happen together (one thing happens b/c of another) • Lead you to food to save your life
Visual Agnosia
objects are difficult to recognize/can't connect visual input, need other senses to help
motion parallax
objects closer to you seem to move faster, telephone poles while driving
TICS Article: Hayhoe and Ballard. Observers position their eyes at each moment in time at the point in a scene that is currently most important for an ongoing task. Very few irrelevant areas are fixed. "Just-in-time" strategy...
observers acquire the specific visual info they need just at the point it is required in the task. Eye movement patterns must be learned.
"just-in-time" strategy
observers acquire the specific visual information they need just at the point it's required in the task
Consonants
obstructed airflow from articulators
Homophony
occurs when one melodic voice is prominent over the accompanying lines, or voices
Contrast Effect
occurs when the response to the second condition in the experiment is altered because the two conditions are contrasted to one another
Composite effect
offset mismatched images are easier to differentiate; not aligned its hard -upside down faces are harder to tell if something is off
Anchoring
once an answer to a question is on the scene, subjects seem to use this answer as a reference point, and select their own judgment only by making adjustments to this "anchor". This happens even when the initial answer (the "anchor") is obviously not worth trusting
inhibition of return
once we attend to a particular location, it's harder to return attention to that location, vision is active
Inhibition of return
once we attend to a particular location, its harder to return attention to that location
Dichotic listening
one ear hears something and the other hears something else; unattended ear does not process much information though can tell loudness, gender, if music, high or low voice
Shift
one segment disappears from its appropriate location and appears somewhere else. The thing that shifts moves from one element to another of the same type
Element Integrity Principle
one to one mapping from frame 1 to frame 2
Ames room illusion
only get information from a single view point
limits to intropsection
only have access to our conscious experience, it is not objective, ex. whose headache is worse
Task specific resources
only involved in specific situations
limited capacity systems
only so much capacity for perceptual processing, only so much capacity for cognitive/executive control proceses
behaviorism
only studies observable, measurable behaviors, anti mentalism
levels of processing
only the level of processing matters, intention to learn doesn't matter
serial position
order in which you saw the words affects how likely each owrd is to be recalled
theory based approaches
organization of categories is based on the theories about the world, explanatory relationships
Broadbent's Filter Theory
our cognitive systems are only capable of processing one meaningful input at a time, so when there are multiple inputs, our system is strained and must quickly switch back and forth between inputs.
reason based choice
our goal is to make decisions we think are reasonable and justified
functional fixednes
our initial understanding of the problem can impair our ability to find a solution
belief bias
our prior beliefs influence whether we rate a syllogism as valid, reason based on our knowledge
Serial Position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Constraint Satisfaction
out brain looks for the interpretation of a visual scene that satisfies the most constraints
classical conditioning
pairing two stimuli changes the response to one of those stimuli
PDP models
parallel distributed processing
Simons & Levin
participants didn't pay attention to who they were talking to, didn't notice when the person changed
Dual-Task Paradigm
participants perform 2 tasks at once, measure performance of each task. If tasks are different, both are minimally affected.
Sperling
participants saw displays of letters and asked to recall as many as possible - most people recall 4-5 letters
Broadbent's dichotic listening paradigm
participants selectively attend to one source of information, don't notice much about the unattended channel
Unilateral neglect (hemi-neglect)
patients who seem visually unaware of one region of space
hemispatial neglect
patients with this disorder ignore one side of space
Hemispatial Neglect
patients with this disorder seem to ignore one side of space
Innately guided learning
patterns of associations learned by an animal guided by animal's innate instincts and biases
Axioms
patterns of behavior such that if a person's behavior is inconsistent with an axiom, then it is certain that the person is not maximizing expected utility (i.e., the person is not acting rationally)
Clever Hans' effect
people believe what they want to believe; double blind studies work best -he could only answer if he could see the questioner and the questioner knew the correct answer
Negative priming
people were slower to respond to the target trials when they were preceded by these to-be-ignored distractor primes compared to control trials where the ignored object on the prime trial was some other object
inductive projection
people who grow up in different environments have different types of expertise in biological categories
George MIller
person who came up with the magic number +- 2 concept for limited capacity memory storage
prototype theories
pictures in memory formed by averaging previously perceived objects
What are the problems with Cartesian Dualism?
pineal gland is used by the mind to control the brain, brain damage, the concept of the mind (mind = body)
Inflectional Morphemes
plurals, verb endings, etc.
