Comm. 105 final study guide

Chapter 7

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ● List and describe the four functions of an introduction ● List and describe the common types of attention getters ● Describe and implement strategies for preparing introductions ● List and describe the four functions of a conclusion ● List and describe common types of conclusions ● Describe and implement strategies for preparing conclusions ● Apply chapter concepts in review questions and activities First impressions count. Carlin Flora, writing in Psychology Today, recounts an experiment in which people with no special training were shown 20 to 32-second video clips of job applicants in the initial stages of a job interview. After watching the short clips, the viewers were asked to rate the applicants on characteristics including self-assurance and likability— important considerations in a job interview. These ratings were then compared with the findings from the trained interviewers who spent 20 minutes or more with the job applicants. The result: The 20- to 32- second ratings were basically the same as the ratings from the trained interviewers (2004). This all to say, your introduction is your first chance to make a good first impression with your audience. He has the deed half done who has made a beginning. ~ Horace Functions of Introductions Speech introductions are an essential element of an effective public speech. Introductions have specific functions that need to be met in a very short period of time. Introductions must gain the audience's attention and their goodwill, they must state the purpose of the speech and they must preview the main points. These first two functions of the introduction, gaining the attention of the audience and the good will of the audience, have most to do with getting the audience to want to listen to you. You need to state your credibility and relate the topic to your audience. The other two functions of the introduction, stating the purpose of the speech (thesis or central idea) and previewing the structure of the speech, have to do with helping the audience understand you. Gain Attention and Interest The first function of the introduction is to get the attention AND the interest of the audience. The "and" here is important. Anyone can walk into a room full of people sitting quietly, and YELL AT THE TOP OF THEIR LUNGS. That will get attention. However, it will probably not garner much interest—at least not much positive interest. Gaining attention and interest is essential if you want the audience to listen to what you have to say, and audiences will decide fairly quickly if they want to pay attention. Strategies for Gaining the Audience's Attention Tell a Story Human beings love stories. They can be real or hypothetical; concluded in the introduction, or used as a cliffhanger; vivid language and descriptions, paired with timing and pace are key when telling a story. Use a Reference ● Previous speeches: Referencing speeches that happened just before yours can build credibility as you demonstrate your understanding of the topic and your ability to make connections. ● Personal interest: By showing your experience and interest in the topic your enthusiasm sets a positive tone for the audience, and you enhance your credibility based on your knowledge. ● Historical or recent events: Referencing these events connects the audience to the topic and provides the context that will be elaborated on in your speech. ● Current occasion: Referring to the occasion is often used as an introduction to tribute speeches, toasts, dedication ceremonies and historical events. Startle the Audience ● Use a startling statistic. You can use a real statistic that brings attention to the importance of your topic. Make sure it is accurate and relevant. Use a Quotation A quote from a well-known, or lesser known, author can be effective if it nicely sets up your speech topic and is something to which your audience can relate. More well-known authors enhance your credibility. Ask a Question ● Rhetorical questions: are designed to allow you to get the audience to think about your topic without actually answering the question. ● Real questions: Using questions that ask for real responses can work if a speaker feels comfortable with his or her audience, and is able to handle some impromptu situations based their response. Use a Visual Aid ● A size appropriate photo can effectively introduce your topic. ● A video from YouTube or a DVD that relates to your topic can show the audience content that brings them into the speech without you having to say anything. ● Using other visual aids, such as doing a Tahitian dance when you are going to speak about Tahiti, or juggling to introduce your process speech on juggling can be entertaining and capture the attention and interest of your audience quickly. Standing in front of an audience, slouched, hands in pockets, cap pulled low over your head, and mumbling, "my name is... and I am going to tell you about..." is an effective method of NOT getting attention and interest. Before you even open your mouth, your attire, stance, and physical presence are all sending out loud signals that you have no interest in the speech, so why should the audience. Gain the Goodwill of the Audience Over 2000 years ago, probably the pre-eminent speech teacher of all time, Aristotle noted the importance of gaining the goodwill of the audience: ...it is not only necessary to consider how to make the speech itself demonstrative and convincing, but also that the speaker should show himself to be of a certain character...and that his hearers should think that he is disposed in a certain way toward them; and further, that they themselves should be disposed in a certain way towards him (Freese, 1982). When an audience has decided to listen to you—when you have gained their attention and interest—you still need them to think favorably of you. The most effective way of doing this is by establishing your credibility to speak. Credibility is your believability. You are credible when the audience thinks you know what you are talking about. There are a number of methods for developing credibility, and you will use them throughout the speech. In the introduction, however, since you have comparatively little time to develop this credibility, your options are a bit more limited. To be persuasive, we must be believable. To be believable, we must be credible. To be credible, we must be truthful. ~ Hellmut Walters Essentially, credibility has two elements: external credibility and internal credibility. External credibility is the type of credibility you as a speaker gain by association: use of sources that the audience finds credible, for example. In an introduction, you may be able to develop external credibility by this means, as we will see later in this section. More importantly, given the immediate nature of an introduction, is internal credibility. You develop internal credibility as the speaker through specific actions. First, be appropriately attired for a public presentation. Second, make eye contact with the audience before you speak. Third, speak clearly, fluently and confidently. You can also demonstrate internal credibility by demonstrating personal experience with or knowledge of the topic of your speech. Audiences are more positively disposed toward a speaker who has had experience with the topic of his or her speech. You can also demonstrate credibility and goodwill by showing a connection to your audience, demonstrating shared experiences or shared values. A student giving a speech to a class about a month before spring break, right in the middle of an extended cold spell of a long Midwestern winter, offered this introduction as a way to show shared values and experiences: I need everyone to close his or her eyes. All right, now I need everyone to picture how he or she got to school today. Did you bundle up with a hat, some mittens, boots, and two jackets because it's so cold outside before you left for class? While walking to class, was it cold? Did your ears burn from the icy wind blowing through the air? Were your hands cold and chapped? Now I want you all to think about the sun beating down on your body. Picture yourself lying on the beach with sand between your toes and the sound of the ocean in the background. Or picture yourself poolside, with a Pina Coloda perhaps, with tropical music playing in the background. Picture yourself in Mazatlan, Mexico (Townsend, 2007). When speakers can identify with the audience and can show how the audience and the speaker share experiences, then the audience is more receptive to what the speaker has to say. The speaker is both more credible and more attractive to the audience. The secret of success is constancy of purpose. ~ Benjamin Disraeli Clearly State the Purpose This seems like such a basic step, yet it is one too often missed; and without this step, it is difficult for the audience to follow, much less evaluate and comprehend, a speech. In both basic composition classes and basic public speaking classes, this function is much the same: State the thesis or central idea of your speech. In all speeches, there should be that one sentence, that one statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the speech will be about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech. Preview the Speech The thesis statement lets the audience know what the speech is about and what you want to accomplish. The preview statement lets the audience know HOW you will develop the speech. A preview can be understood as a roadmap—a direction for the speech that leads to a successful conclusion. A preview lets the audience know what will come first, what comes next, and so on, to the end of the speech. The preview is essentially an outline—an oral outline—of the basic organizational pattern of the main points. Previews help the audience follow the content because they already know the structure. Speakers who talk about what life has taught them never fail to keep the attention of their listeners. ~ Dale Carnegie Preparing the Introduction Construct the Introduction Last While this may seem both counter-intuitive and somewhat strange, you really do want to leave the development of the introduction for the last part of your speech preparation. Think of it this way: You can't introduce the ideas in your speech until you have determined these ideas. The introduction is prepared last because you want to make sure that the body of the speech drives the introduction, not the other way around. The body of the speech contains most of your content, your arguments, your evidence, and your source material: The introduction sets up the body, but it should not overwhelm the body of the speech, nor should it dictate the content or structure of the speech. Once you have the body of the speech complete, then you consider the introduction. With the body of the speech complete, it is relatively simple to complete two of the four functions of the introduction. You already know the purpose of the speech, so now you need to put it in a one-sentence statement. And you already know the structure and main points of the speech, so you can put that structure into the preview. With the structural functions of the introduction complete, you can carefully choose and craft the type of introduction you wish to use, and concentrate on making sure that the introduction also fulfills the other two necessary functions: gaining the attention and interest of the audience, and gaining the goodwill of the audience. Make It Relevant Another reason why your introduction should be the last part of your speech you prepare is so that the introduction can relate to the speech. If you prepare the introduction before you prepare the body of the speech, your introduction may be wonderful—but completely disconnected from the rest of the speech. When you consider the type of introduction you wish to use, you might note that many of the types could easily lend themselves to disconnection from the speech. A startling statistic may shock and get an audience's attention—but if it is not relevant to the speech itself, the introduction is at best wasted and more likely distracting to the audience. A quotation may be both profound and catchy—but if the quotation has little to do with the speech itself, the introduction is once again wasted or distracting. Now, because your introduction will contain the thesis statement and preview, at least part of the introduction will be relevant to the rest of the speech. However, the entire introduction needs to be relevant. If your audience hears an introduction that they perceive to lack connection to the rest of the speech, they will have difficulty following your main ideas, any attention and interest you may have gained will be more than off- set by the loss of goodwill and personal credibility, and your speech will not make the positive impression you desire. The wise ones fashioned speech with their thought, sifting it as grain is sifted through a sieve. ~ Buddha Be Succinct In most classroom speeches, and in most speech situations outside the classroom, the speaker will be on a time limit. Even if you are giving a speech in a setting where there is no stated time limit, most people will simply not pay attention to a speech that goes on and on and on. Since you are on a time limit, and since, as noted above, the body of the speech is the heart of your speech, the introduction of your speech needs to be concise and succinct. There is no magic formula for the length of an introduction, and you do need to meet all four functions in your introduction. Many authors suggest that the introduction be no more than 10-15% of the total speaking time. Most audiences expect you to introduce your speech and then move quickly into the body of the speech. While the expectations vary from culture to culture, most of the speaking situations in which you will find yourself will involve audiences that have been taught to listen for an introduction with a main thesis statement of some type. This is the standard speech format with which the majority of your audience will be familiar and comfortable. Write It Out Word for Word In another chapter, you may have read and studied speech delivery techniques, and in your class, you may be encouraged to use an extemporaneous style of delivery for your speeches. That is good advice. However, introductions are best written out word for word and then delivered as memorized to ensure all relevant information is delivered to set up your speech. Introductions are succinct (as we learned above), and introductions have to do a lot of work in a short period of time. Because of this, you as a speaker need to carefully consider every word of your introduction. The best method for doing so is to write your introduction out word for word. Then you can more easily see if you have met all four functions, and can also have a very good idea just how long the introduction will be. Just as importantly, memorizing and then delivering the introduction word for word gives you the most control over this important (yet short) part of your speech. Functions of Conclusions So: You are at the end of your speech, and you can't wait to sit down and be done! You start speeding up your rate of delivery, but your volume goes down a bit because you are rushing and running out of breath. You finish the last main point of your speech and race off to your seat: That is not the best way to conclude a speech. Just as with introductions, conclusions have specific functions to fulfill within a speech. And just as with introductions, there are a number of types of conclusions. In this section of this chapter, we will look at these functions, discuss the relationship between introductions and conclusions, and offer some strategies for preparing and delivering an effective conclusion. The basic structure of a speech is not linear but circular. All the parts fit together and flow together in this circle, and the conclusion takes you right back to the introduction—with an enhanced understanding of the topic. Prepare the Audience for the End of the Speech A speech does not just stop—or, to be more precise, a speech should not just stop. A speech, effectively structured and delivered, should move smoothly from point to point and then to the conclusion. One of the most important functions of the conclusion is to prepare the audience for the end of the speech. Throughout the speech, you have been providing the audience with verbal and nonverbal cues to where you are going in the speech. As you move to the conclusion, you need to continue to provide these cues. You can use language cues ("now that we have seen that we can solve this problem effectively, we can review the entire situation"), movement cues (physically moving back to the center of the room where you began the speech), and paralinguistic cues (slow the rate of the speech, use more pauses) to help prepare your audience for the end of the speech. When you prepare the audience for the end of the speech, you let them know that they need to be ready for any final comments or appeals from you, and that they should be prepared to acknowledge you as a speaker. Present any Final Appeals Depending on the type of speech you are presenting, you will be asking the audience for something. You may be asking them to act in a certain way, or to change their attitude toward a certain person or topic. You may be asking them to simply understand what you have had to say in your presentation. Regardless, one of the tasks of the conclusion is to leave the audience motivated positively toward you and the topic you have been presenting. Psychologists and sociologists (as well as communication scholars) know that there is both a primacy and recency effect in presenting information (Garlick, 1993). Essentially, people tend to better remember information presented first or last—they remember what they hear at the beginning of the speech or at the end. In presenting your appeals to the audience, you can take advantage of the recency effect to increase the likelihood of your audience acting on your appeals. When Demosthenes was asked what were the three most important aspects of oratory, he answered, Action, Action, Action. ~ Plutarch Summarize and Close A conclusion is structural in function. Just as the introduction must include a statement of the purpose of the speech, as well as a preview of the main ideas of the speech, the conclusion must include a restatement of the thesis and a review of the main ideas of the speech. The review and restatement are mirror images of the preview statement in the introduction. Structurally, the restatement and review bring the speech back to the top of the circle and remind the audience where we started. Functionally, they help cue the audience that the end of the speech is coming up. End with a Clincher With conclusions, however, there are some additional forms you may wish to use, and there are some variations and adaptations of the introductions that you will want to use as you prepare your conclusions. Earlier in this section when we discussed introductions, it was argued that stories are quite possibly the most effective form of introduction: Stories appear to be almost "hard-wired" into our individual and cultural make-up; and stories have a built-in structure. Stories, then, also make excellent conclusions, and can be used as conclusions in at least two ways. First, you can complete the story that you started in the introduction. Remember: You stopped right before the climax or denouement, and now, you can finish the story. Alternatively, you can retell the story, and this time the story will reflect what the audience has learned from your speech. Either method provides coherence and closure to the story and the speech. Composing the Conclusion Just as with introductions, there are two important points to remember from the start. First, regardless of the form of conclusion, all summary remarks must meet certain required functions. Second, most conclusions will be a combination of two or more forms. There is a third point to remember about conclusions as well: Conclusions need to provide a match to the introduction, so that there is symmetry and completeness to the speech structure. Because of this, very often, the conclusion will be of the same form as the introduction. At the very least, the conclusion must refer to the introduction so there is a sense of completeness. Naturally enough, the forms of conclusions you can use and develop are similar to the forms of introductions you can use and develop. Eloquent speech is not from lip to ear, but rather from heart to heart. ~ William Jennings Bryan Prepare the Conclusion The conclusion is the last part of the speech to prepare. What is common writing practice for the introduction is also true of the. As previously discussed, introductions and conclusions are similar in nature, they provide mirror images of one another, and they are often of the same type. So you complete the introduction and conclusion at the same time. You do so to make sure that both elements work together. As you prepare the conclusion, make sure as well that there are no false conclusions. You need to prepare the audience for the end of the speech—but you can only prepare them one time, and there can be only one end to the speech. By the same token, you need to make sure that the conclusion is not so abrupt or sudden that no one in the audience is aware you have completed your speech. Keep in mind as well that conclusions should comprise no more than 10% of the total speaking time. Just as with the introduction, write out the conclusion word for word. This is your last chance to impress your audience and to make sure that they understand what you have said. Do not leave the conclusion to chance: write it out. Success depends upon previous preparation, and without such preparation there is sure to be failure. ~ Confucius Do Not Include Any New Information While it is important to present your appeal and any call to action in the conclusion, it is also important to NOT present new information in your conclusion. Remember: one of the functions of the conclusion is to prepare the audience for the end of the speech. If all of the sudden you present a new argument, new information, or a new point, you will confuse your audience. If you present new information in the conclusion, you will also lose the ability to integrate this information with the rest of the speech. Remember that all elements of the speech need to flow together. New ideas at the very end of the speech will not enhance the flow of the speech. Additionally, because you are just now bringing in this information at the end of the speech, you will have no or very little time to develop these ideas, or to provide supporting information and documentation for these ideas. Follow the Structure The approach of using the built-in structure of the specific introduction/conclusion technique is as equally effective with quotations, questions and startling statistics as it is with stories. ● You can use the same quotation at the end as at the beginning, but because of what we have learned in the speech, the quotation has a new and more developed meaning. You can also use a new quotation that draws a comparison and contrast to the beginning quotation, and also highlights what we have learned in the speech. ● You can use the same question at the conclusion as you did at the beginning, and regardless of whether you ask for a response or pose it as a rhetorical question (and allow the audience to consider the answer), the answer will be different because of your speech. The audience will be able to see what you have accomplished in the speech. You can also pose a new question, one that again points out what the audience has learned from your speech. ● Startling statistics, as quotations and questions, now take on new meaning because of all that you have told the audience in your speech. Reminding the audience of startling statistics should provide them with a key reminder of the main point of your speech. Conclusion This chapter first shows how to structure and develop introductions and conclusions. Second, it argues that introductions function to gain audience attention and goodwill, and that introductions help structure the speech with a thesis statement and preview. Third, the chapter explains that conclusions help audiences remember the key ideas of a speech. Finally, the chapter reveals that there are a variety of different techniques for introductions and conclusions, and that many of the techniques for introductions apply to conclusions as well. Introductions set the stage for the speech that is to come; conclusions make sure that the audience goes away changed in a positive manner. Short in time, they require careful thought and precise language to be effective. Done well, introductions prepare an audience to learn, and conclusions help to insure that an audience has understood the purpose of the speech. When you can do the common things of life in an uncommon way, you will command the attention of the world. ~ George Washington Carver Review Questions 1. What are the four basic functions of introductions, and why are these functions important? 2. List and give one original example of an effective attention-getting device. 3. What are three reasons why stories are effective as introductions? 4. What is a preview statement, and why is it important as part of an introduction? 5. What are the basic functions of conclusions, and why are these functions important? 6. What does it mean to "follow the structure" in a conclusion? 7. Why are introductions and conclusions prepared last? Glossary Internal Credibility This is a form of credibility based on attributes that are largely controlled by a speaker, such as appearance, confidence, charisma, trustworthiness, and speaking ability. Internal Preview Sometimes called a road map, a preview is a brief oral outline in which the speaker clearly and concisely states the main points of the speech. External Credibility This is a form of credibility based on attributes that a speaker can "borrow," such as using credible sources and referring to credible and popular people and events. Primacy Effect According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read first. Recency Effect According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read last. Rhetorical Question When a speaker asks a question that is not meant to be answered out loud, or a question for which the audience already knows the answer. This is often used as a way to get an audience to think about the topic. Thesis One sentence or statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the speech will be about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech.

Chapter 5

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ● List techniques for analyzing a specific target audience. ● Explain audience analysis by direct observation. ● Describe audience analysis by inference. ● Identify the purpose of a basic questionnaire. ● Recognize and apply data sampling. ● Determine when to use a Likert-type test. ● Define the five categories of audience analysis. ● Summarize the purpose of the situational analysis. ● Explain audience analysis by demography. ● Recognize the difference between beliefs, attitudes and values. ● Identify reasons for sampling a multicultural audience. ● Apply the chapter concepts in final questions and activities. Introduction Robert E. Mullins, a well-known local bank officer, was preparing a speech for the Rotary Club in Dallas, Texas on the topic of "finding the right loan" for a rather diverse audience. He knew his topic extremely well, had put a lot of hard work into his research, and had his visual aids completely in order. One of the things he had not fully considered, however, was the audience to which he would be speaking. On the day of the presentation, Mr. Mullins delivered a flawless speech on "secured" car and home loans, but the speech was not received particularly well. You see, on this particular week, a major segment of the audience consisted of the "Junior Rotarians" who wanted to hear about "personal savings accounts" and "college savings plans." It was a critical error. Had Mr. Mullins considered the full nature and demographic makeup of his audience prior to the event, he might not have been received so poorly. In contemporary public speaking, the audience that you are addressing is the entire reason you are giving the speech; accordingly, the audience is therefore the most important component of all speechmaking. It cannot be said often or more forcefully enough: know your audience! Knowing your audience—their beliefs, attitudes, age, education level, job functions, language, and culture—is the single most important aspect of developing your speech strategy and execution plan. Your audience isn't just a passive group of people who come together by happenstance to listen to you. Your audience is assembled for a very real and significant reason: they want to hear what you have to say. So, be prepared. Spectacular achievement is always preceded by unspectacular preparation.~ Robert H. Schuller We analyze our audience because we want to discover information that will help create a bond between the speaker and the audience. We call this bond "identification." Aristotle loosely called it "finding a common ground." This isn't a one-way process between the speaker and the audience; rather, it is a two-way transactional process. When you ask an audience to listen to your ideas, you are inviting them to come partway into your personal and professional experience as an expert speaker. And, in return, it is your responsibility and obligation to go partway into their experience as an audience. The more you know and understand about your audience and their psychological needs, the better you can prepare your speech and your enhanced confidence will reduce your own speaker anxiety (Dwyer, 2005). This chapter is dedicated to understanding how a speaker connects with an audience through audience analysis by direct observation, analysis by inference, and data collection (Clevenger, 1966). In addition, this chapter explores the five categories of audience analysis: (1) the situational analysis, (2) the demographic analysis, (3) the psychological analysis, (4) the multicultural analysis, and (5) the topic interest and prior knowledge analysis. Approaches to Audience Analysis Whenever thinking about your speech, it is always a good idea to begin with a thorough awareness of your audience and the many factors comprising that particular audience. In speech communication, we simply call this "doing an audience analysis." An audience analysis is when you consider all of the pertinent elements defining the makeup and demographic characteristics (also known as demographics) of your audience (McQuail, 1997). We come to understand that there are detailed accounts of human population characteristics, such as age, gender/sec, education and intellect levels, occupation, socio-economic class, religion, political affiliation, language, ethnicity, culture, background knowledge, needs and interests, and previously held attitudes, beliefs, and values. Demographics are widely used by advertising and public relations professionals to analyze specific audiences so that their products or ideas will carry influence. However, all good public speakers consider the demographic characteristics of their audience, as well. It is the fundamental stage of preparing for your speech. So now you may be saying to yourself: "Gee, that's great! How do I go about analyzing my particular audience?" First, you need to know that there are three overarching methods (or "paradigms") for doing an audience analysis: audience analysis by direct observation, audience analysis by inference, and audience analysis through data collection. Once you get to know how these methods work, you should be able to select which one (or even combination of these methods) is right for your circumstances. Nothing has such power to broaden the mind as the ability to investigate systematically and truly all that comes under thy observation in life. ~ Marcus Aurelius Direct Observation Audience analysis by direct observation, or direct experience, is the most simple of the three paradigms for "getting the feel" of a particular audience. It is a form of qualitative data gathering. We perceive it through one or more of our five natural senses—hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Knowledge that we acquire through personal experience has more impact on us than does knowledge that we learn indirectly. Knowledge acquired from personal experience is also more likely to affect our thinking and will be retained for a longer period of time. We are more likely to trust what we hear, see, feel, taste, and smell rather than what we learn from secondary sources of information (Pressat, 1972). All you really need to do for this method of observation is to examine your audience. If you are lucky enough to be able to do this before speaking to your audience, you will be able to gather some basic reflective data (How old are they? What racial mix does this audience have? Does their non-verbal behavior indicate that they are excited to hear this speech?) that will help you arrange your thoughts and arguments for your speech (Nierenberg &Calero, 1994). One excellent way to become informed about your audience is to ask them about themselves. Whenever possible, have conversations with them—interact with members of your audience—get to know them on a personal level (Where did you go to school? Do you have siblings/pets? What kind of car do you drive?) Through these types of conversations, you will be able to get to know and appreciate each audience member as both a human being and as an audience member. You will come to understand what interests them, convinces them, or even makes them laugh. You might arouse interest and curiosity in your topic while you also gain valuable data. For example, you want to deliver a persuasive speech about boycotting farm-raised fish. You could conduct a short attitudinal survey to discover what your audience thinks about the topic, if they eat farm-raised fish, and if they believe it is healthy for them. This information will help you when you construct your speech because you will know their attitudes about the subject. You would be able to avoid constructing a speech that potentially could do the opposite of what you intended. Another example would be that you want to deliver an informative speech about your town's recreational activities and facilities. Your focus can be aligned with your audience if, before you begin working on your speech, you find out if your audience has senior citizens and/or high school students and/or new parents. Not understanding the basic demographic characteristics of an audience, or further, that audience's beliefs, values, or attitudes about a given topic makes your presentation goals haphazard, at best. Look around the room at the people who will be listening to your speech. What types of gender, age, ethnicity, and educational- level characteristics are represented? What are their expectations for your presentation? This is all- important information you should know before you begin your research and drafting your outline. Who is it that I am going to be talking to? If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it? ~ Albert Einstein Inference Audience analysis by inference is merely a logical extension of your observations drawn in the method above. It is a form of critical thinking known as inductive reasoning, and another form of qualitative data gathering. An inference is when you make a reasoned tentative conclusion or logical judgment on the basis of available evidence. It is best used when you can identify patterns in your evidence that indicate something is expected to happen again or should hold true based upon previous experiences. As individuals we make inferences—or reasonable assumptions—all the time. For example, when we see someone wearing a Los Angeles Dodgers t-shirt, we infer that they are fans of the baseball team. When we see someone drinking coffee, we infer that they need a caffeine boost. These are reasoned conclusions that we make based upon the evidence available to us and our general knowledge about people and their traits. When we reason, we make connections, distinctions, and predictions; we use what is known or familiar to us to reach a conclusion about something that is unknown or unfamiliar for it to make sense. Granted, of course, inferences are sometimes wrong and it is the speaker's responsibility to ensure their information is verifiable. Data Sampling Unlike audience analysis by direct observation and analysis by inference, audience analysis by data sampling uses statistical evidence to quantify and clarify the characteristics of your audience. These characteristics are also known as variables, and are assigned a numerical value so we can systematically collect and classify them (Tucker, Weaver, & Berryman-Fink, 1981). They are reported as statistics, also known as quantitative analysis or quantitative data collection. Statistics are numerical summaries of facts, figures, and research findings. Audience analysis by data sampling requires you to survey you audience before you give a speech. You need to know the basics of doing a survey before you actually collect and interpret your data Basic Questionnaire There are a great number of survey methods available to the speaker. However, we will cover three primary types in this section because they are utilized the most. The first type of survey method you should know about is the basic questionnaire, which is a series of questions advanced to produce demographic and attitudinal data from your audience. Clearly, audience members should not be required to identify themselves by name on the basic questionnaire. Anonymous questionnaires are more likely to produce truthful information. Remember, all you are looking for is a general read of your audience; you should not be looking for specific information about any respondent concerning your questionnaire in particular. It is a bulk-sampling tool, only. While you can easily gather basic demographic data, we need to ask more focused questions in order to understand the audience's "presuppositions" to think or act in certain ways. For example, you can put an attitudinal extension on the basic questionnaire (See examples in figure 5.1 below). These questions probe more deeply into the psyche of your audience members, and will help you see where they stand on certain issues. Ordered Categories Another method of finding your audience's value set is to survey them according to their value hierarchy. A value hierarchy is a person's value structure placed in relationship to a given value set (Rokeach, 1968). The way to determine a person's value hierarchy is to use the ordered categories sampling method. The audience member will put the given values in order based on what they deem most important. When analyzed by the speaker, common themes will present themselves. (See examples in figure 5.1 below). Figure 5.1: Examples of Survey Questions Demographic Questions: 1. Academic Level a. Freshman b. Sophomore c. Junior d. Senior 2. Marital Status a. Single b. Married c. Divorced d. Widowed 3. Age a. Less then 18 b. 18 - 30 years old c. 31 - 45 years old d. over 46 years of age Attitudinal Questions 1. I regard myself as a. Conservative b. Liberal c. Socialist d. Independent 2. I believe that abortion a. Should be illegal b. Should remain legal c. Should be legal in certain cases d. Not sure 3. I think that prayer should be permitted in public schools a. Yes b. No c. undecided Value Ordered Questions Place the following list of calues in order of importance, from most important (1) to least important (5). Freedom Liberty Justive Democracy Safety 1. ____________ 2. ____________ 3. ____________ 4. ____________ 5. ____________ Likert-Type Questions Indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each question; 1 being strongly agree, 5 being strongly disagree. 1. Unsolicited email should be illegal. 1 2 3 4 5 2. Making unsolicited email illegal would be fundamentally unfair to businesses. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I usually delete unsolicited email before even opening it. 1 2 3 4 5 Likert-Type Testing The final method of asserting your audience's attitudes deals with Likert-type testing. Likert-type testing is when you make a statement, and ask the respondent to gauge the depth of their sentiments toward that statement positively, negatively, or neutrally. Typically, each scale will have 5 weighted response categories, being +2, +1, 0,-1, and -2. What the Likert-type test does, that other tests do not do, is measure the extent to which attitudes are held. See how the Likert-type test does this in the example on "unsolicited email" in Figure 5.1. A small Likert-type test will tell you where your audience, generally speaking, stands on issues. As well, it will inform you as to the degree of the audience's beliefs on these issues. The Likert-type test should be used when attempting to assess a highly charged or polarizing issue, because it will tell you, in rough numbers, whether or not your audience agrees or disagrees with your topic. No matter what kind of data sampling you choose, you need to allow time to collect the information and then analyze it. For example, if you create a survey of five questions, and you have your audience of 20 people complete the survey, you will need to deal with 100 survey forms. If you are in a small community group or college class, it is more likely that you will be doing your survey "the old-fashioned way"-so you will need some time to mark each individual response on a "master sheet" and then average or summarize the results in an effective way to use in your speech-writing and speech-giving. Categories of Audience Analysis No matter which of the above inquiry methods you choose to do your audience analysis, you will, at some point, need to direct your attention to the five "categories" of audience analysis. Let's now examine these categories and understand the variables and constraints you should use to estimate your audience's information requirements. Situational Analysis The situational audience analysis category considers the situation for which your audience is gathered. This category is primarily concerned with why your audience is assembled in the first place (Caernarven-Smith, 1983). Are they willingly gathered to hear you speak? Have your audience members paid to hear you? Or, are your audience members literally "speech captives" who have somehow been socially or systematically coerced into hearing you? These factors are decisively important because they place a major responsibility upon you as a speaker. The entire tone and agenda of your speech rests largely upon whether or not your audience even wants to hear from you. Many audiences are considered captive audiences in that they are, for whatever reason, required to be present. While they must physically be present, it is your job as a speaker to keep them mentally present! In stark contrast, a voluntary audience is willingly assembled to listen to a given message. As a rule, these audiences are much easier to address because they are interested in hearing the speech. With this type of audience, your job is to make sure they leave satisfied and informed. Demographic Analysis The second category of audience analysis is demography. As mentioned before, demographics are literally a classification of the characteristics of the people. Whenever addressing an audience, it is generally a good idea to know about its age, gender/sex, major, year in school, race, ethnicity, religious affiliation, income levels, et cetera. There are two steps in doing an accurate demographic analysis: gathering demographic data and interpreting this data (Benjamin, 1969). Consider for a moment how valuable it would be to you as a public speaker to know that your audience will be mostly female, between the ages of 25 and 40, mostly married, and Caucasian. Would this change your message to fit this demographic? Or would you keep your message the same, no matter the audience you were addressing? Chances are you would be more inclined to talk to issues bearing upon those gender, age, and race qualities. Frankly, the smart speaker would shift his or her message to adapt to the audience. And, simply, that's the purpose of doing demographics: to embed within your message the acceptable parameters of your audience's range of needs. Psychological Analysis Unless your selected speech topic is a complete mystery to your audience, your listeners will already hold "attitudes, beliefs, and values" toward the ideas you will inevitably present. As a result, it is always important to know where your audience stands on the issues you plan to address ahead of time. The best way to accomplish this is to sample your audience with a quick questionnaire or survey prior to the event. This is known as the third category of audience analysis, or psychological description. Attitudes In basic terms, attitudes are likes and dislikes. An attitude is a learned disposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a person, an object, an idea, or an event (Jastrow, 1918). Attitudes come in different forms. Attitudes can be as simple as saying "I like college" or "I don't like pizza." You are very likely to see an attitude present itself when someone says that they are "pro" or "anti" something. You may have a positive attitude toward the welfare system, or a negative attitudes. Above all else, attitudes are learned and not necessarily enduring. Attitudes can change, and sometimes do, whereas beliefs and values do not shift as easily. Beliefs Beliefs are principles (Bem, 1970) or assumptions about the universe. They include statements we make regarding the validity of ideas (what is true or false). Beliefs are more durable than attitudes because beliefs are hinged to ideals and not issues. For example, you may believe in the principle: "what goes around comes around." If you do, you believe in the notion of karma. And so, you may align your behaviors to be consistent with this belief philosophy. You do not engage in unethical or negative behavior because you believe that it will "come back" to you. Likewise, you may try to exude behaviors that are ethical and positive because you wish for this behavior to return, in kind. You may not think this at all, and believe quite the opposite. Either way, there is a belief in operation driving what you think. In many instances, particularly in persuasion, we attempt to convince people to change beliefs by researching to see if the belief can be proved. Some examples of beliefs are located in Table 5.3. Table 5.3: Examples of Beliefs The world was created by God. Smoking does not cause cancer. Marijuana is an addictive gateway drug. Only high-risk groups acquire HIV. Ghosts are all around us. Evolution is fact, not fiction. Smoking causes cancer. Marijuana is neither addictive or harmful. Anyone can acquire HIV. Ghosts are products of our imagination. Values A value, on the other hand, is an enduring belief that regulates our attitudes (Rokeach, 1968). Values are the core principles driving our behavior. If you probe into someone's attitudes and beliefs far enough, you will inevitably find an underlying value. Importantly, you should also know that we structure our values in accordance to our own value hierarchy, or mental schema of values placed in order of their relative individual importance. Each of us has our own values that we subscribe to and a value hierarchy that we use to navigate the issues of the world. We look at the world through our own lens of what we believe is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral, and ethical or unethical. That is why values are the most difficult to change. Values aren't buses... They're not supposed to get you anywhere. They're supposed to define who you are. ~ Jennifer Crusie Multicultural Analysis Demography looks at issues of race and ethnicity in a basic sense. However, in our increasingly diverse society, it is worthy to pay particular attention to the issue of speaking to a multicultural audience. Odds are that any real world audience that you encounter will have an underlying multicultural dimension. As a speaker, you need to recognize that the perspective you have on any given topic may not necessarily be shared by all of the members of your audience (Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2005). Therefore, it is imperative that you become a culturally effective speaker. Culturally effective speakers develop the capacity to appreciate other cultures and acquire the necessary skills to speak effectively to people with diverse ethnic backgrounds. Keep these factors in mind when writing a speech for a diverse audience: language, cognition, ethnocentricity, values, and communication styles. Language Many people speak different languages; so if you are translating words, do not use slang or jargon, which can be confusing. You could add a visual aid (a poster, a picture, a PowerPoint slide or two), which would show your audience what you mean - which instantly translates into the audience member's mind. Cognition Realize that different cultures have different cultural- cognitive processes, or ways of looking at the very concept of logic itself. Accordingly, gauge your audience as to their diverse ways of thinking and be sensitive to these differing logics. Ethnocentricity Remember that in many cases you will be appealing to people from other cultures. Do not assume that your culture is dominant or better than other cultures. That assumption is called ethnocentrism, and ethnocentric viewpoints have the tendency to drive a wedge between you and your audience Christian, Jew, Muslim, shaman, Zoroastrian, stone, ground, mountain, river, each has a secret way of being with the mystery, unique and not to be judged. ~ Rumi Values Not only do individuals have value systems of their own, but societies promote value systems, as well. Keep in mind the fact that you will be appealing to value hierarchies that are socially-laden, as well as those that are individually-borne. Communication Styles While you are trying to balance these language, cognition, cultural, and value issues, you should also recognize that some cultures prefer a more animated delivery style than do others. The intelligent speaker will understand this, and adapt his or her verbal and nonverbal delivery accordingly. Interest and Knowledge Analysis Finally, if the goal of your speech is to deliver a unique and stirring presentation (and it should be), you need to know ahead of time if your audience is interested in what you have to say, and has any prior knowledge about your topic. You don't want to give a speech that your audience already knows a lot about. So, your job here is to "test" your topic by sampling your audience for their topic interest and topic knowledge. Defined, topic interest is the significance of the topic to a given audience; often related to the uniqueness of a speaker's topic. Likewise, topic knowledge is the general amount of information that the audience possesses on a given topic. These are not mere definitions listed for the sake of argument; these are essential analytical components of effective speech construction. Unlike multicultural audience analysis, evaluating your audience's topic interest and topic knowledge is a fairly simple task. One can do this through informal question and answer dialogue, or through an actual survey. Either way, it is best to have some information, rather than none at all. Anyone who teaches me deserves my respect, honoring and attention. ~ Sonia Rumzi Conclusion When considering topics for your speech, it is critical for you to keep your audience in mind. Not doing so will put your speech at risk of not corresponding with the information needs of your audience, and further jeopardize your credibility as a speaker. This chapter examined methods of conducting an audience analysis and five categories of audience analysis: situational, demographic, psychological, multicultural, and interest & knowledge In sum, this information equips you with the foundational knowledge and skill-set required to ensure that your topic complements your audience. And, after all, if we are not adapting to meet the needs of our audience, we are not going to be informative or convincing speakers. Winston Churchill is credited with the origin of the saying: "Fail to plan, plan to fail" (Lakein, 1989). We, your authors, believe that if you have failed to fully consider the nature, make-up, and characteristics of your audience, you are—for all intents and purposes—neglecting the spirit of the public speaking exercise. Confidently speaking to audiences can be somewhat addictive. The experience, when properly executed, can be empowering and help you succeed personally and professionally throughout your life. But, you must first consider the audience you will be addressing and take their every requirement into account (Lewis, 1989). We are linked to, joined with, if not bound by, our audiences. Your main speaking ambition should be to seek identification with them, and for them to seek identification with you. Glossary Attitude An attitude is a learned disposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a person, an object, an idea, or an event. Audience Analysis A speaker analyzes an audience for demographics, dispositions and knowledge of the topic. Beliefs Beliefs are statements about the validity of a phenonmenon. They are more durable than attitudes because beliefs are hinged to ideals and not issues. Demographics Demographics are the most recent statistical characteristics of a population. Demographic Characteristics Demographic characteristics are facts about the make-up of a population. Demography Demographics are literally a classification of the characteristics of the people. Inference Making an inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true. Ordered category An ordered category is a condition of logical or comprehensible arrangement among the separate elements of a group. Paradigm A paradigm is a pattern that describes distinct concepts or thoughts in any scientific discipline or other epistemological context. Psychological Description A psychological description is a description of the audience's attitudes, beliefs, and values. Quantitative Analysis A quantitative analysis is the process of determining the value of a variable by examining its numerical, measurable characteristics. Statistics Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data. Unacquainted-Audience Presentation An unacquainted-audience presentation is a speech when you are completely unaware of your audience's characteristics. Uniqueness Uniqueness occurs when a topic rises to the level of being exceptional in interest and knowledge to a given audience. Variable A variable is a characteristic of a unit being observed that may assume more than one of a set of values to which a numerical measure or a category from a classification can be assigned. Value A value is an enduring belief that regulates our behavior and can be seen through views that include whether something is good or bad, moral or immoral, right or wrong, and ethical or unethical. Value Hierarchy A value hierarchy is a person's value structure placed in relationship to a given value set.