Element Integrity Principle
principle of apparent motion perception that states that a frame 1 element will match one and only one element in frame 2
Wolfe's contribution to visual processing
pre-attentive processing and attentive processing work as a feedback loop
Feature integration theory
preattentive stage of visual processing involved in single feature search
closed-loop
precise, novel movements; slow and requires attention
behaviorism
predict and control behavior by observing and manipulating the physical environment
Apparent Motion Perception: Polarity Matching Principle
prefer matches between elements of the same contrast polarity (black image match black image)
Polarity Matching Principle
prefer matches between elements with the same shading
recall
presented with a retrieval cue, but have to come up with the sought after info yourself, retrieval paths
grammar
primitive rules about simple linguistic building blocks used to create more and more complex structures
indicative rule
principle concerning the truth of a statement
element integrity principle
principle of apparent motion perception that states that a frame 1 element will match one and only one element in frame 2
Polarity Matching Principle
principle of apparent motion perception that states that motion correspondence matches are created between frame 1 elements and frame 2 elements of a similar contrast/shade/color
polarity matching principle
principle of apparent motion perception that states that motion correspondence matches are created between frame 1 elements and frame 2 elements of a similar contrast/shade/color
Nearest neighbor principle
principle of apparent motion perception that states that motion correspondence matches are created between frame 1 elements and the elements in frame 2 which are geographically nearest to them
nearest neighbor principle
principle of apparent motion perception that states that motion correspondence matches are created between frame 1 elements and the elements in frame 2 which are geographically nearest to them
Relative Velocity Principle
principle of apparent motion perception that states that motion correspondence matches are created between frame 1 elements and the elements in frame 2 which are going in a similar direction and moving with and similar speed
relative velocity principle
principle of apparent motion perception that states that motion correspondence matches are created between frame 1 elements and the elements in frame 2 which are going in a similar direction and moving with and similar speed
deontic rule
principle used to guide human behavior (what "ought to" or "must" be done)
introspection
privileged access to our own thoughts
expected utility
probability of an outcome X subjective utility
hill climbing
problem solving heuristic, but doesn't work because sometimes you have to go backwards to go forwards
wernicke's aphasia
problems with language comprehension, can easily generate speech but doesn't make any sense
broca's aphasia
problems with making speech, impaired language production
Seeing
process of interpreting input from eyes
Filter theory of selective attention
promoted computer metaphor of the mind, early demonstration of stage-based model
illuminance
properties of the ambient light
Prospect Theory
proposes that people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains
texture gradient
provide information about depth; farther away, the smaller the pattern becomes
delayed recall
recency effects are removed
Chunking
recoding into larger chunks for easier memory
RBC
recognition by components
Source Memory
recognition of something based on remembering the situation or context where you learned it
feature based approach
recognize objects based on detecting features of those objects
feature-based approach
recognize objects by detecting features of those objects
Shape-first theory
recognize objects in both eyes then compare shape analyzes
Subitizing
recognizing a number without having to count
source memory
recognizing something on the basis of recalling the situation or earlier episode in which you learned it
what assumptions do the brain make?
rectangles are more common, right angles are more common, lighting conditions tend to be the same over an entire visual scene
Familiarity
remembering that you have seen the information before
Rehearsal
repeat items over and over
recursive
repeating indefinitely
maintenance rehearsal
repeating items
Maintenance Rehearsal
repetition, etc (phonological loop)
ganong effect
replace final phoneme of words like knob and rub with ambiguous phoneme in between b and p, participants hear it as b
phoneme restoration effect
replace letter with noise, still hear letter
Law of Effect
responses that produce a satisfying effect become more likely to occur again in the same situation, less likely when response produces a discomforting effect
ethics of cognitive science
risk must be worth the benefit, low or no risk
phonotactics
rules for combining phonemes
echoic memory
same as iconic memory but for auditory domain, seems to last longer
bias in memory
schema based expectations help you remember episodes that fit preexisting beliefs
context dependent learning
scuba study
Conjunction search
search for a target defined by a combination of two or more features
conjunction search
search for a target defined by a combination of two or more features (blue square)
Feature search
search for a target defined by one feature
features search
search for a target defined by one feature (blue)
Attentional blink
second target is less likely to be reported because not visually processed
Dual Task Method
see how performance on each task is affected
double flash illusion
see two flashes because audio changes
Visual Attention
selects which visual information to attend to.