Chapter 6

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ● Select a topic appropriate to the audience and occasion. ● Formulate a specific purpose statement that identifies precisely what you will do in your speech. ● Craft a thesis statement (central idea) that clearly and succinctly summarizes the argument you will make in your speech. ● Identify and arrange the main points of your speech according to one of many organizational styles discussed in this chapter. ● Connect the points of your speech to one another. ● Create a preparation and speaking outline for your speech. Introduction to Organizing and Outlining Meg jaunted to the front of the classroom—her trusty index cards in one hand and her water bottle in the other. It was the mid-term presentation in her entomology class, a course she enjoyed more than her other classes. The night before, Meg had spent hours scouring the web for information on the Woody Adelgid, an insect that has ravaged hemlock tree populations in the United States in recent years. But when she made it to the podium and finished her well-written and captivating introduction, her speech began to fall apart. Her index cards were a jumble of unorganized information, not linked together by any unifying theme or purpose. As she stumbled through lists of facts, Meg—along with her peers and instructor—quickly realized that her presentation had all the necessary parts to be compelling, but that those parts were not organized into a coherent and convincing speech. Giving a speech or presentation can be a daunting task for anyone, especially inexperienced public speakers or students in introductory speech courses. Speaking to an audience can also be a rewarding experience for speakers who are willing to put in the extra effort needed to craft rhetorical masterpieces. Indeed, speeches and presentations must be crafted. Such a design requires that speakers do a great deal of preparatory work, like selecting a specific topic and deciding on a particular purpose for their speech. Once the topic and purpose have been decided on, a thesis statement, or central idea, can be prepared. After these things are established, speakers must select the main points of their speech, which should be organized in a way that illuminates the speaker's perspective, or approach to their speech. In a nutshell, effective public speeches are focused on particular topics and contain main points that are relevant to both the topic and the audience. For all of these components to come together convincingly, organizing and outlining must be done prior to giving a speech. This chapter addresses a variety of strategies needed to craft the body of public speeches. The chapter begins at the initial stages of speechwriting— selecting an important and relevant topic for your audience. The more difficult task of formulating a purpose statement is discussed next. A purpose statement drives the organization of the speech since different purposes (e.g., informational or persuasive) necessitate different types of evidence and presentation styles. Next, the chapter offers a variety of organizational strategies for the body of your speech. Not every strategy will be appropriate for every speech, so the strengths and weaknesses of the organizational styles are also addressed. The chapter then discusses ways to connect your main points and to draw links between your main points and the purpose you have chosen. In the final section of this chapter, one of the most important steps in speechwriting, outlining your speech, is discussed. The chapter provides the correct format for outlines as well as information on how to write a preparation outline and a speaking outline. Chaos is inherent in all compounded things. Strive on with diligence. ~ Buddha The Topic, General Purpose, Specific Purpose, and Thesis Before any work can be done on crafting the body of your speech or presentation, you must first do some prep work—selecting a topic, formulating a general purpose, a specific purpose statement, and crafting a central idea, or thesis statement. In doing so, you lay the foundation for your speech by making important decisions about what you will speak about and for what purpose you will speak. These decisions will influence and guide the entire speechwriting process, so it is wise to think carefully and critically during these beginning stages. Selecting a Topic Generally, speakers focus on one or more interrelated topics—relatively broad concepts, ideas, or problems that are relevant for particular audiences. The most common way that speakers discover topics is by simply observing what is happening around them—at their school, in their local government, or around the world. Student government leaders, for example, speak or write to other students when their campus is facing tuition or fee increases, or when students have achieved something spectacular, like lobbying campus administrators for lower student fees and succeeding. In either case, it is the situation that makes their speeches appropriate and useful for their audience of students and university employees. More importantly, they speak when there is an opportunity to change a university policy or to alter the way students think or behave in relation to a particular event on campus. But you need not run for president or student government in order to give a meaningful speech. On the contrary, opportunities abound for those interested in engaging speech as a tool for change. Perhaps the simplest way to find a topic is to ask yourself a few questions. See the textbox entitled "Questions for Selecting a Topic" for a few questions that will help you choose a topic. Students speak about what is interesting to them and their audiences. What topics do you think are relevant today? There are other questions you might ask yourself, too, but these should lead you to at least a few topical choices. The most important work that these questions do is to locate topics within your pre-existing sphere of knowledge and interest. David Zarefsky (2010) also identifies brainstorming as a way to develop speech topics, a strategy that can be helpful if the questions listed in the textbox did not yield an appropriate or interesting topic. Starting with a topic you are already interested in will likely make writing and presenting your speech a more enjoyable and meaningful experience. It means that your entire speechwriting process will focus on something you find important and that you can present this information to people who stand to benefit from your speech. Questions for Selecting a Topic • What important events are occurring locally, nationally and internationally? • What do I care about most? • Is there someone or something I can advocate for? • What makes me angry/happy? • What beliefs/attitudes do I want to share? • Is there some information the audience needs to know? Once you have answered these questions and narrowed your responses, you are still not done selecting your topic. For instance, you might have decided that you really care about breeds of dogs. This is a very broad topic and could easily lead to a dozen different speeches. To resolve this problem, speakers must also consider the audience to whom they will speak, the scope of their presentation, and the outcome they wish to achieve. Formulating the Purpose Statements By honing in on a very specific topic, you begin the work of formulating your purpose statement. In short, a purpose statement clearly states what it is you would like to achieve. Purpose statements are especially helpful for guiding you as you prepare your speech. When deciding which main points, facts, and examples to include, you should simply ask yourself whether they are relevant not only to the topic you have selected, but also whether they support the goal you outlined in your purpose statement. The general purpose statement of a speech may be to inform, to persuade, to celebrate, or to entertain. Thus, it is common to frame a specific purpose statement around one of these goals. According to O'Hair, Stewart, and Rubenstein, a specific purpose statement "expresses both the topic and the general speech purpose in action form and in terms of the specific objectives you hope to achieve (2004). For instance, the home design enthusiast might write the following specific purpose statement: At the end of my speech, the audience will learn the pro's and con's of flipping houses. In short, the general purpose statement lays out the broader goal of the speech while the specific purpose statement describes precisely what the speech is intended to do. Some of your professors may ask that you include the general purpose and add the specific purpose. Writing the Thesis Statement The specific purpose statement is a tool that you will use as you write your talk, but it is unlikely that it will appear verbatim in your speech. Instead, you will want to convert the specific purpose statement into a central idea, or thesis statement that you will share with your audience. Depending on your instructor's approach, a thesis statement may be written two different ways. A thesis statement may encapsulate the main points of a speech in just a sentence or two, and be designed to give audiences a quick preview of what the entire speech will be about. The thesis statement for a speech, like the thesis of a research-based essay, should be easily identifiable and ought to very succinctly sum up the main points you will present. Some instructors prefer that your thesis, or central idea, be a single, declarative statement providing the audience with an overall statement that provides the essence of the speech, followed by a separate preview statement. If you are a Harry Potter enthusiast, you may write a thesis statement (central idea) the following way using the above approach: J.K. Rowling is a renowned author of the Harry Potter series with a Cinderella like story having gone from relatively humble beginnings, through personal struggles, and finally success and fame. Writing the Preview Statement However, some instructors prefer that you separate your thesis from your preview statement. A preview statement (or series of statements) is a guide to your speech. This is the part of the speech that literally tells the audience exactly what main points you will cover. If you were to open your Waze app, it would tell you exactly how to get there. Best of all, you would know what to look for! So, if we take our J.K Rowling example, let's rewrite that using this approach separating out the thesis and preview: J.K. Rowling is a renowned author of the Harry Potter series with a Cinderella like rags to riches story. First, I will tell you about J.K. Rowling's humble beginnings. Then, I will describe her personal struggles as a single mom. Finally, I will explain how she overcame adversity and became one of the richest women in the United Kingdom. There is no best way to approach this. This is up to your instructor. Writing the Body of Your Speech Once you have finished the important work of deciding what your speech will be about, as well as formulating the purpose statement and crafting the thesis, you should turn your attention to writing the body of your speech. All of your main points are contained in the body, and normally this section is prepared well before you ever write the introduction or conclusion. The body of your speech will consume the largest amount of time to present; and it is the opportunity for you to elaborate on facts, evidence, examples, and opinions that support your thesis statement and do the work you have outlined in the specific purpose statement. Combining these various elements into a cohesive and compelling speech, however, is not without its difficulties, the first of which is deciding which elements to include and how they ought to be organized to best suit your purpose. Good design is making something intelligible and memorable. Great design is making something memorable and meaningful. ~ Dieter Rams Organizational Patterns of Arrangement After deciding which main points and subpoints you must include, you can get to work writing up the speech. Before you do so, however, it is helpful to consider how you will organize the ideas. There are many ways you can organize speeches, and these approaches will be different depending on whether you are preparing an informative or persuasive speech. These are referred to as organizational patterns for arranging your main points in a speech. The chronological (or temporal), topical, spatial, or causal patterns may be better suited to informative speeches, whereas the Problem-Solution, Monroe's Motivated Sequence (Monroe, 1949), Claim-to-Proof (Mudd & Sillar, 1962), or Refutation pattern would work best for persuasive speeches. Chronological Pattern When you speak about events that are linked together by time, it is sensible to engage the chronological organization pattern. In a chronological speech, main points are delivered according to when they happened and could be traced on a calendar or clock. Some professors use the term temporal to reflect any speech pattern dealing with taking the audience through time. Arranging main points in chronological order can be helpful when describing historical events to an audience as well as when the order of events is necessary to understand what you wish to convey. Informative speeches about a series of events most commonly engage the chronological style, as do many process speeches (e.g., how to bake a cake or build an airplane). Another time when the chronological style makes sense is when you tell the story of someone's life or career. For instance, a speech about Oprah Winfrey might be arranged chronologically. In this case, the main points are arranged by following Winfrey's life from birth to the present time. Life events (e.g., early life, her early career, her life after ending the Oprah Winfrey Show) are connected together according to when they happened and highlight the progression of Winfrey's career. Organizing the speech in this way illustrates the interconnectedness of life events. Below you will find a way in which you can organize your main points chronologically: Topic: Oprah Winfrey (Chronological Pattern) Thesis: Oprah's career can be understood by four key, interconnected life stages. Preview: First, let's look at Oprah's early life. Then, we will look at her early career, followed by her years during the Oprah Winfrey show. Finally, we will explore what she is doing now. I. Oprah's childhood was spent in rural Mississippi, where she endured sexual abuse from family members II. Oprah's early career was characterized by stints on local radio and television networks in Nashville and Chicago. III. Oprah's tenure as host of the Oprah Winfrey Show began in 1986 and lasted until 2011, a period of time marked by much success. IV. Oprah's most recent media venture is OWN: The Oprah Winfrey Network, which plays host to a variety of television shows including Oprah's Next Chapter. Doing the best at this moment puts you in the best place for the next moment. ~ Oprah Winfrey Topical Pattern When the main points of your speech center on ideas that are more distinct from one another, a topical organization pattern may be used. In a topical speech, main points are developed according to the different aspects, subtopics or topics within an overall topic. Although they are all part of the overall topic, the order in which they are presented really doesn't matter. For example, you are currently attending college. Within your college, there are various student services that are important for you to use while you are here. You may use the library, The Learning Center (TLC), Student Development office, ASG Computer Lab, and Financial Aid. To organize this speech toopically, it doesn't matter which area you speak about first, but here is how you could organize it. Topic: Student Services at College of the Canyons Thesis and Preview: College of the Canyons has five important student services, which include the library, TLC, Student Development Office, ASG Computer Lab, and Financial Aid. I. The library can be accessed five days a week and online and has a multitude of books, periodicals, and other resources to use. II. The TLC has subject tutors, computers, and study rooms available to use six days a week. III. The Student Development Office is a place that assists students with their ID cards, but also provides students with discount tickets and other student related needs. IV. The ASG computer lab is open for students to use for several hours a day, as well as to print up to 15 pages a day for free. V. Financial Aid is one of the busiest offices on campus, offering students a multitude of methods by which they can supplement their personal finances paying for both tuition and books. Spatial Pattern Another way to organize the points of a speech is through a spatial speech, which arranges main points according to their physical and geographic relationships. The spatial style is an especially useful organization pattern when the main point's importance is derived from its location or directional focus. Things can be described from top to bottom, inside to outside, left to right, north to south, and so on. Importantly, speakers using a spatial style should offer commentary about the placement of the main points as they move through the speech, alerting audience members to the location changes. For instance, a speech about The University of Georgia might be arranged spatially; in this example, the spatial organization frames the discussion in terms of the campus layout. The spatial style is fitting since the differences in architecture and uses of space are related to particular geographic areas, making location a central organizing factor. As such, the spatial style highlights these location differences. Topic: University of Georgia (Spatial Pattern) Thesis: The University of Georgia is arranged into four distinct sections, which are characterized by architectural and disciplinary differences. I. In North Campus, one will find the University's oldest building, a sprawling tree- lined quad, and the famous Arches, all of which are nestled against Athens' downtown district. II. In West Campus, dozens of dormitories provide housing for the University's large undergraduate population and students can regularly be found lounging outside or at one of the dining halls. III. In East Campus, students delight in newly constructed, modern buildings and enjoy the benefits of the University's health center, recreational facilities, and science research buildings. IV. In South Campus, pharmacy, veterinary, and biomedical science students traverse newly constructed parts of campus featuring well-kept landscaping and modern architecture. Causal Pattern A causal speech informs audience members about causes and effects that have already happened with respect to some condition, event, etc. One approach can be to share what caused something to happen, and what the effects were. Or, the reverse approach can be taken where a speaker can begin by sharing the effects of something that occurred, and then share what caused it. For example, in 1994, there was a 6.7 magnitude earthquake that occurred in the San Fernando Valley in Northridge, California. Let's look at how we can arrange this speech first by using a cause-effect pattern: Topic: Northridge Earthquake Thesis: The Northridge earthquake was a devastating event that was caused by an unknown fault and resulted in the loss of life and billions of dollars of damage. I. The Northridge earthquake was caused by a fault that was previously unknown and located nine miles beneath Northridge. II. The Northridge earthquake resulted in the loss of 57 lives and over 40 billion dollars of damage in Northridge and surrounding communities. Depending on your topic, you may decide it is more impactful to start with the effects, and work back to the causes (effect-cause pattern). Let's take the same example and flip it around: Thesis: The Northridge earthquake was a devastating event that was that resulted in the loss of life and billions of dollars in damage, and was caused by an unknown fault below Northridge. I. The Northridge earthquake resulted in the loss of 57 lives and over 40 billion dollars of damage in Northridge and surrounding communities. II. The Northridge earthquake was caused by a fault that was previously unknown and located nine miles beneath Northridge. Why might you decide to use an effect-cause approach rather than a cause-effect approach? In this particular example, the effects of the earthquake were truly horrible. If you heard all of that information first, you would be much more curious to hear about what caused such devastation. Sometimes natural disasters are not that exciting, even when they are horrible. Why? Unless they affect us directly, we may not have the same attachment to the topic. This is one example where an effect-cause approach may be very impactful. Good communication does not mean that you have to speak in perfectly formed sentences and paragraphs. It isn't about slickness. Simple and clear go a long way. ~ John Kotter Outlining Your Speech Most speakers and audience members would agree that an organized speech is both easier to present as well as more persuasive. Public speaking teachers especially believe in the power of organizing your speech, which is why they encourage (and often require) that you create an outline for your speech. Outlines, or textual arrangements of all the various elements of a speech, are a very common way of organizing a speech before it is delivered. Most extemporaneous speakers keep their outlines with them during the speech as a way to ensure that they do not leave out any important elements and to keep them on track. Writing an outline is also important to the speechwriting process since doing so forces the speakers to think about the main ideas, known as main points, and subpoints, the examples they wish to include, and the ways in which these elements correspond to one another. In short, the outline functions both as an organization tool and as a reference for delivering a speech. Outline Types There are two types of outlines. The first outline you will write is called the preparation outline. Also called a skeletal, working, practice, or rough outline, the preparation outline is used to work through the various components of your speech in an organized format. Stephen E. Lucas (2004) put it simply: "The preparation outline is just what its name implies—an outline that helps you prepare the speech." When writing the preparation outline, you should focus on finalizing the specific purpose and thesis statement, logically ordering your main points, deciding where supporting material should be included, and refining the overall organizational pattern of your speech. As you write the preparation outline, you may find it necessary to rearrange your points or to add or subtract supporting material. You may also realize that some of your main points are sufficiently supported while others are lacking. The final draft of your preparation outline should include full sentences. In most cases, however, the preparation outline is reserved for planning purposes only and is translated into a speaking outline before you deliver the speech. Keep in mind though, even a full sentence outline is not an essay. A speaking outline is the outline you will prepare for use when delivering the speech. The speaking outline is much more succinct than the preparation outline and includes brief phrases or words that remind the speakers of the points they need to make, plus supporting material and signposts (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). The words or phrases used on the speaking outline should briefly encapsulate all of the information needed to prompt the speaker to accurately deliver the speech. Although some cases call for reading a speech verbatim from the full-sentence outline, in most cases speakers will simply refer to their speaking outline for quick reminders and to ensure that they do not omit any important information. Because it uses just words or short phrases, and not full sentences, the speaking outline can easily be transferred to index cards that can be referenced during a speech. However, check with your instructor regarding what you will be allowed to use for your speech. Main Points Main points are the main ideas in the speech. In other words, the main points are what your audience should remember from your talk, and they are phrased as single, declarative sentences. These are never phrased as a question, nor can they be a quote or form of citation. Any supporting material you have will be put in your outline as a subpoint. Since this is a public speaking class, your instructor will decide how long your speeches will be, but in general, you can assume that no speech will be longer than 10 minutes in length. Given that alone, we can make one assumption. All speeches will fall between 2 to 5 main points based simply on length. If you are working on an outline and you have ten main points, something is wrong, and you need to revisit your ideas to see how you need to reorganize your points. All main points are preceded by Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.). Subpoints are preceded by capital letters (A, B, C, etc.), then Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.), lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.). You can subordinate further than this. Speak with your instructor regarding his or her specific instructions. Each level of subordination is also differentiated from its predecessor by indenting a few spaces. Indenting makes it easy to find your main points, subpoints, and the supporting points and examples below them. Let's work on understanding how to take main points and break them into smaller ideas by subordinating them further and further as we go by using the following outline example: Topic: Dog Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about characteristics of dogs Thesis: There are many types of dogs that individuals can select from before deciding which would make the best family pet. Preview: First, I will describe the characteristics of large breed dogs, and then I will discuss characteristics of small breed dogs. I. First, let's look at the characteristics of large breed dogs. A. Some large breed dogs need daily activity. B. Some large breed dogs are dog friendly. C. Some large breed dogs drool. 1. If you are particularly neat, you may not want one of these. a. Bloodhounds drool the most. 1) After eating is one of the times drooling is bad. 2) The drooling is horrible after they drink, so beware! b. English bloodhounds drool a lot as well. 2. If you live in an apartment, these breeds could pose a problem. II. Next, let's look at the characteristics of small breed dogs. A. Some small breed dogs need daily activity. B. Some small breed dogs are dog friendly. C. Some small breed dogs are friendly to strangers. 1. Welsh Terriers love strangers. a. They will jump on people. b. They will wag their tails and nuzzle. 2. Beagles love strangers. 3. Cockapoos also love strangers. Subordination and Coordination You should have noticed that as ideas were broken down, or subordinated, there was a hierarchy to the order. To check your outline for coherence, think of the outline as a staircase. All of the points that are beneath and on a diagonal to the points above them are subordinate points. So using the above example, points A, B, and C dealt with characteristics of large breed dogs, and those points are all subordinate to main point I. Similarly, points 1 and 2 under point C both dealt with drool, so those are subordinate. If we had discussed food under point C, you would know that something didn't make sense. You will also see that there is coordination of points. As part of the hierarchy, coordination simply means that all of the numbers or letters should represent the same idea. In this example, A, B, and C were all characteristics, so those are all coordinate to each other. Had C been "German Shepherd," then the outline would have been incorrect because that is a type of dog, not a characteristic. Parallelism Another important rule in outlining is known as parallelism. This means that when possible, you begin your sentences in a similar way, using a similar grammatical structure. For example, in the previous example on dogs, some of the sentences began "some large breed dogs." This type of structure adds clarity to your speaking. Students often worry that parallelism will sound boring. It's actually the opposite! It adds clarity. However, if you had ten sentences in a row, we would never recommend you begin them all the same way. That is where transitions come into the picture and break up any monotony that could occur. Division The principle of division is an important part of outlining. When you have a main point, you will be explaining it. You should have enough meaningful information that you can divide it into two subpoints A and B. If subpoint A has enough information that you can explain it, then it, too, should be able to be divided into two subpoints. So, division means this: If you have an A, then you need a B; if you have a 1, then you need a 2, and so on. What if you cannot divided the point? In a case like that you would simply incorporate the information in the point above. Connecting Your Main Points One way to connect points is to include transitional statements. Transitional statements are phrases or sentences that lead from one distinct- but-connected idea to another. They are used to alert the audience to the fact that you are getting ready to discuss something else. When moving from one point to another, your transition may just be a word or short phrase, known as a sign post. For instance, you might say "next," "also," or "moreover." You can also enumerate your speech points and signal transitions by starting each point with "First," "Second," "Third," et cetera. You might also incorporate non-verbal transitions, such as brief pauses or a movement across the stage. Pausing to look at your audience, stepping out from behind a podium, or even raising or lowering the rate of your voice can signal to audience members that you are transitioning. Another way to incorporate transitions into your speech is by offering internal summaries and internal previews within your speech. Summaries provide a recap of what has already been said, making it more likely that audiences will remember the points that they hear again. For example, an internal summary may sound like this: So far, we have seen that the pencil has a long and interesting history. We also looked at the many uses the pencil has that you may not have known about previously. Like the name implies, internal previews lay out what will occur next in your speech. They are longer than transitional words or signposts. Next, let us explore what types of pencils there are to pick from that will be best for your specific project. Additionally, summaries can be combined with internal previews to alert audience members that the next point builds on those that they have already heard. Now that I have told you about the history of the pencil, as well as its many uses, let's look at what types of pencils you can pick from that might be best for your project. It is important to understand that if you use an internal summary and internal preview between main points, you need to state a clear main point following the internal preview. Here's an example integrating all of the points on the pencil: I. First, let me tell you about the history of the pencil. So far we have seen that the pencil has a long and interesting history. Now, we can look at how the pencil can be used (internal summary, signpost, and internal preview). II. The pencil has many different uses, ranging from writing to many types of drawing. Now that I have told you about the history of the pencil, as well as its many uses, let's look at what types of pencils you can pick from that might be best for your project (Signpost, internal summary and preview). III. There are over fifteen different types of pencils to choose from ranging in hardness and color. Any intelligent fool can make things bigger and more complex... It takes a touch of genius - and a lot of courage to move in the opposite direction. ~ Albert Einstein Conclusion Had Meg, the student mentioned in the opening anecdote, taken some time to work through the organizational process, it is likely her speech would have gone much more smoothly when she finished her introduction. It is very common for beginning speakers to spend a great deal of their time preparing catchy introductions, fancy PowerPoint presentations, and nice conclusions, which are all very important. However, the body of any speech is where the speaker must make effective arguments, provide helpful information, entertain, and the like, so it makes sense that speakers should devote a proportionate amount of time to these areas as well. By following this chapter, as well as studying the other chapters in this text, you should be prepared to craft interesting, compelling, and organized speeches. Module Activities REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Name three questions you should ask yourself when selecting a topic. 2. What is the difference between a general and specific purpose statement? Write examples of each for each of these topics: dog training, baking a cake, climate change. 3. How does the thesis statement differ from the specific purpose statement? 4. Which speech organization style arranges points by time? Which one arranges points by direction? Which one arranges points according to a five-step sequence? 5. Which speech organization styles are best suited for persuasive speeches? 6. Define signpost. What are three types of signposts? 7. What is the correct format for a speech outline? Organizing and Outlining: Appendix A EXAMPLE PREPARATION (Full Sentence) OUTLINE SAMPLE INTRODUCTION SPEECH INTRODUCTION: Attention Getter: By looking at me, you might think I'm just a middle aged white woman, but we've all heard you shouldn't judge a book by its cover! Central Idea (Thesis): Diversity and experience have made me the person that I am, and sharing this with you will help you see beyond the surface and learn more about who I am. Credibility/Relevance: Obviously, I know myself well enough to talk about myself, but you'd be surprised how one person's experience can actually help you in your own life. Preview: First, I'm going to tell you about my background and family. Then, I'm going to tell you about the main hobbies in my life. Finally, I'm going to tell you about a really sad and scary incident that happened when I was just 19 years old. BODY: I. First, let me tell you a little about my background and family. A. I'm a first-generation American, born to parents who came to the United States from China during the late 1930's. B. I have one older brother who is in the medical field. C. I'm married to my husband of 30 years. D. I have two children: a son who lives in the UK with his family, and a daughter who is a college professor. Internal Summary/Preview: Now that you know a little about my background and family, let me tell you about my special hobbies. II. In my spare time, I have hobbies that involve party planning and crafting. A. I own enough fine China, crystal stemware, silver flatware, napkins, napkin rings, chair covers, sashes, and more to do a party for 150 people. 1. I have thrown wedding showers, baby showers, Bar and Bat Mitzvahs, and other special events like birthdays celebrating milestone years. 2. Though I don't charge for my services, maybe someday that will become a business for me. B. I also enjoy hobbies that tap into my creative side. 1. I do chalk painting, which is a special paint that is used to go over any surface. 2. I also repurpose furniture by turning a piece into something different than it was originally. Internal Summary/Preview: So, now that you know about my background and family, and my special hobbies, let me tell you about one of the scariest and saddest events in my young adult life. III. At the age of 19, I learned that a "friend" of my brother and our family, was more than he professed to be. A. After being friends for two years, we found out a terrible secret about my brother's friend Paul. 1. We thought we knew all we had to know: Paul was a Sheriff's deputy, and third year law student. 2. Paul was a friend who came over to our house all the time; and hung out with us, or sometimes just me. 3. One day we opened up the newspaper only to read that Paul had been arrested on several counts of rape, and that the "ski mask rapist" had been caught. a. He was caught coming out of the apartment of the last woman he had raped. b. He was carrying the ski mask in his hand. B. That day I learned never to judge a book by its cover. CONCLUSION: Summary: Today, I've shared a little bit about myself. I told you about my background and family, my hobbies, and about my experience in learning that things aren't always as they seem. Closing Statement: I hope next time you encounter something you think is obvious, you'll look twice before passing judgment. Organizing and Outlining: Appendix B EXAMPLE SPEAKING OUTLINE (Excluding Introduction and Conclusion) I. Background and Family A. First Generation American B. Older Brother C. Married to Scott D. Two Children E. My mom Internal Summary/Preview: Now that you know a little about my background and family, let me tell you about my special hobby. II. In my spare time, I have a hobby that centers on party planning. A. All the china, crystal, etc. I own B. Parties I have thrown. C. Possible business someday Internal Summary/Preview: So, now that you know about my background and family, and my special hobby, let me tell you about one of the scariest and saddest events in my young adult life. III. At the age of 19, I learned that a "friend" of my brother and our family, was more than he professed to be. A. Secret about Paul (his background, who he was, what he had done, how he was caught) B. Don't judge a book by its cover. Organizing and Outlining: Appendix C Since there are three sections to your speech— introduction, body, and conclusion— your outline needs to include all of them. Each of these sections is titled, but it is up to your individual instructor as to whether or not the introduction and conclusion will be outlined. Check with your instructor but note the examples below: SAMPLE OUTLINE WITH INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION NOT OUTLINED (Note: Some professors may ask for the introduction in a slightly different order.) SPEECH TITLE: How to Outline a Speech SPECIFIC PURPOSE STATEMENT: To inform my audience how they can outline a speech INTRODUCTION: Attention Getter: Tell a story about the time when outlining helped me pass an essay exam. Thesis: Tell the audience what the purpose of the speech is; what they will know or learn about when you are done. Credibility: Tell the audience why you are qualified to speak on the topic. Relevance or relationship to audience: Tell the audience why the topic is important for them to hear about. Preview: Tell the audience what main points you will cover in your speech. BODY: I. Main point I A. Subpoint 1 1. Sub-subpoint 1 2. Sub-subpoint 2 B. Subpoint 2 1. Sub-subpoint 1 2. Sub-subpoint 2 (Internal Summary/Internal Preview) II. Main point II A. Subpoint 1 1. Sub-subpoint 1 2. Sub-subpoint 2 B. Subpoint 2 1. Sub-subpoint 1 2. Sub-subpoint 2 CONCLUSION: Signal/Transition to Conclusion - This can be a verbal or nonverbal signal Restatement of Thesis and Preview - Summarize what you covered in the speech by restating what your speech purpose was and what you covered. Closing statement - You can use a technique that is used for an attention getter. This is an opportunity to be impactful and leave the audience in the proper frame of mind so that they think about what you said during the speech. SAMPLE OUTLINE WITH INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION OUTLINED SPEECH TITLE: How to outline a speech SPECIFIC PURPOSE STATEMENT: To inform my audience how they can outline a speech INTRODUCTION: I. Attention Getter - Tell a story about the time when outlining helped me pass an essay exam. II. Thesis - Tell the audience what the purpose of the speech is; what they will know or learn about when you are done. III. Credibility - Tell the audience why you are qualified to speak on the topic. IV. Relevance - Tell the audience why the topic is important for them to hear about. V. Preview - Tell the audience what main points you will cover in your speech. BODY: I. Main point I A. Subpoint 1 1. Sub-subpoint 1 2. Sub-subpoint 2 B. Subpoint 2 1. Sub-subpoint 1 2. Sub-subpoint 2 (Internal Summary/Internal Preview) II. Main point II A. Subpoint 1 1. Sub-subpoint 1 2. Sub-subpoint 2 B. Subpoint 2 1. Sub-subpoint 1 2. Sub-subpoint 2 CONCLUSION I. Signal/Transition to Conclusion - This can be a verbal or nonverbal signal II. Restatement of Thesis and Preview - Summarize what you covered in the speech by restating what your speech purpose was and what you covered. III. Closing statement - You can use a technique that is used for an attention getter. This is an opportunity to be impactful, and leave the audience in the proper frame of mind so that they think about what you said during the speech. Glossary Central Idea A one-sentence encapsulation of the main points of a speech, also called the thesis. Chronological Speech A speech in which the main points are delivered according to when they happened and could be traced on a calendar or clock. Comparative Speech A speech in which two or more objects, ideas, beliefs, events, places, or things are compared or contrasted with one another. Causal Speech A speech that informs audience members about causes and effects that have already happened. General Purpose Statement The overarching goal of a speech; for instance, to inform, to persuade, to inspire, to celebrate, to mourn, or to entertain. Internal Summaries and Previews Short descriptions of what a speaker has said and what will be said between main points. Main Points The key pieces of information or arguments contained within a talk or presentation. Organizational Styles Templates for organizing the main points of a speech that are rooted in the traditions of public discourse and can jumpstart the speechwriting process. Outline Hierarchical textual arrangement of all the various elements of a speech. Parallel Structure Main points that are worded using the same structure. Preparation Outline A full-sentence outline that is used during the planning stages to flesh out ideas, arrange main points, and to rehearse the speech; could be used as a script if presenting a manuscript style speech. Preview Statement The road map that you provide the audience of the main points you will cover during your speech. The sentences that detail what your main points will be (e.g. First, I will describe..., Second, I will explain.... Finally, I will let you know...) Refutation Speech A speech that anticipates the audience's opposition, then brings attention to the tensions between the two sides, and finally refutes them using evidential support. Signposts Words and gestures that allow you to move smoothly from one idea to the next throughout your speech, showing relationships between ideas and emphasizing important points" (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). Spatial Speech A speech in which the main points are arranged according to their physical and geographic relationships. Speaking Outline A succinct outline that uses words or short phrases to represent the components of a speech and that is used during speech delivery. Specific Purpose Statement A sentence or two that describe precisely what the speech is intended to do. Subpoints Information that is used to support the main points of a speech. Summaries Short recaps of what has already been said; used to remind the audience of the points already addressed. Thesis Statement A one-sentence encapsulation of the main points of a speech, also called the central idea. Topical Speech A speech in which main points are developed separately and are generally connected together within the introduction and conclusion. Transitional Statements Phrases or sentences that lead from one distinct-but-connected idea to another.

Chapter 14

● Explain what a persuasive speech is. ● Describe the functions of persuasive speeches. ● List the different types of persuasive speeches. ● Identify persuasive strategies that make a speech more effective. ● Apply the appropriate organizational pattern based on your persuasive goals. ● Distinguish between ethical and unethical forms of persuasion. ● Apply module concepts in final questions and activities. Introduction At the gas pump, on eggs in the grocery store, in the examination room of your doctor's office, everywhere you go, advertisers are trying to persuade you to buy their product. This form of persuasion used to be reserved for magazines and television commercials, but now it is unavoidable. One marketing research firm estimates that a person living in a large city today sees approximately 5,000 ads per day (Story, 2007). It is easy to assume that our overexposure to persuasion makes us immune to its effect, but research demonstrates that we are more susceptible than ever. In fact, advertisers have gotten even better at learning exactly the right times and places to reach us by studying different audiences and techniques (Aral & Walker, 2012; Blackman, 2009; Rodendaal, Lapierre, vanReijmersdal, Buijzen, 2011). We also encounter persuasion in our daily interactions. Imagine you stop at a café on your way to school, and the barista persuades you to try something new. While enjoying your espresso, a salesperson attempts to persuade you to upgrade your home Internet package. Later, while walking across campus, you observe students who are enthusiastically inviting others to join their organizations. Within thirty minutes, you have encountered at least three instances of persuasion, and there were likely others emanating in the background unbeknownst to you. Amidst being persuaded, you were also actively persuading others. You may have tried to convince the Internet sales person to give you a better deal and an extended contract, and later persuaded a group of friends to enjoy a night on the town. Persuasion is everywhere. What is Persuasive Speaking? You are used to experiencing persuasion in many forms, and may have an easy time identifying examples of persuasion, but can you explain how persuasion works? Osborn and Osborn define persuasion this way: "the art of convincing others to give favorable attention to our point of view" (Obsorn & Osborn, 1997). There are two components that make this definition a useful one. First, it acknowledges the artfulness, or skill, required to persuade others. Whether you are challenged with convincing an auditorium of 500 that they should sell their cars and opt for a pedestrian lifestyle or with convincing your friends to eat pizza instead of hamburgers, persuasion does not normally just happen. Rather it is planned and executed in a thoughtful manner. Second, this definition delineates the ends of persuasion—to convince others to think favorably of our point of view. Persuasion "encompasses a wide range of communication activities, including advertising, marketing, sales, political campaigns, and interpersonal relations"(German, Gronbeck, Ehninger, Monroe, 2004). Because of its widespread utility, persuasion is a pervasive part of our everyday lives. Although persuasion occurs in nearly every facet of our day-to- day lives, there are occasions when more formal acts of persuasion—persuasive speeches—are appropriate. Persuasive speeches "intend to influence the beliefs, attitudes, values, and acts of others" (O'Hair & Stewart, 1999). Unlike an informative speech, where the speaker is charged with making some information known to an audience, in a persuasive speech the speaker attempts to influence people to think or behave in a particular way. This art of convincing others is propelled by reasoned argument, the cornerstone of persuasive speeches. Reasoned arguments, which might consist of facts, statistics, personal testimonies, or narratives, are employed to motivate audiences to think or behave differently than before they heard the speech. There are particular circumstances that warrant a persuasive approach. As O'Hair and Stewart point out, it makes sense to engage strategies of persuasion when your end goal is to influence any of these things—"beliefs, attitudes, values, and acts"—or to reinforce something that already exists. For instance, safe sex advocates often present messages of reinforcement to already safe sexual actors, reminding them that wearing condoms and asking for consent are solid practices with desirable outcomes. By the same token, safer sex advocates also routinely spread the message to populations who might be likely to engage in unsafe or nonconsensual sexual behavior. In a nutshell, persuasive speeches must confront the complex challenge of influencing or reinforcing peoples' beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions, all characteristics that may seem natural, ingrained, or unchangeable to an audience. Because of this, rhetors (or speakers) must motivate their audiences to think or behave differently by presenting reasoned arguments. Functions of Persuasive Speeches So far, we have discussed the functions of persuasive speeches—to influence or reinforce—only peripherally as they relate to our working definition. Next, we turn to an in-depth discussion about how persuasive speeches function. Speeches to Convince Some persuasive speeches attempt to influence or reinforce particular beliefs, attitudes, or values. In these speeches, called speeches to convince, the speaker seeks to establish agreement about a particular topic. For instance, a climatologist who believes that global warming is caused by human behavior might try to convince an audience of government officials to adopt this belief. She might end her speech by saying, "In recent years, humans have been producing machines that expel CO2 either in their production, their consumption, or in both. At the same time, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere increased dramatically. The connection is clear to many of us that humans have caused this damage and that it is up to us to similarly intervene." Throughout her speech, the scientist would likely recite a number of statistics linking human productivity with global warming in her effort to convince the government officials that both the causes and solutions to the climatic changes were a distinctly human problem. Speeches to Actuate Other times, persuasive speeches attempt to influence or reinforce actions. Speeches to actuate are designed to motivate particular behaviors. Think of a time when you found yourself up at 2 a.m. watching infomercials. Someone on the television screen was trying very hard to sell you a $20 spatula that morphed into a spoon with the click of a button. The salesperson described its utility and innovation for your kitchen, and he described why it would be a good purchase for you—after all, how does a busy person like you have time to use two different utensils? "But wait," he would say, "there's more!" In case he had not already convinced you that you needed this kitchen tool, he ended his spiel with a final plea—an extra Spoonatula for free. In this infomercial, the salesperson attempted to convince you that you needed to buy the kitchen tool—it will save you time and money. Thus, not only was the commercial an attempt to convince you to change how you felt about spoons and spatulas, but also an effort to incite you to action—to actually purchase the Spoonatula. This illustrates a function of persuasive speeches, to motivate behavior. Types of Persuasive Speeches Persuasive speeches revolve around propositions that can be defended through the use of data and reasoning. Persuasive propositions respond to one of three types of questions: questions of fact, questions of value, and questions of policy. These questions can help the speaker determine what forms of argument and reasoning are necessary to support a specific purpose statement. Propositions of Fact Questions of fact ask whether something "can potentially be verified as either true or false| (Herrick, 2011). These questions can seem very straightforward—something is or it is not—but in reality, the search for truth is a complex endeavor. Questions of fact rarely address simple issues such as, "is the sky blue?" They tend to deal with deep-seated controversies such as the existence of global warming, the cause of a major disaster, or someone's guilt or innocence in a court of law. To answer these questions, a proposition of fact may focus on whether or not something exists. For example, there is a debate over the prevalence of racial profiling, the practice of law enforcement officers targeting people for investigation and arrest based on skin color. On one hand, the American Civil Liberties Union advances the proposition: "Racial profiling continues to be a prevalent and egregious form of discrimination in the United States" (American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 2012). They verify this claim using data from government studies, crime statistics, and personal narratives. However, journalist Heather MacDonald (2003) proposes that studies confirming racial profiling are often based in "junk science"; in fact she says, "there's no credible evidence that racial profiling exists." To substantiate her proposition, MacDonald relies on a study of traffic stops on the New Jersey turnpike along with personal narratives, policy analysis, and testimony from a criminologist. The claim that racial profiling exists is either true or false, but there is evidence for and against both propositions; therefore no consensus exists. While some propositions of fact deal with the existence of a particular phenomenon or the accuracy of a theory, others focus on causality. For example, the U.S. government appointed a commission to evaluate the causes of the nation's recent economic crisis. In their report the commission concluded by proposing that recklessness in the financial industry and failures on the part of government regulators caused the economic crisis. However, former Congressman Paul Ryan has proposed that Medicare is to blame, and the chief investment officer at JP Morgan has proposed that U.S. housing policy is the root cause of the problem( Angelides, 2011). Each of these three propositions of fact is backed by its own set of historical and economic analysis. Propositions of fact may also be used to make predictions concerning what will happen in the future. In the summer of 2011, ten miles of a popular Southern California freeway were closed for an entire weekend. Motorists, news outlets, and government officials called the closure "Carmageddon" because they proposed there would be an "inevitable and likely epic traffic tieup" (Kandel, 2011). As a result of the predictions motorists stayed off the roads and made alternative plans that weekend resulting in much lighter traffic than expected. The proposition may have been true, but the prediction was not fulfilled because people were persuaded to stay off the freeway. When advancing propositions of fact, you should focus on the evidence you can offer in support of your proposition. First, make sure that your speech contains sufficient evidence to back up your proposition. Next, take the time to interpret that evidence so that it makes sense to your audience. Last, emphasize the relationship between your evidence and your proposition as well as its relevance to the audience (Herrick, 2011). Propositions of Value Persuasive speakers may also be called to address questions of value, which call for a proposition