synesthesia
sensory or cognitive stimuli consistently and automatically induce the experience of additional percepts
Minimal Assumption
sentences are unstructured strings of words strung out in linear order, one after the other
non linguistic context
set of possible referents, actions being described, goals of participants, affect way listeners resolve temporary ambiguities evidence for multiple constraints view
"Telegraphic
shorter than five words
Speech Spectrogram
shows formant patterns
phonological similarity effect
similar sounding letters and words get confused
Echoic Memory
similar to iconic memory, but for auditory and for a couple more seconds
Gestalt principles
similarity of size, similarity of color, common fate, proximity, closure, continuity, symmetry, parallelism
Phonemes
smallest units of sound in the human language, like consonants or vowels
phonemes
smallest units of sound in the human language, like consonants or vowels
ill defined problems
solve by looking for well defined subproblems, add structure, constraints, assumptions
Relative velocity principle is used to
solve motion correspondence problem
interference
something gets in the way of you remembering something
Addition
something is added to the target utterance
Deletion
something is omitted
Homophones
sound exactly alike, but have different spellings and meanings
coarticulation
sounds change based on the sounds that precede or follow them
corsi block tapping task
span of about 4 +/1 items
flashbulb memories
specific event memories (9/11)
exemplars
specific mentally represented examples, reasoning about the category is done in relation to reasoned exemplars
row recall
sperling Participants see the same kind of array • They are asked to recall one row, which has 4 characters • BUT! Which row they have to recall depends on the type of tone they hear after they see the letters
Filter Theory
stage-based model of attention
means analysis
start by comparing current state to goal state
Working backwards
start with goal state, work towards initial state
Feature-based (recognition by component theory)
store specific "geons" or important parts that make up object and spatial relation -easier to find object to know geons -viewpoint independent -does not have to be relatvie orientation with you
visuospatial sketchpad
stores visual and spatial material, needed for remembered spacial arrangements of visual scenes (block tapping task)
Lexical processing
studies the knowledge that language users associate with individual words, such as users associate with individual words, such as pronunciation, meaning, and how the word may be used in the structure of a sentence
Morphology
studies the structure of words, with emphasis on the units of meaning that comprise words
word superiority effect
subjects are best at inferring letters from a word because they can use top-down information and the global word to infer the second letter
Inversion effect
subjects learned series of faces and other "mono" oriented objects, could not identify flipped faces
Mental Rotation of 3-D objects by Roger Shepard and Jacqueline Metzler
subjects view two images of objects and must decide if the objects are the same or different. If the objects are the same, the images depict the object at different orientations. Reaction times are measured.
innately guided learning
taste aversion in quals v rats
ad hoc categories
temporary categories we make up on the fly (something to pry window open with)
Salience
tendency of a stimulus to attract attention without regard to the observer's desires
Constraint satisfaction
tendency to settle on a cognitive solution that satisfies as many constraints as possible in order to achieve the best fit to the data
Information Theory
that if certainty isn't a result then information has not been communicated
Cocktail-party phenomenon
the ability to attend selectively to one person's speech in the midst of competing conversations
physical/implementation level
the algorithms are realized in a physical system
Polysemy
the ambiguity of an individual word or phrase that can be used (in different contexts) to express two or more different meanings
Disparity
the angular discrepancy in the position of the image of an object in the two eyes
disparity
the angular discrepancy in the position of the image of an object in the two eyes
Linear perspective
the appearance of things relative to one another as determined by their distance from the viewer
Speech perception
the auditory perception (and comprehension) of speech
spatial congruity
the auditoy stimuli a mouth is producing should spatially coincide with the mouth we see moving
Texture
the characteristic appearance of a surface having a tactile quality
Contiguity
the closeness of time and space to still have an effect for unconditioned and conditioned stimulus
"word superiority effect" consistent with
the combination of bottom-up and top-down info
problem of stimulus equivalence
the complication in template theory that some objects can take many different shapes and forms (but should theoretically still be identified as the same object)
Retinal Disparity
the difference between input into the two eyes (the brain has to put the pictures together to make it make sense)
Treisman's attenuation model
the early filter doesn't totally filter, it simply attenuates the information that doesn't match the early filter
framing effect
the effect of how a problem is presented on the choice of answer
stimulus equivalence
the emergence of accurate responding to untrained and non reinforced stimulus-stimulus relations following the reinforcement of responses to some stimulus-stimulus relations.