judging the (relative) worth of something. These propositions make an evaluative claim regarding morality, aesthetics, wisdom, or desirability. For example, some vegetarians propose that eating meat is immoral because of the way that animals are slaughtered. Vegetarians may base this claim in a philosophy of utilitarianism or animal rights (DeGrazia, 2009). Sometimes a proposition of value compares multiple options to determine which is best. Consumers call for these comparisons regularly to determine which products to buy. Car buyers may look to the most recent Car and Driver "10 Best Cars" list to determine their next purchase. In labeling a car one of the best on the market for a given year, Car and Driver says that the cars "don't have to be the newest, and they don't have to be expensive . . . They just have to meet our abundant needs while satisfying our every want" (Car and Driver, 2011). Both the vegetarian and car examples offer standards for evaluating the proposition. Since propositions of value tend to be more subjective, speakers need to establish evaluation criteria by which the audience can judge and choose to align with their position. When advancing a proposition of value, offer a clear set of criteria, offer evidence for your evaluation, and apply the evidence to demonstrate that you have satisfied the evaluation criteria (Herrick, 2011). The 2005 disagreement between family members over removing a woman's feeding tube after she had been in a coma for 15 years sparked a national debate over the value of life that highlights the importance of evaluation criteria. After years of failed medical treatments and rehabilitation attempts, Terri Schiavo's husband petitioned the court to remove her feeding tube, initiating a legal battle with her parents that went all the way to the President of the United States (Cerminara & Goodman, 2012). Opposing sides in the debate both claimed to value life. To support his proposition that his wife had a right to die, Mr. Schaivo applied the evaluation criteria of quality of life and argued that she would not want to continue to live in a vegetative state (Caplan, 2005). Ms. Schiavo's parents vehemently disagreed with his argument. They also claimed to value life and, with the support of religious groups, relied on the evaluation criteria of the sanctity of life to contend that she should be kept alive (Catholic Culture, 2005). Both sides gained widespread support based on people's agreement or disagreement with their evaluation criteria. Despite intervention on behalf of both state and federal legislators, the courts eventually ruled that Mr. Schiavo had the right to have his wife's feeding tube removed and allow her to die. A policy is a temporary creed liable to be changed, but while it holds good, it has got to be pursued with apostolic zeal. ~ Mahatma Gandhi Propositions of Policy Although the Schiavo case was rooted in a question of value, the debate resulted in a question of policy. Questions of policy ask the speaker to advocate for an appropriate course of action. This form of persuasive speech is used every day in Congress to determine laws, but it is also used interpersonally to determine how we ought to behave. A proposition of policy may call for people to stop a particular behavior, or to start one. For example, some U.S. cities have started banning single use plastic bags in grocery stores. Long before official public policy on this issue was established, organizations such as The Surfrider Foundation and the Earth Resource Foundation advocated that people stop using these bags because of the damage plastic bags cause to marine life. In this case, local governments and private organizations attempted to persuade people to stop engaging in a damaging behavior— shopping with single use plastic bags. However, the organizations also attempted to persuade people to start a new behavior—shopping with reusable bags. Similarly, many restaurants have implemented a new policy of not providing straws to their customers, unless asked. Many of these straws are now environmentally friendly and no longer made of plastic. Today, students may deliver policy speeches which advocate for the use of silicone straws that can be purchased online and carried with you. These are speeches that call for true changes in policy. Choosing a Persuasive Speech Topic In order to offer a persuasive speech, you must decide precisely what it is you want to talk about, to whom you will be speaking, and to what ends you hope the speech will lead. Persuasive speeches do not normally happen within a vacuum, even in a public speaking course where that might seem to be the case. In fact, most persuasive speeches serve as a response to larger circumstances— gas prices increase dramatically and drivers cannot afford to fill up their tanks; war veterans suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and can find little governmental assistance for the necessary treatments; an election is forthcoming and candidates need to secure votes. These are just a few times when a persuasive speech would make sense. A driver might try to persuade their employer to embrace telecommuting as a response to the high rate of gasoline. Veterans with PTSD might stage speeches to a national audience imploring them to advocate for better mental health care for people who have fought in wars. And candidates, of course, will give many speeches during a campaign that tease out the various reasons they, and not another candidate, should be elected. Appendix A (at the end of the chapter) offers a lengthier list of possible topics for persuasive speaking, but keep in mind the advice that Burnett offers in Chapter 8 (public speaking: the virtual text) regarding topic selection. The topics in Appendix A are written as propositions that can be defended. Some are propositions of fact, others are propositions of value, and yet others are propositions of policy. Approaching Audiences When choosing a topic for your persuasive speech, it is crucial to consider the composition of your audience. Because persuasive speeches are intended to influence or reinforce an audience's thoughts or behaviors, speakers must consider what and how the audience thinks, feels, and does. Your audience might be ambivalent about your topic, or they may be strongly opposed, in strong agreement, or somewhere along the spectrum. In persuasive speeches, it matters where they fall on this continuum. For instance, if you want to argue that abortion should be illegal and your audience is composed of pro-life advocates, your speech might seem like you are preaching to the choir. But if your audience is made up of staunch pro-choice activists, your speech would be raising a significant objection to a set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and actions the audience was already committed to. Decaro, Adams and Jefferis offer advice for carrying out a thorough audience analysis in the other chapter of this book. Some questions you might ask before giving a speech include, "Who is hosting the speech?" Often this can provide a great deal of information about who will be in the audience. Audience members at a National Rifle Association gathering probably do not need to be convinced that the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution—the right to keep and bear arms—is worth upholding. You should also ask, "Is the audience fairly heterogeneous?" In a public speaking class, you may be able to gauge that through your interactions with your fellow classmates before you make your way to the podium; but in other settings this may not be the case. If an organization is sponsoring or has invited you to speak, this is a question that can be directed to organizational staff with access to demographic information. Some demographics that may be useful as you craft your speech include age, gender, sexual orientation, ethnic or cultural background, socioeconomic status, religion, and political affiliation. Each of these characteristics is known to influence a listener's beliefs, attitudes, values, and actions. Receptive Audiences Persuasive speakers will not generally address an audience that already fully agrees with them and is behaving in the way they would like, because that audience no longer needs to be persuaded. However, you may find yourself in situations that allow you to appeal to a receptive audience which already knows something about your topic and is generally supportive of, or open to, the point you are trying to make. For example, parents are generally interested in keeping their children safe. If you seek to persuade them that they should work with their kids to prevent them from being taken advantage of on social networking sites, they are likely to welcome what you have to say. Although they are already convinced that it is important to keep their children safe, this audience may not yet be persuaded that they have the need or ability to keep their kids safe in an online environment. In order to persuade this receptive audience, you should first attempt to foster identification with them by highlighting things you have in common. If you are a parent you might say something like, "I have two children and one of my biggest concerns is making sure they are safe." If you are not a parent you might say, "one of the things I appreciate most about my parents is that I know they are always trying to keep me safe." With these statements, you not only relate to the audience, but also demonstrate that you share a common concern. If you would persuade, you must appeal to interest rather than intellect. ~ Benjamin Franklin Next, offer a clear statement of purpose and tell the audience what you would like them to do in response to your message. If the audience is already likely to agree with your point, they will be looking for ways to act on it. Offer practical steps that they can take. Even if the steps must be carried out later (i.e. the parents in our example may have to wait to get home and start talking with their child about social networking habits), give them a way to respond to the message immediately and show their support. In this case you may have them write down the first thing they will say to their child, or practice saying it to the person next to them. Having them act on your message before leaving reinforces their already favorable response to what you are asking (Beebe & Beebe 2003). Neutral Audiences Most of the groups that a persuasive speaker addresses are neutral audiences. These audiences are not passionate about the topic or speaker, often because they do not have enough information or because they are not aware that they should be concerned. Beebe & Beebe explain that the challenge in addressing a neutral audience is to foster their interest in your proposition (Beebe & Beebe 2003). They offer a few tips for cultivating interest in a neutral audience. Begin by gaining their attention. To do this you might offer a story or statistic that relates the topic directly to the dominant demographic in the audience. If you are trying to convince first-year college students to avoid credit card solicitors on campus you might start with something like, "I know those t-shirts the credit card vendors are handing out are stylish and, best of all, free! But that t-shirt could cost you thousands of dollars before you even graduate." Rather than beginning with a diatribe on the evils of debt, which many of them may not yet have experienced, you relate to their desire for a free t-shirt and a common belief they are likely to share, that "free" should not translate to "expensive." If you cannot relate the topic directly to the audience, another approach is to relate the topic to someone they care about, like a family member or friend. Keep in mind that, while the receptive audience may be eager to respond immediately, the neutral audience may simply be more concerned about the topic or more inclined to consider the behavior change you are advocating (Beebe & Beebe 2003). In this case, consider offering resources for more information, or a few minor steps they can take when they are ready. Hostile Audiences Unfortunately, some audiences may be resistant or even hostile to your persuasive speech. A hostile audience may take issue with your topic or with you as a speaker. In this case, your primary goal is to persuade the audience to listen to what you have to say (Beebe & Beebe 2003). Once they are willing to listen, then you will have the ability to change their minds in the future. Later in this chapter we will address ways that you can foster a better relationship with the audience by building your ethos. However, if the audience is opposed to your proposition, there are a few steps that you can take to encourage them to at least hear you out. If the audience is not likely to agree with your proposition, wait until later in the speech to offer it. Opening with a clear statement of purpose, which a receptive audience welcomes, will make an unreceptive audience more hostile to your goals. For example, if you begin by telling business owners that you think they should pay workers more, they are likely to think of all the reasons that will threaten their livelihood rather than listening to your message. Instead, begin by highlighting issues on which you agree. You might open with a discussion of the challenges businesses face in attempting to retain quality workers and increase productivity. I have spent many years of my life in opposition, and I rather like the role. ~ Eleanor Roosevelt Once you have identified areas of agreement, you can offer your proposition as a way of addressing your shared goals. To promote an increase in wages, you might explain that a study of more than 10,000 workers and managers in a variety of industries demonstrated that companies who pay their workers more were also more motivated to invest in new technology, enhance their management techniques, better train workers, and better deliver their services, all of which lead to higher productivity and increased profits (Applebaum &Berhardt, 2004). Focusing on areas of agreement will make the audience more receptive to your proposition, but they will still hold some reservations. Acknowledge those reservations and demonstrate that you have given them ample consideration. Cite credible evidence that supports your proposition in light of those reservations. Showing that you understand and respect their opposing position is the most important step toward encouraging a hostile audience to at least hear you out. Persuasive Strategies Ethos In addition to understanding how your audience feels about the topic you are addressing, you will need to take steps to help them see you as credible and interesting. The audience's perception of you as a speaker is influential in determining whether or not they will choose to accept your proposition. Aristotle called this element of the speech ethos, "a Greek word that is closely related to our terms ethical and ethnic" (Campbell & Huxman, 2009). He taught speakers to establish credibility with the audience by appearing to have good moral character, common sense, and concern for the audience's well-being (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). Campbell and Huxman (2009) explain that ethos is not about conveying that you, as an individual, are a good person. It is about "mirror[ing] the characteristics idealized by [the] culture or group" (ethnic), and demonstrating that you make good moral choices with regard to your relationship within the group (ethics). While there are many things speakers can do to build their ethos throughout the speech, "assessments of ethos often reflect superficial first impressions," and these first impressions linger long after the speech has concluded (Zarefsky, 2005). This means that what you wear and how you behave, even before opening your mouth, can go far in shaping your ethos. Be sure to dress appropriately for the occasion and setting in which you speak. Also work to appear confident, but not arrogant, and be sure to maintain enthusiasm about your topic throughout the speech. Give great attention to the crafting of your opening sentences because they will set the tone for what your audience should expect of your personality as you proceed. I covered two presidents, LBJ and Nixon, who could no longer convince, persuade, or govern, once people had decided they had no credibility; but we seem to be more tolerant now of what I think we should not tolerate. ~ Helen Thomas Logos Another way to enhance your ethos, and your chances of persuading the audience, is to use sound arguments. In a persuasive speech, the argument will focus on the reasons for supporting your specific purpose statement. This argumentative approach is what Aristotle referred to as logos, or the logical means of proving an argument (Braet, 1992). When offering an argument you begin by making an assertion that requires a logical leap based on the available evidence (Campbell & Huxman 2009). One of the most popular ways of understanding how this process works was developed by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin (Herrick, 2011). Toulmin explained that basic arguments tend to share three common elements: claim, data, and warrant. The claim is an assertion that you want the audience to accept. Data refers to the preliminary evidence on which the claim is based. For example, if I saw large gray clouds in the sky, I might make the claim that "it is going to rain today." The gray clouds (data) are linked to rain (claim) by the warrant, an often unstated general connection, that large gray clouds tend to produce rain. The warrant is a connector that, if stated, would likely begin with "since" or "because." In our rain example, if we explicitly stated all three elements, the argument would go something like this: There are large gray clouds in the sky today (data). Since large gray clouds tend to produce rain (warrant), it is going to rain today (claim). However, in our regular encounters with argumentation, we tend to only offer the claim and (occasionally) the warrant. To strengthen the basic argument, you will need backing for the claim. Backing provides foundational support for the claim (Herrick, 2011) by offering examples, statistics, testimony, or other information which further substantiates the argument. To substantiate the rain argument we have just considered, you could explain that the color of a cloud is determined by how much light the water in the cloud is reflecting. A thin cloud has tiny drops of water and ice crystals which scatter light, making it appear white. Clouds appear gray when they are filled with large water droplets which are less able to reflect light (Brill, 2003). Table 16.1: The Toulmin Model Basic Argument DATA CLAIM A hard time finding a place to park on campus The school needs more parking spaces WARRANT If I can't find a place to park, there must be a shortage of spaces Argument with Backing DATA CLAIM Obesity is a serious problem in the U.S. U.S. Citizens should be encouraged to eat less processed foods. WARRANT Processed foods contribute to obesity more than natural or unprocessed foods. BACKING "As a rule processed foods are more 'energy dense' than fresh foods: they contain less water and fiber but more added fat and sugar, which makes them both less filling and more fattening." (Pollan, 2007) The elements that Toulmin identified (see Table above) may be arranged in a variety of ways to make the most logical argument. As you reason through your argument you may proceed inductively, deductively, or causally, toward your claim (See chapter 13). To review, inductive reasoning moves from specific examples to a more general claim. For example, if you read online reviews of a restaurant chain called Walt's Wine & Dine and you noticed that someone reported feeling sick after eating at a Walt's, and another person reported that the Walt's they visited was understaffed, and another commented that the tables in the Walt's they ate at had crumbs left on them, you might conclude (or claim) that the restaurant chain is unsanitary. To test the validity of a general claim, Beebe and Beebe encourage speakers to consider whether there are "enough specific instances to support the conclusion," whether the specific instances are typical, and whether the instances are recent (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). The opposite of inductive reasoning is deductive reasoning, moving from a general principle to a claim regarding a specific instance. In order to move from general to specific we tend to use syllogisms. If you recall, a syllogism begins with a major (or general) premise, then moves to a minor premise, then concludes with a specific claim. For example, if you know that all dogs bark (major premise), and your neighbor has a dog (minor premise), you could then conclude that your neighbor's dog barks (specific claim). To verify the accuracy of your specific claim, you must verify the truth and applicability of the major premise. What evidence do you have that all dogs bark? Is it possible that only most dogs bark? Next, you must also verify the accuracy of the minor premise. If the major premise is truly generalizable, and both premises are accurate, your specific claim should also be accurate. Your reasoning may also proceed causally. Causal reasoning examines related events to determine which one caused the other. You may begin with a cause and attempt to determine its effect. For example, when the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, scientists explained that because many animals in the Gulf were nesting and reproducing at the time, the spill could wipe out "an entire generation of hundreds of species" (Donovan, 2010). Their argument reasoned that the spill (cause) would result in species loss (effect). Two years later, the causal reasoning might be reversed. If we were seeing species loss in the Gulf (effect), we could reason that it was a result of the oil spill (cause). Both of these claims rely on the evidence available at the time. To make the first claim, scientists not only offered evidence that animals were nesting and reproducing, but they also looked at the effects of an oil spill that occurred 21 years earlier in Alaska (Donovan, 2010). To make the second claim, scientists could examine dead animals washing up on the coast to determine whether their deaths were caused by oil. Pathos While we have focused heavily on logical reasoning, we must also recognize the strong role that emotions play in the persuasive process. Aristotle called this element of the speech pathos. Pathos draws on the emotions, sympathies, and prejudices of the audience to appeal to their non-rational side (Beebe & Beebe, 2003; Reike, Sillars, Peterson, 2009). Human beings are constantly in some emotional state, which means that tapping into an audience's emotions can be vital to persuading them to accept your proposition (Dillard & Meijnders, 2002). One of the most helpful strategies in appealing to your audience's emotions is to use clear examples that illustrate your point. Illustrations can be crafted verbally, nonverbally, or visually. To offer a verbal illustration, you could tell a compelling story. For example, when fundraising for breast cancer research, Nancy Brinker, creator of Susan G. Komen for the Cure, has plenty of compelling statistics and examples to offer. Yet, she regularly talks about her sister, explaining: Susan G. Komen fought breast cancer with her heart, body and soul. Throughout her diagnosis, treatments, and endless days in the hospital, she spent her time thinking of ways to make life better for other women battling breast cancer instead of worrying about her own situation. That concern for others continued even as Susan neared the end of her fight. Brinker promised her sister that she would continue her fight against breast cancer. This story compels donors to join her fight. Speakers can also tap into emotions using nonverbal behaviors to model the desired emotion for their audience. In the summer of 2012, the U.S. House of Representatives debated holding the Attorney General in contempt for refusing to release documents concerning a controversial gun-tracking operation. Arguing for a contempt vote, South Carolina Representative Trey Gowdy did not simply state his claim; instead he raised his voice, slowed his pace, and used hand motions to convey anger with what he perceived as deception on the part of the Attorney General (Gowdy, 2012). His use of volume, tone, pace, and hand gestures enhanced the message and built anger in his audience. Speech is power: speech is to persuade, to convert, to compel. It is to bring another out of his bad sense into your good sense. ~ Ralph Waldo Emerson In addition to verbal and nonverbal illustrations, visual imagery can enhance the emotional appeal of a message. For example, we have all heard about the dangers of drugs, and there are multiple campaigns that attempt to prevent people from even trying them. However, many young adults experiment with drugs under the assumption that they are immune from the negative effects if they only use the drug recreationally. To counter this assumption regarding methamphetamines, the Montana Meth project combines controversial statements with graphic images on billboards to evoke fear of the drug (see the Montana Meth Project for some disturbing examples). Young adults may have heard repeated warnings that meth is addictive and that it has the potential to cause sores, rotten teeth, and extreme weight loss, but Montana Meth Project's visual display is more compelling because it turns the audience's stomach, making the message memorable. This image, combined with the slogan, "not even once," conveys the persuasive point without the need for other forms of evidence and rational argument. Appeals to fear, like those in the Montana Meth Project ads, have proven effective in motivating people to change a variety of behaviors. However, speakers must be careful with their use of this emotion. Fear appeals tend to be more effective when they appeal to a high-level fear, such as death, and they are more effective when offered by speakers with a high level of perceived credibility (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). Fear appeals are also more persuasive when the speaker can convince the audience they have the ability to avert the threat. If audiences doubt their ability to avoid or minimize the threat, the appeal may backfire (Witte & Allen, 2000). I would rather try to persuade a man to go along, because once I have persuaded him, he will stick. If I scare him, he will stay just as long as he is scared, and then he is gone. ~ Dwight D. Eisenhower All of Aristotle's strategies, ethos, logos, and pathos, are interdependent. The most persuasive speakers will combine these strategies to varying degrees based on their specific purpose and audience. Ethics of Persuasion In addition to considering their topic and persuasive strategy, speakers must take care to ensure that their message is ethical. Persuasion is often confused with another kind of communication that has similar ends, but different methods—coercion. Like persuasion, coercion is a process whereby thoughts or behaviors are altered. But in coercive acts, deceptive or harmful methods propel the intended changes, not reason. Strong and Cook contrasted the two: "persuasion uses argument to compel power to give way to reason while coercion uses force to compel reason to give way to power" (Strong & Cook, 1992). The "force" that Strong and Cook mention frequently manifests as promises for reward or punishment, but sometimes it arises as physical or emotional harm. Think of almost any international crime film you have seen, and you are likely to remember a scene where someone was compelled to out their compatriots by way of force. Jack Bauer, the protagonist in the American television series 24, became an infamous character by doing whatever it took to get captured criminals to talk. Although dramatic as an example, those scenes where someone is tortured in an effort to produce evidence offer a familiar reference when thinking about coercion. To avoid coercing an audience, speakers should use logical and emotional appeals responsibly. Persuasive speakers must be careful to avoid using fallacies in their reasoning (See Chapter 13). There are some positive steps you can take to avoid these pitfalls of persuasive speaking and ensure that you are presenting your message in the most ethical manner. We have already discussed some of these, such as offering credible evidence for your arguments and showing concern for the audience's wellbeing. However, you should also offer a transparent goal for your speech. Even with a hostile audience, where you may wait until later in the speech to provide the specific purpose statement, you should be forthcoming about your specific purpose. In fact, be truthful with your audience throughout the speech.It is appropriate to use fictional scenarios to demonstrate your point, but tell the audience that is what you are doing. You can accomplish this by introducing fictional examples with the phrase, "hypothetically," or "imagine," to signal that you are making it up (Herrick, 2011). Additionally, be sure to offer a mix of logical and emotional appeals. Blending these strategies insures that you have evidence to back up emotional claims, and that you are sensitive to the audiences' emotional reactions to your logical claims. Attending to both aspects will help you be more ethical and more persuasive. The most important persuasion tool you have in your entire arsenal is integrity. ~ Zig Ziglar Organizing Persuasive Messages Once you have selected your topic, know who your audience is, and have settled on an end goal for your persuasive speech, you can begin drafting your speech. Outlines are organized according to the particular speech, and the following organizational patterns are used routinely for persuasive speeches. Monroe's Motivated Sequence Pattern Monroe's Motivated Sequence is an organizational pattern that attempts to convince the audience to respond to a need that is delineated in the speech. Five separate steps characterize the Motivated Sequence organization style: 1. The attention step should get the audience's attention as well as describe your goals and preview the speech. 2. The need step should provide a description of the problem as well as the consequences that may result if the problem goes unresolved. In this step, the speaker should also alert audience members to their role in mitigating the issue. 3. The satisfaction step is used to outline your solutions to the problems you have previously outlined as well as deal with any objections that may arise. 4. In the visualization step, audience members are asked to visualize what will happen if your solutions are implemented and what will happen if they do not come to fruition. Visualizations should be rich with detail. 5. The action appeal step should be used to make a direct appeal for action. In this step, you should describe precisely how the audience should react to your speech and how they should carry out these actions. As the final step, you should also offer a concluding comment. The following example illustrates a Monroe's Motivated Sequence Pattern: I. Attention Step A. When was the last time you saw a dog chained to a tree in a neighbor's yard, heard about a puppy mill in your town, or went into a pet store only to find dogs and cats for sale? B. I work with the Morris County Animal Protection Group, and I would like to share some ways in which you can help prevent these travesties. C. First, I will describe some of the major problems in Morris County, and then I will tell you how you can get involved. II. Need step: Many animals in Morris County are abused and neglected. A. There are too many stray animals that are neither spayed nor neutered, resulting in an overabundance of cats and dogs. B. These animals often cannot find enough food to survive, and the local shelter cannot accommodate such high populations. C. The cost of local spay/neuter programs is too high for our agency to handle. III. Satisfaction step: Raising $1 million for the Morris County Animal Protection Agency can effectively solve these problems. A. We could afford to spay or neuter most stray animals. B. Obtained animals could be fed and accommodated until a home can be secured for them. C. Additionally, we could subsidize spay/neuter costs for local citizens. IV. Visualization step: Imagine what we can do for our animals with this money. A. What will it be like if we can carry out these actions? B. What will it be like if we cannot do these things? V. Action appeal step: Donate to the Morris County Animal Protection Agency. A. If you want to help protect the many struggling stray animals in Morris County, make a donation to our organization. B. Your donation will make a real difference in the lives of our animals. C. We cannot effect real change for the animals of our county without each and every one of you. Problem-Solution Pattern Sometimes it is necessary to share a problem and a solution with an audience. In cases like these, the problem-solution speech is an appropriate way to arrange the main points of a speech. Problems can exist at a local, state, national, or global level. It's important to reflect on what is of interest to you, but is also critical to engage your audience. Today, the nation has become much more aware of the problem of human sex trafficking. Although we have been aware that this has been a global problem for some time, many communities are finally learning that this problem is occurring in their own backyards. Colleges and universities have become involved in the fight. Student clubs and organizations are getting involved and bringing awareness to this problem. Let's look at how you might organize a problem-solution speech centered on this problem. Topic: Human Sex Trafficking Thesis (Central Idea): Human sex trafficking is no longer a problem that exists on a global level, but it has hit us here where we live with at least two girls being kidnapped and sold into sex slavery each month. Preview: First, I will define and explain the extent of the problem of sex trafficking within our community while examining the effects this has on the victims, and then I will offer possible solutions that will take the predators off the streets and allow the victims to get their lives back. I. The problem of human sex trafficking is best understood by looking at the methods by which traffickers kidnap, or lure their victims into this life, how severe the problem has become, and how it impacts the victims. II. The problem of human sex trafficking can be solved by changing the laws currently in place for prosecuting the pimps, working with local law enforcement and advocacy groups that help rescue and restore victims, and raising funds to help agencies and victims. Of course, you would research the topic and develop your subpoints and sub-subpoints for each main point in this example. Claim-to-Proof Pattern A claim to proof approach basically provides the audience with a statement of reasons for the acceptance of a speech proposition. The policy is presented at the beginning of the speech, and in the preview the audience is told how many reasons they will be provided for the claim, but not what those reasons are. Why not? We will be using fact claims and value claims to support our overall policy, and some of the value claims can often be the source of a hotbed issue. If it is revealed before the speaker has had time to defend it, the audience can shut down and stop listening. So, do not reveal too much information until you get to that point in your speech. For example, I once had a student do s policy speech on handguns. We all hear stories on the news about someone who is killed by a handgun, but it is not everyday that it affects us directly, or that we know someone who is affected by it. My student had a cousin who was killed in a drive by shooting, and he was not even a member of a gang. Here is how the set up for this speech would look: Central Idea (Thesis) and Policy Claim: Handgun ownership in America continues to be a controversial subject, as some people feel it is their constitutional right to own handguns, however, I believe that private ownership of handguns should be illegal. Preview: I will provide you with three reasons why handgun ownership should be illegal. When presenting the reasons for accepting the claim, it is important to consider the use of primacy-recency. If the audience is against your claim, put your most important argument first. In this example, most of the class believed in gun ownership, so here is an example of how the first main point may be written to try and capture the audience quickly and hold their attention. I. The first reason why private ownership of handguns should be illegal is because handguns are used to kill people at an alarming rates during the commission of a crime. II. A second reason why private ownership of handguns should be illegal is because handguns can be easily found in homes, leading to the accidental and unnecessary death of children. Moving forward, the speaker would select one or two other reasons to bring into the speech and support them with evidence. The decision on how many main points to have will depend on how much time you have, and how much research you are able to find on the topic. If this is a pattern your instructor allows, speak with him or her about sample outlines. Conclusion The primary goal of persuasive speaking is to influence an audience's beliefs or behaviors so that they can make necessary or positive change. Persuasive speaking is a vital skill in all areas of life, whether it is a political candidate convincing voters to elect them, an employee convincing the boss to give them a promotion, or a sales person convincing a consumer to buy a product, individuals must understand what persuasion is and how it functions. When formulating a persuasive speech, remember to determine the type of question you seek to answer so that you can decide whether to offer a proposition of fact, a proposition of value, or a proposition of policy. Weave the topic and the proposition together to create a compelling argument for your specific audience. Knowing your audience can help when it comes to choosing the appropriate strategies for convincing them that you are a credible speaker. Once you have established your credibility, you can advance both logical and emotional appeals to move your audience toward the belief or behavior you hope they will adopt. As you weave these appeals together, be sure to offer the most ethical arguments by avoiding fallacies and supporting emotional appeals with relevant evidence. Once you have compiled the most relevant arguments and emotional appeals for a given audience, take care to organize your message effectively. Give thought to your persuasive goals and determine whether they can be best achieved through the use of one of the patterns of organization explained in this chapter. Module Activities REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Early in the chapter the prevalence of persuasion was discussed. Think of an instance in which you knew you were being persuaded. What were you being persuaded to do? Was the persuader focused on changing your beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions? How do you know? 2. Imagine you are giving a persuasive speech on _________________ [you fill in the blank]. Draft a specific purpose statement on this topic for a speech to convince. Next, draft a specific purpose statement on the same topic for a speech to actuate. 3. Draft a proposition of fact, proposition of value, and proposition of policy for one or more of the following topics: a. Shortening class time b. Pro-anorexia images on social networking sites c. Airline fees 4. You have been invited to speak to administrators about increasing alumni support for the school. What steps will you take to build your ethos for this audience? What logical appeals will you make? How will you appeal to their emotions? 5. Imagine you are giving a speech in which you hope to convince audience members to begin retirement planning while they are still in their twenties. Which of the organizational patterns described above best fits this topic? Why? Describe its advantages over the other organization styles for the specific purpose. ACTIVITIES 1. Using a recent newspaper, locate an example of a proposition of fact, a proposition of value, and a proposition of policy, and underline each one. Then, see if you can locate the data, warrant, and backing for each of these claims. If you cannot locate one or more of the elements, write your own based on the information provided in the article. 2. Two organizations, Mercy For Animals (MFA) and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), sponsor billboard advertisements to advocate that people transition to a vegetarian diet.MFA: http://www.mercyforanimals.org/advertisements.aspx PETA: http://www.peta.org/mediacenter/ads/Outdoor-Ads-Vegetarianism.aspx Examine the billboards from each organization and consider the following: a. What logical claims are advanced by each organization's billboards? b. Are there any logical fallacies on the billboards? c. What emotional appeals are used on the billboards? d. Are any of the emotional appeals unethical? If so, why? e. Which is the more ethically persuasive campaign? Why? Glossary Argument A proposition supported by one or more reasons or pieces of evidence. Backing Foundational evidence which supports a claim, such as examples, statistics, or testimony. Causal reasoning Examines related events to determine which one caused the other. Claim The proposition you want the audience to accept. Coercion A process whereby thoughts or behaviors are altered through deceptive or harmful methods. Data Preliminary evidence on which a claim is based. Deductive Reasoning The process of formulating an argument by moving from a general premise to a specific conclusion. Demographics Statistical information that reflects the make-up of a group, often including age, sex, ethnic or cultural background, socioeconomic status, religion, and political affiliation. Ethos The audience's perception of a speaker's credibility and moral character. Evaluation Criteria A set of standards for judging the merit of a proposition. Fallacies Errors in reasoning that occur when a speaker fails to use appropriate or applicable evidence for their argument. Hostile Audience An audience that is opposed to the speaker or to the persuasive proposition. Identification A connection that is fostered between the speaker and their audience by highlighting shared attributes or attitudes. Inductive Reasoning The process of formulating an argument by moving from specific instances to a generalization. Logos The logical means of proving an argument. Monroe's Motivated Sequence An organizational pattern that attempts to convince the audience to respond to a need that is delineated in the speech through five sequential steps. Neutral Audience An audience that is neither open nor opposed to the persuasive proposition. Pathos The use of emotional appeals to persuade an audience. Persuasion The art of influencing or reinforcing people's beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions. Persuasive Speeches Speeches which aim to convince an audience to think or behave in a particular way. Problem-Solution Speech A speech in which problems and solutions are presented alongside one another with a clear link between a problem and its solution. Proposition of Fact An argument that seeks to establish whether something is true or false. Proposition of Policy An argument that seeks to establish an appropriate course of action. Proposition of Value An argument that seeks to establish the relative worth of something. Monroe's Motivated Sequence An organization style that is designed to motivate the audience to take a particular action and is characterized by a five-step sequence: (1) attention, (2) need, (3) satisfaction, (4), visualization, and (5) action appeal. Receptive Audience An audience that is generally supportive of, or open to, the persuasive proposition. Speeches to Actuate Persuasive speeches which seek to change or motivate particular behaviors. Speeches to Convince Persuasive speeches which seek to establish agreement about a particular topic. Status Quo The current situation. Syllogisms Reasoning beginning with a major premise, then moving to a minor premise, before establishing a specific claim. Warrant The (often unstated) connection between data and claim.

Chapter 9

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ● Identify when and how visual aids will enhance a presentation ● Identify the different types of visual aids ● Identify effective and ineffective use of visual aids ● Apply basic design principles to slide design ● Identify best practices to incorporating visual aids in a presentation Introduction It seems nearly impossible to see a presentation that doesn't revolve around a lengthy PowerPoint, so much so that you might think it was a requirement for giving a speech. The phrase "death by PowerPoint" was coined in response to the ubiquitous, wordy, and intellectually deadening presentations that focus on the slides rather than the content or the presenter. With the speaker reading directly from the slides, or worse, showing slides with text so small that it can't be read, viewers are often left wondering what the need for the presentation is at all. A simple handout would convey the message and save everyone's time. PowerPoint, however, is just one of the visual aids available to you as a speaker. Your ability to incorporate the right visual aid at the right time and in the right format can have a powerful effect on your audience. Because your message is the central focus of your speech, you only want to add visual aids that enhance your message, clarify the meaning of your words, target the emotions of your audience, and/or show what words fail to clearly describe. A visual image is a simple thing, a picture that enters the eyes. ~ Roy H. Williams Learning how to create effective visuals that resonate with your audience is important for a quality presentation. Understanding basic principles of how visual information is processed alone and in combination with audio information can make or break your visuals' effectiveness and impact. Incorporating visuals into your speech that complement your words rather than stand in place of them or distract from them, will set you apart from other presenters, increase your credibility, and make a bigger and more memorable impact on your audience. Effective Visual Aids Before you just open up PowerPoint and begin creating slides, you should stop for a moment and consider what type of visual aid will best serve your purpose and if you even need an aid at all. Select a visual aid that adds to your presentation in a meaningful way, not merely something pretty to look at or a substitute for thorough preparation. Visuals are not there for you to hide behind when you are in front of your audience. Because of the tendency for novice speakers to use visuals as a crutch in their speeches, it has even been suggested that beginner speakers be forbidden from using visual aids Visual aids serve a unique role in a presentation, and you should consider the specific purpose and desired outcome of your speech when determining if, when, to what extent, and in what format you use visual aids. Visuals can spark interest, build emotional connections, clarify your words, explain abstract ideas, help draw conclusions, or increase understanding. For instance, a speaker may show a stack of books to represent the amount of data storage in a speech about the evolution of computers; or demonstrate the proper use of ear plugs by distributing ear plugs, showing how to insert them, and then blasting an air horn in a speech about preventing hearing loss in order to make the value of ear protection more memorable and concrete. Done well—simple, visible, relevant, memorable, and audience-focused— visual aids can have a profound impact on your audience and your overall message. Visual aids can be an important part of conveying your message effectively since people learn far more by hearing and seeing than through hearing or seeing alone (Reynolds, 2008). The brain processes verbal and visual information separately. By helping the audience build visual and verbal memories, they are more likely to be able to remember the information at a later time (Williams, 2004). If you can find a visual aid to complement what you are saying, you will help your audience understand the information you are presenting and remember your message. For example, a speaker might show the proper and improper ways to bow when being introduced in Japan while at the same time talking about the movements and also displaying a slide with the appropriate angles and postures for bowing. By using multiple modes in concert with each other, the message is strengthened by the pairing of words, images, and movement. Not just any visual will do, however. Each visual should be relevant to your message, convey an important point, be clearly understandable, and be visible by your entire audience. Visuals should be used to make concepts easier to understand and to reinforce your message. They should illustrate important points that are otherwise hard to understand (Kosslyn, 2007). Types of Visual Aids For many people, the term "visual aids" for presentations or speeches is synonymous with PowerPoint, but this is just one type of visual aid. You should consider all the available options to determine what will be most effective and appropriate for your presentation. If you wear clothes that don't suit you, you're a fashion victim. You have to wear clothes that make you look better. ~ Vivienne Westwood Personal Appearance Some people chose to dress up as part of their presentation, and this can help set the tone of the speech or reinforce a specific point. A speaker may choose to wear a handmade sweater in a talk about knitting in order to inspire others to begin the hobby. Another speaker may opt for a firefighter's uniform in a speech about joining the local volunteer fire department in an effort to appeal to the respect most people have for people in uniform. If you aren't dressing in relation to your topic, you should dress appropriately for your audience and venue. A presentation to a professional audience or at a professional conference would lend itself to appropriate business attire. If you are giving a presentation to your local Girl Scout troop, more casual clothing may be the best choice. Any time you are doing a demonstration, make sure you are dressed appropriately to give the demonstration. It is difficult for a speaker to show how to correctly put on a rock climbing harness if she is wearing a skirt the day of the presentation. Your dress, mannerisms, the way you greet the audience when they are arriving, how you are introduced, and the first words out of your mouth all impact your credibility and ability to connect with your audience. Make sure you are calm and welcoming to your audience when they arrive and greet them in a professional manner. Objects and Props Objects and props, such as a bicycle helmet for a speech on bike safety or an actual sample of the product you are trying to sell, can greatly enhance your presentation. Seeing the actual item will often make it easier for your audience to understand your meaning and will help you connect with your audience on an emotional level. Props can be used as part of demonstrations (discussed below) or as a stand-alone item that you refer to in your speech. There are several important considerations for using props in your presentation. If you have a large audience, showing the prop at the front of the venue may mean that audience members can't see the item. The alternative to this is to pass the item around, though Young and Travis (2008) advise caution in passing objects around during your speech, as most people will be seeing the object after you have moved on with your talk. Having your prop out of sync with your presentation, either as it is passed around disrupting your audience's attention or by having your prop visible when you aren't talking about it, is distracting to your audience and message. To make the most effective use of props in your presentation, carefully consider how the object will be visible to your entire audience when you are speaking about it, and make sure it is out of sight when you are not. Demonstration A demonstration can serve two different purposes in a speech. First, it can be used to "wow" the audience. Showing off the features of your new product, illustrating the catastrophic failure of a poorly tied climbing knot, or launching a cork across the room during a chemistry experiment are all ways of capturing the audience's attention. Demonstration should not be gimmicky, but should add value to your presentation. When done well, it can be a memorable moment from your speech, so make sure it reinforces the central message of your talk. Demonstration can also be used to show how something is done. People have different learning styles, and a process demonstration can help visual learners better understand the concept being taught. Consider for a moment the difference between reading the instructions on how to perform CPR, watching someone perform CPR, and trying CPR on the training dummy. As evidenced by the huge number of online videos illustrating how to do something, there is great value in watching while you learn a new task. Posters and Flip Charts If you are presenting to a small audience, around a dozen people, you may choose to use a poster rather than PowerPoint. The focus of your poster should be to support your core message and can be left behind to remind those in attendance of your presentation after you have left. Posters should look professional (e.g., not handwritten) and be visible to everyone in the room. Other text-based visual aids include white boards and flip charts. Both can be used to write or draw on during the presentation and should be used with several caveats. Writing during your presentation actually takes away from your speaking time, so make sure to factor this into your speaking time. Speaking and writing at the same time can be tricky because the audience will have a difficult time processing what they are hearing when they are also trying to read what you write. Additionally, if you are writing, you need to be careful not to turn your back on your audience, which makes it harder for them to hear you and for you to connect with your audience. The soul never thinks without a picture. ~ Aristotle Audio and Video A large amount of digitized audio and video is now available to be included and embedded in your presentation. Select short clips; Young and Travis (2008) recommend only 10-20 seconds, but this will depend in part on the length of the presentation, the purpose of the presentation, and clip content and relevance. You should not have a presentation primarily composed of audio/video clips. Select only clips that reinforce the message or serve as an appropriate segue into your next topic. When including audio or video in your speech, there are several technical considerations. It is important that the clip be properly cued to start at exactly where you want it to begin playing. It distracts from both your audience's attention and your credibility when you are fumbling with technology during a speech. It is also important that your file format can be played on the computer you are using. Since not all computers will play all file formats, be sure to test playability and audio volume before your presentation. Again, going back to providing a professional appearance from your first interaction with your audience, you should iron out the technical