motion parallax
the extent to which things move relative to us is different based on how far away they are
Phonological similarity effect
the finding that immediate recall of word lists in the correct order is impaired when the words sound similar to each other.
primacy effect
the first few words are more likely to be remembered
Primacy
the first items are privileged
Syntax
the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences
Inversion effect for faces
the idea that faces are much harder to visually identify when presented inverted or upside-down rather than upright
inversion effect for faces
the idea that faces are much harder to visually identify when presented inverted or upside-down rather than upright
Part-whole effect for faces
the idea that memory for a face part is more accurate when it is presented within the whole face rather than on its own
part-whole effect for faces
the idea that memory for a face part is more accurate when it is presented within the whole face rather than on its own
Part-whole effect for faces
the idea that memory for a face part is more accurate when it is presented within the whole face rather than on its own
Composite effect for faces
the idea that performance on tasks requiring perception of only one half face is impaired when the half faces are aligned compared to when they are unaligned
composite effect for faces
the idea that performance on tasks requiring perception of only one half face is impaired when the half faces are aligned compared to when they are unaligned
Composite effect for faces
the idea that performance on tasks requiring perception of only one half face is impaired when the half faces are aligned compared to when they are unaligned perception of only one half face is impaired when the half faces are aligned compared to when they are unaligned
stereopsis
the idea that the two eyes are offset from each other, so they each have a slightly different view of the world with different depth cues
retinal disparity
the image the left eye perceives differs from the image the right eye perceives
prosopagnosia
the impaired ability to visually identify faces
Repetition Blindness
the inability to see the second occurrence of a stimulus that appears twice in succession
recency effect
the last few words are more likely to be remembered
S-R association
the learning of an association between a stimulus and a response, with the result that the stimulus comes to elicit the response
george miller
the magical number 7 plus or minus 2
Forward Optics Problem
the mapping from the 3D world to the 2-dimensional image of the world at a particular viewpoint
forward optics problem
the mapping from the 3D world to the 2-dimensional image of the world at a particular viewpoint
channel capacity
the maximum data rate that can be attained over a given channel
identical feature constraint
the principle that a feature in one image should match an identical feature in the other image (stereopsis)
uniqueness constraint
the principle that a point in one image can be matched with one and only one point in the other image (stereopsis)
motion parallex
the principle that elements moving relatively fast compared to others in the retinal image are closer and objects moving smaller distances (at a slower rate) in the retinal image are farther away
continuity constraint
the principle that nearby points in an image tend to represent points in the scene at about the same depth (the world tends to be smooth, except for boundaries) (stereopsis)
Expected Utility
the probability of an outcome multiplied by the subjective utility of an outcome (P x U).
Motion Correspondence Problem
the problem of identifying image features in Frames 1 and 2 that are projections from the same portion of a surface or object in the physical environment
motion correspondence problem
the problem of identifying image features in Frames 1 and 2 that are projections from the same portion of a surface or object in the physical environment
Combinatorial Explosion
the problem that the number of nodes needed in a network to encode all possible combinations of stimuli is too vast
Binding
the process by which features are combined to create our perception of a coherent object
spreading activation
the process by which the activation of one concept also activates or primes other concepts that are linked to it
Sensory integration
the process by which the brain combines information taken in through the senses to make a whole
Accomodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Accommodation
the process of adjusting the lens
induction
the process of deriving a general principle from specific examples
Semantic interpretation
the process of understanding the ideas conveys by sentences; determining whether a sentence is "true" or "false"
Sensory Combination
the process where different sources provide info about different aspects of an object or scene
Sensory combination
the process where different sources provide info about different aspects of an object or scene
sensory combination
the process where different sources provide info about different aspects of an object or scene
sensory integration
the process where different sources provide info about the same aspects of an object or scene
Attention
the process whereby a person concentrates on some features of the environment to the (relative) exclusion of others
Perceptual Organization
the processes that put sensory information together to give the perception of a coherent scene over the whole visual field
parallel processing
the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
discriminated operant
the response
Encoding Specificity
the same material can be remembered in different ways, depending on context. Encode thing AND context.
encoding specificity
the same material can be remembered ind different ways depending on what context
morphemes
the smallest meaning bearing unit in lanugage
phonology
the sound system of languageq
processing fluency
the speed and ease with which the pathway carries activation
pre-attentive stage
the stage of feature integration theory where individual "features" are extracted simultaneously (for the entire visual field at once) and automatically (without attention being focused on any one part of the visual field)
Semantics
the study of language meaning
Phonology
the study of the sound system of a given language and the analysis and classification of its phonemes
Stereopsis: Correspondence Problem
the task of identifying events in the two images as images of the same event in the physical world
correspondence problem
the task of identifying events in the two images as images of the same event in the physical world
Stereo Correspondence Problem
the task of identifying features in two images as images of the same feature in the physical world
stereo-correspondence problem
the task of measuring the disparity between the two matching image points in each eye
Auditory Capture
the tendency for auditory input to dominate the other senses
Belief Bias
the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
Visual Capture
the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses
primacy effect
the tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first in a sequence.
recency effect
the tendency to show greater memory for information that comes last in a sequence.
dependent variable
the thing that you measure
independent variable
the thing you manipulate
utility
the value of an outcome (flu problem)
subjective utility
the value of an outcome to yu
Orientation (Shape) Invariance
the visual constancy where if an object can be identified at a position relative to a point, the object can still be recognized when flipped, rotated, or reflected
Orientation Invariance
the visual constancy where if an object can be identified at a position relative to a point, the object can still be recognized when flipped, rotated, or reflected
orientation (shape) invariance
the visual constancy where if an object can be identified at a position relative to a point, the object can still be recognized when flipped, rotated, or reflected
Translation Invariance
the visual constancy where if an object can be visually identified at one point in space, it can be similarly recognized when its position has changed
translation invariance
the visual constancy where if an object can be visually identified at one point in space, it can be similarly recognized when its position has changed
Size (Depth) Invariance
the visual constancy where if an object is visually identified at one size, it can still be identified as that object when its size has changed
size (depth) invariance
the visual constancy where if an object is visually identified at one size, it can still be identified as that object when its size has changed
temporal synchrony
the visual motion of a mouth should temporally match the auditory information its producing
Template Model
the way you identify objects is comparing them to specific template but if they change orientation, your templates might now match -problem is new orientation -even if visual signal is processed to understand, more cognitize processes to use -store lots of templates + extra process to make them fit
Function Words
the, of, with, etc.
Template Theories
theories of pattern recognition which assert that there is a mental representation for each of the patterns to be recognized
Template theories
theories of pattern recognition which assert that there is a mental representation for each of the patterns to be recognized
template theories
theories of pattern recognition which assert that there is a mental representation for each of the patterns to be recognized
Feature-Based Theories
theories of pattern recognition which describe objects in terms of their visual characteristics and the spatial relations among these characteristics
feature-based theories
theories of pattern recognition which describe objects in terms of their visual characteristics and the spatial relations among these characteristics
Early selection
theory of attention in which information is selected according based on physical characteristics of stimuli
Motion Parallax
things further away seem to move with you but things closer move in opposite direction
cue-conflict experiment
to find out how much people use one cue (like interposition) versus another (like stereopsis), the viewer is asked to look at a square and a partial circle aligned on a table. The circle is nearer, but is cut to make it appear obscured by the square. If the square is seen as closer, the subject is relying on interposition, but if the circle is perceived as closer, the subject is relying on stereopsis.
Visual imagery
top-down processing, The processes used to construct an internal visual image.
Feature integration theory (FIT)
tresiman, attention is required to integrate features during conjunction search tasks
introspection
truth
Feature Integration Theory
two levels of processing 1. pre-attentive: features extracted simultaneously and automatically 2. attentive: visual features are combined into representations of objects via the use of attention
Exchange
two linguistic units change places
Uniqueness constraint
two nodes of a network representing locations in a scene lying along the same line of sights should be connected by inhibitory connections
vergence angle and accommodation
two non-visual cues
Visual Perception
type of problem solving (info provided by environment is ambiguous)
HM
unable to form new memories due to the removal of his hippocampus
long term store
unlimited capacity, little to no decay
Task General Resources
used in all tasks that require attention
analogies
useful for problem solving, can help discover new solutions, orcs and hobbits
linear perspective
vanishing point, the road gets smaller as it becomes farther away and it seems to disappear
Information
variance
Attentive processing
visual features are combined into representations of surfaces and objects
Attentive
visual features are combined into representations of surfaces and objects (via the use of attention)
attentive stage
visual features are combined into representations of surfaces and objects (via the use of attention); the binding of features belonging to a particular object
attentive processing
visual features are combined into representations on surface of objects
Gestalt
visual grouping
non-visual cues
visual informational bits that arise from the curvature and bending of the lens
active vision
visual processing that emphasizes task-based vision and task-based details and which ignores irrelevant aspects of the scene
baddeley's model
visual, auditory, central executive
Baddeley's model of working memory
visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, phonological loop
interposition
when one object obscures part of another, the one in front is perceived as closer
repetition prming
we are faster to process material we have already seen
Gestalt perspective
we are innately predisposed toward seeing the world in terms of whole objects, not their parts
conditional strengthening
we assume that if A leads to B, then A is necessary for B, no logical basis for this
multiple parallel constraints
we build up a structure based on integrating multiple sources of information in parallel
syntax first
we build up a structure based on purely syntactic preferences
problem solving
we can't possible consider every option
Change blindness
we do not notice slow change over time or with flicker
Coarticulation
we do not produce each speech sound independently, with the next sound beginning only after the previous sound has been completed. Instead, production of speech sounds overlap in time independently, with the next sound beginning only after the previous sound has been completed. Instead, of their neighbors
regression to the mean
we expect exceptional performance to continue but it doesn't
set effects
we make extra assumptions about problems, nine dot problem
Conditional strengthening
we often assume that if A leads to B, then A is necessary for B
recency preference
we prefer to attach new words to most recent part of sentence
Invariance problem
we recognize the variability in speech signals in different ways.