details before they enter the room. As with a demonstration, if your clip isn't playing properly, move on rather than attempt to correct the issue. Fumbling with technology is a waste of your audience's valuable time. Handouts There are many schools of thought on the use of handouts during a presentation. The most common current practice is that the presenters provide a copy of their PowerPoint slides to the participants before or after the presentation. Despite this prevailing trend, you should avoid using your slides as handouts because they serve different purposes. Using your presentation slides as the handout both shortchanges your slides and fails as a handout. Handouts are best used to supplement the content of your talk. If you are providing statistical data, your slide may only show the relevant statistic focusing on the conclusion you want your audience to draw. Your handout, on the other hand, can contain the full table of data. If you need to show a complex diagram or chart, a handout will be more legible than trying to cram all that information on a slide. Since you need to simplify the data to make it understandable on a slide, the handout can contain the evidence for your message in a way that is legible, detailed, complex, and shows respect for the audience's time and intelligence (Reynolds, 2008). You don't need to include everything in your talk, and you don't need to pack all your information into your slides. Write a handout document with as much detail as you want and keep the slides simple. Presenters often feel the need to display all the data and information they have so they will appear knowledgeable, informed, and thoroughly prepared. You can help ease this feeling by creating a handout with all of the detailed data you wish, which leaves your slides open to focus on your key message (Mayer, 2001). There are many true statements about complex topics that are too long to fit on a PowerPoint slide. ~ Edward Tufte When to distribute handouts is also heavily debated. So common is the practice of providing handouts at the beginning of a presentation that it may seem wrong to break the convention. It is important to understand, however, that if people have paper in front of them while you are speaking, their attention will be split between the handout, your other visual aids, and your words. To counter this, you might consider distributing handouts as they are needed during the presentation and allowing time for people to review them before continuing on (Reynolds, 2008). This may not be a viable option for shorter presentations, and the interruption in the flow of the presentation may be hard to recover from. Unless having the documents in front of your audience is absolutely critical to the success of the presentation, handouts should be distributed at the end of the presentation. Slideware Slideware is a generic term for the software used to create and display slide shows such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple iWorks Keynote, Google Drive Presentation, Zoho Show, and others. Composed of individual slides, collectively known as the slide deck, slideware is a de facto standard for presentation visual aids despite criticisms and complaints about the format. In truth, the problem is not with the software but in the use of the program. The focus of much of the remainder of this chapter will be suggestions and best practices for creating effective slide decks that will be high impact and avoid many of the complaints of slideware detractors. Before this discussion, there is one distinct slideware presentation styles that should be mentioned. A picture is a poem without words. ~ Horace Prezi While not quite slideware, Prezi is digital presentation software that breaks away from the standard slide deck presentation. It requires users to plot out their themes before adding primarily image-focused content (Williams, 2004). Instead of flipping through the slide deck, the presenter zooms in and out of the presentation to visually demonstrate connections not available in other slideware. The design of the software lends itself toward more rapidly changing visuals. This helps to keep the viewer engaged but also lends itself to over-populating the blank canvas with images (Kadavy, 2011). Prezi's fast moving images and, at times, unusual movement can make users dizzy or disoriented. Careful work is needed during planning and practice so that the point of the talk isn't the wow factor of the Prezi software, but that your visuals enhance your presentation. The best way to learn more about this emerging tool is to visit the Prezi website to view examples. If opting to use Prezi in a corporate environment, you should strongly consider one of the paid options for the sole purpose of removing the Prezi logo from the presentation. Slideware Design Principles Slide and slide show design have a major impact on your ability to get your message across to your audience. Numerous books address various design fundamentals and slide design, but there isn't always consensus on what is "best." What research has shown, though, is that people have trouble grasping information when it comes at them simultaneously. "They will either listen to you or read your slides; they cannot do both" (Reynolds, 2008). This leaves you, the presenter, with a lot of power to direct or scatter your audience's attention. This section will serve as an overview of basic design considerations that even novices can use to improve their slides. First and foremost, design with your audience in mind. Your slide show is not your outline. The slide show is also not your handout. As discussed earlier, you can make a significantly more meaningful, content-rich handout that complements your presentation if you do not try to save time by making a slide show that serves as both. Keep your slides short, create a separate handout if needed, and write as many notes for yourself as you need. All decisions, from the images you use to their placement, should be done with a focus on your message, your medium, and your audience. Each slide should reinforce or enhance your message, so make conscious decisions about each element and concept you include and edit mercilessly. Providing the right amount of information, neither too much nor too little, is one of the key aspects in effective communication (Kosslyn, 2007). The foundation of this idea is that if the viewers have too little information, they must struggle to put the pieces of the presentation together. Most people, however, include too much information (e.g., slides full of text, meaningless images, overly complicated charts), which taxes the audience's ability to process the message. "There is simply a limit to a person's ability to process new information efficiently and effectively" Reynolds, 2008). As a presenter, reducing the amount of information directed at your audience (words, images, sounds, etc.) will help them to better remember your message (Mayer, 2001). In this case, less is actually more. The first strategy to keeping it simple is to include only one concept or idea per slide. If you need more than one slide, use it, but don't cram more than one idea on a slide. While many have tried to limit the number of slides you need based on the length of your talk, there is no formula that works for every presentation. Use only the number of slides necessary to communicate your message, and make sure the number of slides corresponds to the amount of time allotted for your speech. Practice with more and fewer slides and more and less content on each slide to find a balance between too much information and too little. Slide Layout It is easy to simply open up your slideware and start typing in the bullet points that outline your talk. If you do this, you will likely fall into the traps for which PowerPoint is infamous. Presentation design experts Reynolds (2008) and Duarte (2010) both recommend starting with paper and pen. This will help you break away from the text-based, bullet-filled slide shows we all dread. Instead, consider how you can turn your words and concepts into images. Don't let the software lead you into making a mediocre slide show. Regarding slide design, focus on simplicity. Don't overcrowd your slide with text and images. Cluttered slides are hard to understand. Leaving empty space, also known as white space, gives breathing room to your design. The white space actually draws attention to your focus point and makes your slide appear more elegant and professional. Using repetition of color, font, images, and layout throughout your presentation will help tie all of your slides together. This is especially important if a group is putting visuals together collaboratively. A common layout design is called the rule of thirds. If you divide the screen using two imaginary lines horizontally and two vertically, you end up with nine sections. The most visually interesting and pleasing portions of the screen will be at the point where the lines intersect. Feel free to experiment with the right and left aligned content for contrast and interest. Backgrounds and Effects PowerPoint and other slideware has a variety of templates containing backgrounds that are easy to implement for a consistent slide show. Most of them, however, contain distracting graphics that are counter to the simplicity you are aiming for in order to produce a clear message. It is best to use solid colors, if you even need a background at all. For some slide shows, you can make the slides with full-screen images, thus eliminating the need for a background color. Graphic design is the paradise of individuality, eccentricity, heresy, abnormality, hobbies and humors. ~ George Santayana Should you choose to use a background color, make sure you are consistent throughout your presentation. Different colors portray different meanings, but much of this is cultural and contextual, so there are few hard and fast rules about the meaning of colors. One universal recommendation is to avoid the color red because it has been shown to reduce your ability to think clearly. Bright colors, such as yellow, pink, and orange, should also be avoided as background colors, as they are too distracting. When designing your presentation, it is tempting to show off your tech skills with glitzy transitions, wipes, fades, moving text, sounds, and a variety of other actions. These are distracting to your audience and should be avoided. They draw attention away from you and your message, instead focusing the audience's attention on the screen. Since people naturally look at what is moving and expect it to mean something, meaningless effects, no matter how subtle, distract your audience, and affect their ability to grasp the content. Make sure that all your changes are meaningful and reinforce your message. Colors Much of what we perceive in terms of a color is based on what color is next to it. Be sure to use colors that contrast so they can be easily distinguished from each other (think yellow and dark blue for high contrast, not dark blue and purple).High contrast improves visibility, particularly at a distance. Tints (pure color mixed with white, think pink) stand out against a darker background. Shades (pure color mixed with black, think maroon) recede into a light background. If you want something to stand out, these color combination rules can act as a guide. Avoid using red and green closely together. Red-green color blindness is the predominate form of color blindness, meaning that the person cannot distinguish between those two colors (Vorick, 2011). There are other forms of color blindness, and you can easily check to see if your visuals will be understandable to everyone using an online tool such as the Coblis Color Blindness Simulator to preview images as a color-blindperson would see it. Certain red-blue pairings can be difficult to look at for the non- color blind. These colors appear to vibrate when adjacent to each other and are distracting and sometimes unpleasant to view (Kosslyn, 2007). I'm a visual thinker, not a language-based thinker. My brain is like Google Images. ~ Temple Grandin Fonts There are thousands of fonts available today. One might even say there has been a renaissance in font design with the onset of the digital age. Despite many beautiful options, it is best to stick to standard fonts that are considered screen-friendly. These include the serif fonts Times New Roman, Georgia, and Palatino, and the sans serif fonts Ariel, Helvetica, Tahoma, and Veranda (Kadavy, 2011). These fonts work well with the limitations of computer screens and are legible from a distance if sized appropriately. Other non-standard fonts, while attractive and eye-catching, may not display properly on all computers. If the font isn't installed on the computer you are presenting from, the default font will be used which alters the text and design of the slide. Readability is a top concern with font use, particularly for those at the back of your audience, furthest from the screen. After you have selected a font, make sure that the font size is large enough for everyone to read clearly. If you have the opportunity to use the presentation room before the event, view your slides from the back of the room. They should be clearly visible. This is not always possible and should not be done immediately preceding your talk, as you won't have time to effectively edit your entire presentation. Create your own visual style... let it be unique for yourself and yet identifiable for others. ~ Orson Welles Text Nothing is more hotly debated in slide design than the amount of text that should be on a slide. Godin (2007) says "no more than six words on a slide. EVER." Other common approaches include the 5×5 rule—5 lines of text, 5 words per line—and similar 6×6 and 7×7 rules (Weaver, 1999). Even with these recommendations, it is still painfully common to see slides with so much text on them that they can't be read by the audience. Once you understand that the words on the screen are competing for your audience's attention, it will be easier to edit your slide text down to a minimum. The next time you are watching a presentation and the slide changes, notice how you aren't really grasping what the speaker is saying, and you also aren't really understanding what you are reading. Studies have proved this split-attention affects our ability to retain information (Duare, 2008); so when presenting, you need to give your audience silent reading time when you display a new slide. That is: talk, advance to your next slide, wait for them to read the slide, and resume talking. If you consider how much time your audience is reading rather than listening, hopefully you will decide to reduce the text on your slide and return the focus back to you, the speaker, and your message. There are several ways to reduce the number of words on your page, but don't do it haphazardly. Tufte (2003) warns against abbreviating your message just to make it fit. He says this dumbs down your message, which does a disservice to your purpose and insults your audience's intelligence. Instead, Duarte (2008) and Reynolds (2003) recommend turning as many concepts as possible into images. Studies have shown that people retain more information when they see images that relate to the words they are hearing (Mayer, 2001). And when people are presented information for a very short time, they remember images better than words (Reynolds, 2008). The ubiquitous use of bulleted lists is also hotly debated. PowerPoint is practically designed around the bulleted-list format, even though it is regularly blamed for dull, tedious presentations with either overly dense or overly superficial content (Tufte, 2003). Reserve bulleted lists for or explaining the order of processes. In all other cases, look for ways to use images, a short phrase, or even no visual at all. Quotes, on the other hand, are not as offensive to design when they are short, legible, and infrequently used. If you do use a quote in your slide show, immediately stop and read it out loud or allow time for it to be read silently. If the quote is important enough for you to include it in the talk, the quote deserves the audience's time to read and think about it. Alternately, use a photo of the speaker or of the subject with a phrase from the quote you will be reading them, making the slide enhance the point of the quote. Images Images can be powerful and efficient ways to tap into your audience's emotions. Use photographs to introduce an abstract idea, to evoke emotion, to present evidence, or to direct the audience attention, just make sure it is compatible with your message (Kosslyn, 2007). Photos aren't the only images available. You might consider using simplified images like silhouettes, line art, diagrams, enlargements, or exploded views, but these should be high quality and relevant. Simple images also translate better than words to a multicultural audience. In all cases, choose only images that enhance your spoken words and are professional-quality. Select high-quality images and don't be afraid to use your entire slide to display the image. Boldness with images often adds impact. When using images, do not enlarge them to the point that the image becomes blurry, also known as pixelation. Pixelation, is caused when the resolution of your image is too low for your output device (e.g. printer, monitor, projector). When selecting images, look for clear ones that can be placed in your presentation without enlarging them. A good rule of thumb is to use images over 1,000 pixels wide for filling an entire slide. If your images begin to pixelate, either reduce the size of the image or select a different image. Never use an image that has a watermark on it. A watermark is text or a logo that is placed in a digital image to prevent people from re-using it. It is common for companies that sell images to have a preview available that has a watermark on it. This allows you, the potential customer, to see the image, but prevents you from using the image until you have paid for it. Using a watermarked image in your presentation is unprofessional. Select another image without a watermark, take a similar photo yourself, or pay to get the watermark-free version. You can create images yourself, use free images, or pay for images from companies like iStockphoto for your presentations. Purchasing images can get expensive quickly, and searching for free images is time consuming. Be sure to only use images that you have permission or rights to use and give proper credit for their use. If you are looking for free images, try searching the Creative Commons database for images from places like Flickr, Google, and others. The creators of images with a Creative Commons License allow others to use their work, but with specific restrictions. What is and isn't allowed is described in the license for each image. One final consideration with using images: having the same image on every page, be it part of the slide background or your company logo, can be distracting and should be removed or minimized. As mentioned earlier, the more you can simplify your slide, the easier it will be for your message to be understood. Graphs and Charts If you have numerical data that you want to present, consider using a graph or chart. You are trying to make a specific point with the data on the slide, so make sure that the point—the conclusion you want your audience to draw—is clear. This may mean that you reduce the amount of data you present, even though it is tempting to include all of your data on your slide. It is best to minimize the amount of information and focus instead on the simple and clear conclusion (Duarte, 2008). Particularly when it comes to numerical data, identify the meaning in the numbers and exclude the rest. "Audiences are screaming 'make it clear,' not 'cram more in.' Different charts have different purposes, and it is important to select the one that puts your data in the appropriate context to be clearly understood (Tufte, 2003). When designing charts, one should use easily distinguishable colors with clear labels. Be consistent with your colors and data groupings. For clarity, avoid using 3-D graphs and charts, and remove as much of the background noise (lines, shading, etc.) as possible. All components of your graph, once the clutter is removed, should be distinct from any background color. Finally, don't get too complex in any one graph, make sure your message is as clear as possible, and make sure to visually highlight the conclusion you want the audience to draw. Implementation If you have chosen to use visual aids in your presentation, it is important to give credit where credit is due. Make sure to mention the source of your props if you borrowed them from a person or organization. You should cite the source of all data and images used in your presentation. Citing your sources provides credibility to your content and shows you are a professional. Once you have decided on which visual aids to use and have prepared them for your presentation, you should practice with them repeatedly. Through practice you will be able to seamlessly incorporate them into your presentation, which will reduce distractions, increase your credibility, and keep the audience's attention focused on your message. Practice will also help determine the time required for your presentation so you can edit before you speak if necessary. No audience benefits from the speaker looking at the time, admitting how off schedule they are, or rushing through their remaining slides. No matter which visual aid(s) you have chosen, they should be displayed only when you are ready to talk about them. Otherwise, the audience will spend time reading any text or guessing the meaning of the visual instead of focusing on the presenter's words. Once used, visuals should also be removed from sight so as not to continue to distract the audience (Palmer, 2011). A picture is the expression of an impression. If the beautiful were not in us, how would we ever recognize it? ~ Ernst Haas Visual Aid Tips Select only visual aids that enhance or clarify your message. Select visual aids that will have the greatest impact on your audience. Speak to your audience not to your visual aid or the screen. Reveal your visuals only when they are relevant to your current point, and take them away when they are no longer being talked about. Practice with your visual aids and make sure all demonstrations work smoothly. Design visuals so they can be understood within three seconds. Keep your visuals as simple as possible while still conveying your message. When presenting text to your audience, give them time to read before you begin speaking again. Be prepared to move on with your presentation should any of the visual aids falter or fail. No matter how great your visuals are, you need to be prepared to speak without them. Conclusion This chapter addresses both the role and value of using visual aids, including slideware, objects, audio and video clips, and demonstrations. They should be used only when they help to clarify or enhance your spoken words or will help your audience remember your message. Be sure that any visual aid you use adds to what you are saying. Slides should be brief, easy to understand, and complement your message. Objects and slides should not be revealed before you begin talking about them, lest your audience become distracted from your point. Remember that people cannot read your slides or handouts at the same time as they are listening to you. When designing slides make sure they are clear and visible to the entire audience. Contrasting colors with consideration for common color blindness should be used. Screen- friendly fonts of sufficient size to be read from the back of the room are extremely important. Avoid clutter on your slides and leverage the power of white space, aiming always for simplicity and impact. Practice your presentation with your visual aids, remembering to allow time for your audience to read any new text you present. Be prepared to continue in a professional manner should your visuals falter or fail. The ease with which you implement your visuals and move past any problems demonstrates your professionalism and bolsters your credibility. Effective selection, design, and implementation of visual aids will increase your audience's attention and help to vanquish "death by PowerPoint." It will make you and your message clearer and more memorable, which will help you to achieve your primary goal: an audience that understands and connects with your message. Review Questions 1. Other than slides, list three types of visual aids that can be used in a presentation and give an example of each. 2. What are the ways that visual aids can benefit a presentation? Harm a presentation? 3. Describe the benefits of white space in design. 4. Explain the different purposes and content of handouts as compared to slide shows. 5. List and explain two considerations when using color in your slides. 6. Discuss the pros and cons of having a large amount of text on a slide. Glossary Color Palette The selection of colors that are used throughout a single project. Complementary Colors Colors on opposite sides of the color wheel, such as red and green. Creative Commons License A designation by the copyright holder of an image or other work that it can be reused. The license identifies what specifically is allowed under what conditions and what credit must be given. Exploded View A picture or diagram where an object appears disassembled so the viewer can see the component parts in proper relationship to each other. They are used to show how things fit together and how parts interact to make a whole. Greyscale An image that has all the color information removed and replaced with appropriate shades of grey. These images are sometimes referred to as black- and-white. Line Art Simplified drawings made only of solid lines without color or shading. They are useful for showing the basic shape and construction of complicated objects. Pixelation The blurry appearance of images which are enlarged on a computer beyond their resolution. This often occurs when a small image is stretched to cover an entire slide. Prezi A newer type presentation software that allows for non- linear presentations and is more graphically oriented rather than text oriented. Rule of Thirds A layout design grid that divides a page into nine equal squares. Placing or aligning content along the grid lines creates a more powerful image. Sans Serif Font A type face whose characters do not have the small lines or flourishes at the end points of letters. Sans serif fonts include Arial, Helevetica, and Tahoma. Serif Font A type face whose characters have small lines or flourishes at the end points of letters. Serif fonts include Times New Roman, Georgia, and Palatino. Silhouette A simplified image of a person or object created from the outline of the image and filled in with a solid color, usually black. Slide Deck A term that refers to all the slides in a slideware presentation. It is a more generic term for PowerPoint slides. Slideware The software used to display digital slide shows. Examples of slideware include Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple iWork, Keynote, Google Drive Presentation, OpenOffice Impress. Watermark A noticeable image or graphic in an image that is placed there primarily to prevent reuse of that image by identifying the owner of the copyright. Often found on online images, it is designed to let you preview the image before you purchase it, at which time, the watermark is removed. White Space Empty space in your design that helps direct the viewers' attention to the parts of the slide that really matter. Use of white space can help reduce clutter on your slide. Z Pattern The natural tendency of people from English-speaking countries, among others, to view images in the same way that they read text, that is, left to right, top to bottom. This results in the eye tracking along a Z-shaped path through the image.