Reason-based choice
we tend to choose options for which it's easy to generate reasons justifying that choice
Matching Strategy
we tend to endorse a conclusion if the word "matches" the premises
matching strategy
we tend to endorse a conclusion if the words match the premises
syntactic ambiguity
we will sell gasoline to anyone in a glass container
transcendental method
what are the underlying causes that lead to effects
computational level
what is the goal of the system
correspondence problem
what lines up with what?
algorithmic level
what series of steps does the system take to accomplish these tasks
Retinotopic mapping
what your eye sees displayed across the brain
Sensory Integration
when different senses provide information about ONE object in a scene. Cues are linearly integrated based on their reliability.
lens accommodation
when fixating on a close point, the lens bends a lot (thickens) and when fixating on a distant point, the lens bends less (flattens)
Blends
when more than one word is being considered, and the two blend into a single item
interpostition
when one object obscures part of another, the obscured object is perceived as the more distant one.
Substitution
when one segment is replaced by an intruder (but this differs from the other types of errors since the intruder may not occur at all in the intended sentence)
Task Interference
when performing one task seriously affects another, which happens if both share sensory modality and make use of the same stages of mental processing
einstellung
when solving a problem we develop a certain perspective on it and its solution, we tend to approach subsequent problems the same way
McGurk Effect
when the ear hears one sounds, but the eye sees a mouth form a different sound, the brain's interpretation can be a mixture of the two sounds
stimulus discrimination
when two stimuli are grouped together
inattentional blindness
when we are attending to something, we are essentially blind to other things
Cohort Model
when we are hearing words, beginning sounds narrow the scope of what we can hear
priming
when we shift our attention to a location we are better prepared to quickly process information from that location
Stroop Effect
when words are written in colors different from what the words mean, and it is impossible to say the color and not the word because we automatically read
retina
where a visual image is formed
visuospatic buffer
where visual information is stored its also called iconic memory/VTSM
Lexical Knowledge
word meaning affects how we attach new words to a sentence.
cohort model
words with same onset are cohorts, evidence from eye tracking
Short-term memory
working memory
Broadbent's filter theory
wouldn't process stuff in tuned out channel (would only notice pitch changes or physical changes Problems: Cocktail party effect (hear your name and react even though in off channel) Stop message caused people to stop doing what they were doing logical continuation of sentence taken from unattended channel\
Identical feature constraint
• A feature in one image should match an identical feature in the other image • Ex. black dot in the left
Horoptor
• A line connecting points that produce corresponding retinal points • These objects are all at the same distance as the eye fixation point • Where they get projected on retina is in same order
Uniqueness constraint
• A point in one image can be matched w/ one and only one point in the other image
Stereopsis
• Each eye receives different input • How do we put two sources of input together? • 3D glasses • How do we figure out how to put the 2 sources of input together to create 3D picture? • Calculating depth o Step 1: select a point in the retinal image o Step 2: select the same point in the other retinal image o Step 3: measure the disparity b/n the points • Perception of depth and 3D structure obtained on the basis of visual information deriving from two eyes by individuals with normally developed binocular vision • Using two eyes to calculate depth • Disparity: the angular discrepancy in the position of the image of an object in the two eyes
Ganglion cells
• Edge enhancement and detection
Imprinting
• Ex. young birds follow first thing they see • No reinforcement • Critical period
Latent Learning
• External reward not necessary for learning • Exploration somehow own reward
Correspondence Problem
• False target problem: a point in one image can mistakenly be associated w/ a point in the other image • Brain tricked in interpreting mismatch • Three lines of sight from each eye yield nine possible points of fusion • Three adjacent points on the surface of an object • What is dot supposed to be matched w/ different dot? • Different interpretations for where dots are supposed to be
Cones
• Function in higher light (daylight, color) • Distribution of cones • Number of various color receptors differs across individuals
Rods
• Function in low light (night, why can't see color well) • Peripheral vision (outer edges of retina) • Sensitive, no color discrimination
RBC approach (Recognition by components)
• Geons: 3D geometric solids that combine to form objects • Include a description of how components are arranged relative to each other o Object-centered representations • Configuration info is separate from component info • Cat example o Cat made up of spheres, pyramids, cylinders o Your representation tells you how those components are arranged relative to each other • Priming people w/ images where the geons are intact leads to faster recognition of that same image later, compared to a different image • Advantages: o Viewpoint-independent • Straight/curved/parallel edges on an object same from all views • Geon theory: object-centered representations based on abstract geometric features
Response strength
• How long does response continue after the unconditioned stimulus is removed? (how long do rats keep pressing bar after food no longer delivered?) • Giving up vs. attempting even while nothing is there • Verbal response strength • Energy level (stress), pitch level, speed and delay of emission
Cartesian Dualism
• Identified the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and distinguished this from the brain as the seat of intelligence • Mind=immaterial • Body=material o Mental cannot exist outside of the body, and the body cannot think o Mind completely separate substance from brain • Problems with Cartesian Dualism o How to the mind and body interact? o Brain damage • When brain is damaged, so is the mind • How the damage occurs correlates w/ how the mind is damaged
Template approach
• Identifying an object involves matching a stimulus w/ a pattern in memory • Problem: what is object doesn't match template exactly • Rotated, different size, etc. • The same "object" can take on different shapes (ex. if it moves, square to diamond) • The same object can look different from different view points • Solutions: • More templates • Preprocess o Preprocess the visual signal so that its orientation and size are adjusted to that of the templates • Might not be practical to learn all different templates of same thing • Templates or not? • Viewer-centered (snapshotS) • Lots of memory for all of the templates (storage "cheap") • Matching object w/ template = few cognitive resources • Template theories: we have a bunch of different templates of an object in memory, and we rotate the image until we achieve a match
Lens accomodation
• Lens of human eye changes shape to focus the light from objects at different distances • Lens thick closer • Lens thin far
Function
• Mapping from point brightness values to labels • Maps inputs to outputs • Input: number o What you see o Numbers representing brightness o Take input and come up w/ some output o Attach labels to entities in our visual field • Output: that number/2 • Chess solver example o Maps chess positions (input) to best move (output)
Viewer centered frame of reference
• Marr's 2.5D sketch • Description of object relative to viewer • If object or viewer moves: new description
Object centered frame of reference
• Marr's 3D model • Description of object relative to itself • If object or viewer moves: same description
Continuity constraint
• Nearby points in an image tend to represent points in the scene at about the same depth o But not at edges • The only fusion of the lines are the 3 dots in the middle • Should be continuous and flat (in a line, there needs to be 3 points)
How reinforcement works
• Needed to teach children language • Continues into adulthood • We say what we do bc it is reinforced
Feature based approach
• Recognize objects by detecting features of those objects • Abstract feature-based representations are what's stored in memory • Each object is represented in terms of its features and their spatial arrangement w/ respect to each other (Marr's 3D model) • Pop out effect • Features are different seem to catch our eye first • Combining features requires attention • Really simple objects combined together
Algorithm
• Series of steps (like a recipe) • Implements functions
Tarr and Pinker (1989)
• Shapes presented at 3 different orientations, hundreds of times, so that subjects would learn the objects at those specific orientations • In the last few trials, the object was presented at a completely new orientation • Predictions • Template: the closer the image is to one of the 3 original images (our templates) the easier the identification should be • Geon: orientation shouldn't matter o What's represented is the relationship b/n the parts, not viewpoint specific • Results • Both theories are partly right: o People stored template: the original 3 orientations were quickest to identify o For some figures (ones w/ easily identifiable geometric patterns), orientation didn't matter • Conclusion: both object recognition strategies are available to us
Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus (food) will automatically elicit a response in animal • Now given conditioned (bell) stimulus at first animal won't care • But take conditioned stimulus (bell) and paired w/ unconditioned desired stimulus (food) and after a while, conditioned stimulus will lead to response that is physiological and subconscious • Pairing two stimuli changes the response to one of those stimuli: • The unconditioned stimulus always causes a particular response (unconditioned response) • A conditioned stimulus can be paired w/ the unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response
Verbal Operant
• Unit of verbal behavior • A class of responses of identifiable form functionally related to one or more conditioning variables • Doesn't mean anything
Gestalt principles
• We are innately predisposed toward seeing the world in terms of whole objects, not their parts • Principles or laws that govern how we perceive ambiguous input • We want to be able to organize world into objects and shapes • Group together in our brains: similarity in size, color, common fate, proximity, closure, continuity, symmetry, parallelism • Perceptual organization • How can parts be grouped into wholes? What "goes together"? • Problem: descriptive, not explanatory, vague (what is a good continuation) • We need models that account for the preferences that the Gestalt laws describe • Computational models of vision o Explanation for why we see these principles
Perfectly transparent world
• We are not perfectly aware of the physical world • Senses/ideas can be wrong
Syntactic Structure
• We need to study the structure of language before we can understand how it is used and acquired • Determine rules that separate sentences from non-sentences
FFA (Fusiform Face Area)
•Area of brain that is active during face recognition •Involves recognizing specific individuals within a category •Isn't just human faces
Atmospheric blur
•Bc of the way atmosphere reflects light in distance, becomes distorted farther and things far away hazy -Water particles and other substances in atmosphere distort light reflected from distant objects
Parts of WM- Central Executive
•Coordinates behavior of the buffers •Keep systems "on task" •Turns off subsystems after task is over •Evidence from people w/ frontal lobe damage
Mnemonics
•Creates single chunk of into (Story/vignette) •Acronym that stands for something to help remember
Shadow
•Cue to depth •Impressions change perception bc of shape shadow gives •Cast shadows -Perceived distances changes w/ position of cast shadows
Explanation for primacy and recency
•First items get rehearsed the most •Items moved to LTM when buffer is full •Most recent items stored in STM/WM
Convergence
•How your eyes need to come together in order to focus on a particular point in front of you -Far away eyes look straight ahead and don't converge -Close eyes point closer together (crossing eyes to things on nose)
Linear perspective/vanishing point (near perspective)
•Parallel lines as they go out in distance look like they converge •Ames room illusion: conflict cues -Perception of people in room
Disturbed neural networks
•Patterns of activation in one group of nodes/neurons causes a specific pattern of activation in the next group of nodes/neurons •Through learning and feedback, weights b/n nodes/neurons can change •This changes the info represented in the network
Memory is a system of info processing, which can perform a variety of analyses
•Sensory analyses of the physical properties of a stimulus •Identification and naming of the stimulus •Meaning of the stimulus •Example: reading •First, analyze visual features •Next, identify familiar words •Then, analyze meaning of words and contexts
LTM as associative network
•Similar to neural network at conceptual level -A "node" for each piece of info and links b/n nodes that are "associated" -When one node is activated, it spreads activation to all nodes it's linked to -If a node receives input from multiple nodes, it will be more active and easier to reach threshold for remembering •Retrieval cues -Nodes connecting info representing items, and other associative network for clues and particular node will become more active and will connect w/ association
Depth of encoding
•The more you interact w/ and manipulate data, the more you remember it -Shallow: superficial level (ex. word have letter L?) -Moderate: more involved, but not meaning-based (ex. does word rhyme w/ word book?) -Deep: involved meaning (ex. is the word an animal?)
Schema (thematic thinking)
•Way of organizing pieces of info that describes a pattern/relationship among the pieces •Activity-> list of steps (title) -Induced false recall (remember vs. know) -Evidence that semantics has an effect on recall
Retinal disparity
•When close one eye and look at something and then switch •Eyes slightly different places and view different things
Retrieval paths
•When we learn, we make connections b/n the material we're learning and what we already know •Deeper processing increases the number of retrieval paths
False memories in eye-witness
•Wording question in a particular way affects memory (long vs. short, old vs. young, numbers as reference, etc.) •Leading questions to try to make PPs answer a certain way -Car example: may visualize/reconstruct, accept presupposition, introduce