Chapter 1

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ● Articulate at least three reasons why public speaking skills are important. ● Describe the difference between the linear and the transactional model of communication. ● List, define, and give an example of each of the components of communication. ● Differentiate between the major types of speeches. ● Identify the eleven core public speaking competencies. ● Apply chapter concepts in final questions and activities. Introduction to Public Speaking Humans' ability to communicate using formalized systems of language sets us apart from other living creatures on the Earth. Whether these language conventions make us superior to other creatures is debatable, but there is no question that overall, the most successful and most powerful people over the centuries have mastered the ability to communicate effectively. In fact, the skill of speaking is so important that it has been formally taught for thousands of years. The ironic feature of public speaking is that while we recognize that it is an important skill to have, many of us do not like or want to give speeches. You may be reading this book because it was assigned to you in a class, or you may be reading it because you have to give a speech in your personal or professional life. If you are reading this book because you like public speaking or you have a burning desire to learn more about it, you're in the minority. The good news about public speaking is that although it may not be on the top of the list of our favorite activities, anyone can learn to give effective presentations. What is important is that the audience understands you and remembers what you have to say. By learning and using the techniques provided in this reading material, you will discover how to create engaging speeches and present them using your own delivery style. Benefits of Public Speaking According to the Association of American Colleges and Universities, there is a core set of skills that are necessary "both for a globally engaged democracy and for a dynamic, innovation fueled economy" (Rhodes, 2010). In the category of "Intellectual and practical skills," public speaking is listed as one of these core skills. Public speaking is the process of designing and delivering a message to an audience. Effective public speaking involves understanding your audience and speaking goals, choosing elements for the speech that will engage your audience with your topic, and delivering your message skillfully. Good public speakers understand that they must plan, organize, and revise their material in order to develop an effective speech. This is not particularly surprising given that communication skills are critical for intellectual development, career trajectory, and civic engagement. Public speaking is universally applicable to all types of majors and occupations and is seen by U.S. employers as a critical employability skill for job seekers (Rockler-Gladen, 2009). No matter what your ambitions and interests are, developing speaking skills will benefit your personal, professional, and public life. Personal People don't just give presentations on the job and in classes. At times we are called upon to give speeches in our personal lives. It may be for a special event, such as a toast at a wedding. We may be asked to give a eulogy at a funeral for a friend or loved one. We may have to introduce a guest speaker at an event or present or accept an award for service. Developing the skill to give these types of speeches can help us to fulfill essential roles in our family and community. Another great personal benefit of public speaking is that it builds self-confidence. It's no surprise that speaking in public is scary, but by engaging in the activity you will build self-confidence through the experience. Professional TV announcers, teachers, lawyers, and entertainers must be able to speak well, but most other professions require, or at the very least, can benefit from the skills found in public speaking. It is believed 70% of jobs today involve some form of public speaking (Aras, 2012). With the recent economic shift from manufacturing to service careers, the ability to communicate with others has become crucial. Top CEOs advise that great leaders must be able to communicate ideas effectively; they must be able to persuade, build support, negotiate and speak effectively in public (Farrell, 2013). The chapters on "Informative Speaking" and "Persuasive Speaking" can help readers understand how to write presentations that enhance their leadership skills. But before you even start a career, you have to get a job. Effective speaking skills make you more attractive to employers, enhancing your chances of securing employment and later advancing within your career. Employers, career counselors, and the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) all list good communication skills at the top of the list of qualities sought in potential employees. According to NACE's executive director, Marilyn Mackes, the Job Outlook 2013 Report found that employers are looking for people who can communicate effectively (Koncz & Allen, 2012). Monster.com advises, "articulating thoughts clearly and concisely will make a difference in both a job interview and subsequent job performance" (McKay, 2005). Action is a great restorer and builder of confidence. Inaction is not only the result, but the cause, of fear. Perhaps the action you take will be successful; perhaps different action or adjustments will have to follow. But any action is better than no action at all. ~ Norman Vincent Peale Public Learning about public speaking will allow you to participate in democracy at its most basic level. Public speaking is important in creating and sustaining a society, which includes informed, active participants. Even if you do not plan to run for office, learning about public speaking helps you to listen more carefully to and critically evaluate others speeches. Listening and critical thinking allow you to understand public dilemmas, form an opinion about them, and participate in resolving them. The progress of the past century involving segregation, women's rights, and environmental protection are the result of people advancing new ideas and speaking out to others to persuade them to adopt changes. Models of Communication It should be clear by now that public speaking happens all around us in many segments of our lives. However, to truly understand what is happening within these presentations, we need to take a step back and look at some of the key components of the communication process. Linear Model of Communication The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver for Bell Laboratories. This three-part model was intended to capture the radio and television transmission process. However it was later adapted to human communication and is now known as the Linear Model of Communication. The first part of the model is the sender, and this is the person who is speaking. The second part of the model is the channel, which is the apparatus for carrying the message (i.e., the phone or TV). The third part of the model is the receiver, and this is the person who picks up the message. In this model, communication is seen as a one-way process of transmitting a message from one person to another person. This model can be found in Figure 1.1. If you think about situations when you communicate with another person face-to-face or when you give a speech, you probably realize that this model is inadequate—communication is much more complicated than firing off a message to others. Transactional Model of Communication Models of communication have evolved significantly since Shannon and Weaver first proposed their well- known conceptual model over sixty years ago. One of the most useful models for understanding public speaking is Barnlund's Transactional Model of Communication. In this model, communication is seen as an ongoing, circular process. We are constantly affecting and are affected by those we communicate with. The transactional model has a number of interdependent processes and components, including the encoding and decoding processes, the communicator, the message, the channel and noise. Although not directly addressed in Barnlund's (2008) original transactional model, participants' worldviews and the context also play an important role in the communication process. See Figure 1.2 for an illustration. Elements of the Communication Process Encoding and Decoding Encoding refers to the process of taking ideas, thoughts feelings, or mental images, and associating those with words, and then speaking those words in order to convey a message. So, if you wanted to explain to your aunt the directions to your new apartment, you would picture in your mind the landscape, streets and buildings, and then you would select the best words that describe the route so your aunt could find you. Decoding is the reverse process of encoding. It involves listening to words, thinking about them, and converting those words into mental images, thoughts, feelings, and ideas. If your aunt were trying to find her way to your apartment, she would listen to your words, associate these words with streets and landmarks that she knows, and then she would form a mental map of the way to get to you. Using Language Well (Chapter 11) provides additional insight into the encoding and decoding processes. Communicator The term communicator refers to each person in the interaction or speech setting. It is used instead of sender and receiver, because when we are communicating with other people, we are not only sending a message, we are receiving messages from others simultaneously. When we speak, we observe others' nonverbal behavior to see if they understand us, and we gauge their emotional state. The information we gain from these observations is known as feedback. Over the telephone, we listen to paralinguistic cues, such as pitch, tone, volume, and fillers (i.e., "um," "uh," "er," "like," and so on). This means that communication is not a one-way process. Even in a public speaking situation, we watch and listen to audience members' responses. If audience members are interested, agree, and understand us, they may lean forward in their seats, nod their heads, have positive or neutral facial expressions, and provide favorable vocal cues (such as laughter, "That's right," "Uh huh," or "Amen!"). If audience members are bored, disagree, or are confused by our message, they may be texting or looking away from us, shake their heads, have unhappy or confused expressions on their faces, or present oppositional vocal cues (like groans, "I don't think so," "That doesn't make sense," or "You're crazy!"). Thus, communication is always a transactional process—a give and take of messages. Message The message involves those verbal and nonverbal behaviors enacted by communicators that are interpreted with meaning by others. The verbal portion of the message refers to the words that we speak, while the nonverbal portion includes our tone of voice and other non-vocal components such as personal appearance, posture, gestures and body movements, eye behavior, the way we use space, and even the way that we smell. For instance, the person who gets up to speak wearing a nice suit will be interpreted more positively than a person giving the exact same speech wearing sweats and a graphic t-shirt. Or if a speaker tries to convince others to donate to a charity that builds wells in poor African villages using a monotone voice, she will not be as effective as the speaker who gives the same speech but speaks with a solemn tone of voice. If there is ever a conflict between the verbal and the non-verbal aspects of a message, people will generally believe the nonverbal portion of the message. To test this, tighten your muscles, clench your fists at your sides, pull your eyebrows together, purse your lips, and tell someone in a harsh voice, "NO, I'm NOT angry!" See if they believe your words or your nonverbal behavior. The message can also be intentional or unintentional. When the message is intentional, this means that we have an image in our mind that we wish to communicate to an audience or a person in a conversation, and we can successfully convey the image from our mind to others' minds with relative accuracy. An unintentional message is sent when the message that we wish to convey is not the same as the message the other person receives. Let's say you are returning from an outing with your significant other and she or he asks, "Did you have a good time?" You did have a good time but are distracted by a TV commercial when asked, so you reply in a neutral tone, "Sure, I had fun." Your significant other may interpret your apathetic tone of voice and lack of eye contact to mean that you did not enjoy the evening, when in fact you actually did. Thus as communicators, we cannot always be sure that the message we wish to communicate is interpreted as we intended. Channel The channel is very simply the means through which the message travels. In face-to-face communication, the channel involves all of our senses, so the channel is what we see, hear, touch, smell, and perhaps what we taste. When we're communicating with someone online, the channel is the computer; when texting, the channel is the cell phone; and when watching a movie on cable, the channel is the TV. The channel can have a profound impact on the way a message is interpreted. Listening to a recording of a speaker does not have the same psychological impact as listening to the same speech in person or watching that person on television. One famous example of this is the 1960 televised presidential debate between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon. According to History.com (2012), on camera, Nixon looked away from the camera at the reporters asking him questions, he was sweating and pale, he had facial hair stubble, and he wore a grey suit that faded into the set background. "Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley reportedly said [of Nixon], 'My God, they've embalmed him before he even died'" (History.com). Kennedy, on the other hand, looked into the camera, was tanned, wore a dark suit that made him stand out from the background, and appeared to be calm after spending the entire weekend with aides practicing in a hotel room. Most of those who listened to the radio broadcast of the debate felt that it was a tie or that Nixon had won, while 70% of those watching the televised debate felt that Kennedy was the winner. Noise The next aspect of the model of communication is noise. Noise refers to anything that interferes with message transmission or reception (i.e., getting the image from your head into others' heads). There are several different types of noise. The first type of noise is physiological noise, and this refers to bodily processes and states that interfere with a message. For instance, if a speaker has a headache or the flu, or if audience members are hot or hungry these conditions may interfere with message accuracy. The second type of noise is psychological noise. Psychological noise refers to mental states or emotional states that impede message transmission or reception. For example, if someone has just broken up with a significant other, or if they're worried about their grandmother who is in the hospital, or if they are thinking about their shopping list, this may interfere with communication processes as well. The third type of noise is actual physical noise, and this would be simply the actual sound level in a room. Loud music playing at a party, a number of voices of people talking excitedly, a lawnmower right outside the window, or anything that is overly loud will interfere with communication. The last type of noise is cultural noise. Cultural noise refers to message interference that results from differences in peoples' worldviews. Worldview is discussed in more detail below, but suffice it to say that the greater the difference in worldview, the more difficult it is to understand one another and communicate effectively. Worldview Most people don't give a lot of thought to the communication process. In the majority of our interactions with others, we are operating on automatic pilot. Although the encoding and decoding processes may appear to be fairly straightforward, it is actually much more complicated than it seems. The reason for this is because we all have different worldviews. Worldview is the overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, and interprets the world and interacts with it. It is always good to explore the stuff you don't agree with, to try and understand a different lifestyle or foreign worldview. I like to be challenged in that way, and always end up learning something I didn't know. ~ Laura Linney It is important to understand worldview because it has a profound impact on the encoding and decoding processes, and consequently on our ability to be understood by others. Try this simple experiment: ask two or three people to imagine a dog while you imagine a dog at the same time. "Dog" is a very concrete word (a word that describes a tangible object that can be perceived through the senses), and it is one of the first words children in the United States learn in school. Wait a few seconds and then ask each person what type of dog he or she was thinking of. Was it a Chihuahua? Golden retriever? Rottweiler? Or some other dog? Most likely each person you asked had a different image in his or her mind than you had in yours. This is our worldview at work. To further illustrate, you may tell a co-worker, "I can't wait to go home this weekend— we are having lasagna!" Seems like a fairly clear-cut statement, doesn't it? Unfortunately, it is not. While "lasagna" is also a concrete word, our worldviews cause us to interpret each word in the statement differently. Where is "home?" Who is making the meal? What ingredients will be used in the lasagna? Is this dish eaten as a regular meal or for a special occasion? Will there be leftovers? Are friends invited? Since everyone who has eaten lasagna has had a different experience of the cuisine, we all acquire a different image in our mind when we hear the statement "...we are having lasagna!" Complicating matters is the fact that the more abstract the word becomes, the more room there is for interpretation. Abstract words (words that refer to ideas or concepts that are removed from material reality) like "peace," "love," "immoral," "justice," "freedom," "success," and "honor" can have a number of different meanings; each of which is predicated on one's worldview. Communicators have their own unique worldviews that shape both the encoding and decoding processes, which means that we can never be completely understood by another person. People from the Midwest may call carbonated beverages "pop," while those from the East Coast may say "soda," and those from Georgia may say "Coke." Never take communication for granted, and never assume your listener will understand you. It takes hard work to make yourself understood by an audience. Context is worth 80 IQ points. ~ Alan Kay Context The last element of the communication process is the context in which the speech or interaction takes place. In the 1980's context was taught as the actual physical setting where communication occurred, such as in a place of worship, an apartment, a workplace, a noisy restaurant, or a grocery store. People communicate differently in each one of these places as there are unwritten rules of communication (called norms) that govern these settings. More recently the concept of context has evolved and expanded to include the type of relationships we have with others and the communicative rules that govern those relationships. So you do not speak the same way to your best friend as you do to a small child, your parent, your boss, your doctor, or a police officer. And you may speak to your best friend differently in your apartment than you do in your parents' home, and your communication may also change when you are both out with friends on the weekend. In sum, the context refers to the norms that govern communication in different situations and relationships. Conclusion Our capacity to communicate through systems of language differentiates us from other species, but the use of that language to communicate effectively is actually harder than anticipated, particularly in front of an audience. Fortunately, by reading this book, you can learn the skills required to communicate more effectively one-on-one and in a speaking situation. The speeches you present will be given in a particular context. In your role as communicator, you will encode and deliver a message, which will then be decoded by audience members (also communicators). At the same time you are speaking, you will be receiving verbal and nonverbal feedback from the audience. The way that the message is decoded will depend entirely on the amount of noise interfering with the message as well as the worldviews of audience members. Every new speaker should work to become skilled at the eleven core public speaking competencies. These competencies include: selecting a useful topic, writing an engaging introduction, organizing the points of the speech, finding effective supporting materials for the points, adding a conclusion that provides closure, using clear and vivid language, making sure that one's vocal expression corresponds to the goals of the speech, using nonverbals that complement the message, adapting the message to one's audience, using visual aids effectively, and using credible evidence and sound reasoning in persuasive messages. Each one of the competencies just listed is covered in depth in one or more chapters in this book. The authors of this textbook hope that readers will find the chapters useful in developing their own communication competence. Whether you are new to giving presentations, or a more experienced speaker, it is important to remember that the best way to improve your public speaking skills is through preparation and practice. Although it may take time to learn effective speaking skills, the effort is well worth the benefits you will reap in your personal, professional, and public life. Review Questions and Activities ● What are the personal, professional and public benefits of enhancing your public speaking skills? ● What is the difference between the linear and transactional model of communication? ● Define and give an original example of each of the elements of the communication process. ● Which of the elements of the communication process do you think has the greatest impact on the way a message is interpreted? Explain Glossary Abstract Word Words that refer to ideas or concepts that are removed from material reality. Channel The means through which the message travels. Communicator The people in the interaction or speech setting who encode and decode messages simultaneously. Concrete Word A word that describes a tangible object that can be perceived through the senses. Context The communication rules that govern different physical settings and/or different types of relationships. Cultural Noise Differences in worldview that cause message interference. Decoding The process of listening to words and interpreting the words so they are associated with a mental image. Encoding The process of taking a mental image, associating the image with words, and then speaking those words. Listening The psychological process of interpreting and making sense of the messages we receive. Message The words, nonverbal behavior, or other signals transmitted from one person to another. Noise Any thing that interferes with the message transmission or the encoding and decoding processes. Nonverbal Behavior All of the messages we send — except for the words we say. Can include appearance, eye behavior, kinesics (body movement), proxemics (use of space), touch, time, and smell. Norms The verbal and nonverbal rules (usually unspoken) that govern communicative behavior. Psychological Noise Message interference that results from disturbed or excited mental states. Physiological Noise Message interference that results from bodily discomfort. Physical Noise Message interference that results when the noise level (as measured in decibels) makes it difficult to hear a message. Public Speaking The act of delivering a speech in front of a live audience. Worldview The overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, and interprets the world and interacts with it.

Chapter 10

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ● Combine multiple forms of evidence to support your ideas. ● Differentiate between the three types of testimony, and know when to use each one. ● Navigate the library holdings and distinguish between the types of information found in each section. ● Evaluate source credibility and appropriateness for your speech. ● Explain plagiarism and implement strategies to avoid it. ● Apply chapter concepts in review questions and activities. Introduction In 2010 celebrity chef Jamie Oliver won the Technology Entertainment Design (TED) Prize for his "One Wish to Change the World." In addition to a monetary award, he was given 18 minutes at the prestigious TED Conference in Long Beach, CA to discuss his wish: "Teach every child about food." This chef from Essex, England, had only a short window of time to convince an American audience to change their most basic eating habits. To get them to listen he had to catch their attention and demonstrate his credibility. He managed to do both using compelling research. He began by saying, "Sadly, in the next 18 minutes . . . four Americans that are alive will be dead from the food that they eat." He magnified the problem with a chart showing that many more Americans die from diet related diseases each year than die from other diseases, or even from accidents and murder. Along with the statistics, he offered testimony from people living in the "most unhealthy state in America." By weaving together multiple forms of research over the course of his brief talk, Oliver crafted a compelling case for a massive shift in the way that Americans teach their children about food. Like Oliver, in order to give an effective speech, you will need to offer support for the ideas you present. Finding support necessitates research. Librarians have found that professors and students tend to have very different ideas regarding what it means to conduct research (Sjober & Ahlfeldt, 2010). The wide variety of resources available for conducting research can be overwhelming. However, if you have a clear topic, recognize the purpose of your speech, and understand the audience you will be speaking to, you can limit the number of sources you will need to consult by focusing on the most relevant information. Different types of appeals and evidence are better for different audiences. The best speeches will combine multiple forms of evidence to make the most convincing case possible. This chapter will help you research your speech by combining personal and professional knowledge, library resources, and Internet searches. It will help you to evaluate the sources you find and cite them to avoid plagiarism. Personal and Professional Knowledge Professional public speakers are generally called upon to address a topic on which they are considered an expert. You may not feel like an expert in the area of your speech at this time, but you should consider whether you have any preexisting knowledge of the topic that might assist in crafting your speech. Do not be afraid to draw on your own experience to enhance the message. Personal Testimony Walter Fisher (1984) argues that humans are natural storytellers. Through stories people make sense of their experiences, and they invite others to understand their lived reality as part of a community. One compelling story that you can offer is your personal testimony. Although you are not a recognized authority on the topic, you can invite the audience to understand your first hand experience. Offering your testimony within a speech provides an example of your point, and it enhances your credibility by demonstrating that you have experience regarding the topic. Additionally, personal testimony can enhance your speech by conveying your insight and emotion regarding the topic, making your speech more memorable (Beebe & Beebe, 2003 & Parse, 2008). For example, if you are giving a speech on the importance of hunting to the local culture, you might explain how the last buck you shot fed your family for an entire season. Since personal testimony refers to your experience, it is easy to assume that you can offer it with little preparation, but that is not always the case. If you plan to use personal testimony in your speech, practice the story to make sure that it makes the appropriate point in the time you have Interviews If you do not have personal experience with the topic, you may seek out other forms of lay testimony to support your point. Lay testimony is any testimony based on witnesses' opinions or perceptions in a given case (Federal Rules of Evidence, 2012). For example, if you are giving a speech about Occupy Wall Street, but you have not experienced one of their protests, you may choose to include statements from a protestor or someone who identifies with the goals of the movement. Expert testimony comes from a recognized authority who has conducted extensive research on an issue. Experts regularly publish their research findings in books and journals, which we will discuss later in this chapter, but you may need more information from the expert in order to substantiate your point. For example, if you were giving a speech about how to prepare for a natural disaster, you might interview someone from the Red Cross. They could tell you what supplies might be necessary for the specific types of disasters that are likely in your region. Interviews give people the chance to expand on their published research and offer their informed perspective on the specific point you are trying to make. My basic approach to interviewing is to ask the basic questions that might even sound naive, or not intellectual. Sometimes when you ask the simple questions like "Who are you?" or "What do you do?" you learn the most. ~ Brian Lamb If you are seeking an interview with an expert, it is best to arrange a time and place that works for them. Begin the process with a respectful phone call or email explaining who you are and why you are contacting them. Be forthcoming regarding the information you are seeking and the timeline in which you are working. Also be flexible about the format for your interview. If you can meet in person, that is often ideal because it gives you the chance to get to know the person and to ask follow up questions if necessary. A good alternative to an in person interview is a video call using a service such as Skype. These services are often free to both callers and allow you to see and hear the person that you are interviewing. If neither of these options will work, a phone call or email will do. Keep in mind that while an email may seem convenient to you, it will likely require much more time from the expert as they have to type every answer, and they may not be as forthcoming with information in that format. Using Examples There are many types of examples that a presenter can use to help an audience better understand a topic and the key points of a presentation. These include specific situations, problems, or stories designed to help illustrate a principle, method, or phenomenon. They are useful because they can make an abstract concept more concrete for an audience by providing a specific case. There are three main types of examples: brief, extended, and hypothetical. Brief Examples Brief examples are used to further illustrate a point that may not be immediately obvious to all audience members but is not so complex that is requires a more lengthy example. Brief examples can be used by the presenter as an aside or on its own. A presenter may use a brief example in a presentation on politics in explaining the Electoral College. Since many people are familiar with how the Electoral College works, the presenter may just mention that the Electoral College is based on population and a brief example of how it is used to determine an election. In this situation it would not be necessary for a presented to go into a lengthy explanation of the process of the Electoral College since many people are familiar with the process. Extended Examples Extended examples are used when a presenter is discussing a more complicated topic that they think their audience may be unfamiliar with. In an extended example a speaker may want to use a chart, graph, or other visual aid to help the audience understand the example. An instance in which an extended example could be used includes a presentation in which a speaker is explaining how the "time value of money" principle works in finance. Since this is a concept that people unfamiliar with finance may not immediately understand, a speaker will want to use an equation and other visual aids to further help the audience understand this principle. An extended example will likely take more time to explain than a brief example and will be about a more complex topic. Hypothetical Examples A hypothetical example is a fictional example that can be used when a speaker is explaining a complicated topic that makes the most sense when it is put into more realistic or relatable terms. For instance, if a presenter is discussing statistical probability, instead of explaining probability in terms of equations, it may make more sense for the presenter to make up a hypothetical example. This could be a story about a girl, Annie, picking 10 pieces of candy from a bag of 50 pieces of candy in which half are blue and half are red and then determining Annie's probability of pulling out 10 total pieces of red candy. A hypothetical example helps the audience to better visualize a topic and relate to the point of the presentation more effectively. Communicating Examples Examples help the audience understand the key points; they should be to the point and complement the topic. One method of effectively communicating examples is by using an example to clarify and complement a main point of a presentation. Examples are essential to help an audience better understand a topic. However, a speaker should be careful to not overuse examples as too many examples may confuse the audience and distract them from focusing on the key points that the speaker is making. Library Resources The most well established way of finding research to support your ideas is to use the library. However, many students see the "library and its resources as imposing and intimidating, and are anxious about how they will manage in such an environment"(Leckie, 1996). Don't let any twinge of anxiety keep you from exploring all that the library has to offer! When conducting research, one of your best resources is the librarian. It is their job to know all about the resources available to you, and to help you succeed in locating the material that is most relevant to your assignment. Additionally, many libraries have librarians who specialize in particular areas of research and they will be able to help you find the best resources for your specific speech topic. Ideally, you should seek some information on your topic alone before asking for their assistance. Doing some initial research independently demonstrates to the librarian that you have taken ownership of the assignment and recognize that the research is ultimately your responsibility, not theirs. They will be better equipped to help you find new information if they know where you have already looked and what you have found. Most libraries contain at least three primary resources for information: books, periodicals, and full text databases. Books Books are an excellent place to gain general knowledge. They contain comprehensive investigations of a subject in which authors can convey substantial amounts of information because they are not constrained by a strict page count. Most libraries make finding books easy by indexing them in an online catalog. You should be able to go to the library's website and simply search for your topic. The index will provide the titles, authors, and other publication information for each book. It will also provide a call number. The call number is like an address for the book that indicates where it can be found on the stacks in the library. Before going to the stacks, take note of the title, author, and call number. The call number is the most important element, and the title and author will serve as backup for your search if you find that the books are out of order. If you find a book that is helpful, be sure to check the shelf nearby to see if there are other promising titles on that topic. If you cannot find the book that you are looking for, consider asking the librarian to help you borrow it from another library using a process called interlibrary loan. The length of a book can make it seem overwhelming to someone researching a brief speech. In order to streamline your research, determine what you are looking for in advance. Are you seeking general background knowledge or support for a specific idea? Use the table of contents, headings, and index to guide you to the portion of the book that is likely to have what you are looking for. You do not need to read, or even skim, the entirety of every book. It is appropriate to skim for key words and phrases that pertain to your topic. Just be sure that once you find what you are looking for, you read enough of the section around it to understand the context of the statement and ensure that the book is making the point you think it is. Take note of the point that the book is making. Careful notes will help you remember the information that you gained from each source when you get home. In addition to the traditional stacks of books present in your library, you will also find a reference section. This section contains books that do not delve deep into any subject, but provide basic summary knowledge on a variety of topics. The reference section contains books like dictionaries, which help define unfamiliar terms; encyclopedias, which provide overviews of various subjects; abstracts, which summarize books and articles; and biographical references, which describe people and their accomplishments. Since these resources do not require extensive time to process, and they are likely to be used briefly but regularly by many visitors, the library generally will not allow you to check out reference material. Take great care in drafting notes on the information that you find, and writing down the page numbers and authors according to the style preferred in your field of study. For more information on what you will need to record see the "style guides" section of this chapter. Periodicals Books are comprehensive, but they can take years to get published. This means that the material in books is often at least a year old by the time of its publication date. If your speech depends on more recent information, you should turn to periodicals. Periodicals include magazines, newspapers, journals, and other publications printed at predictable intervals. These publications may appear weekly, monthly, or quarterly to update the research in a given field. Each periodical will offer a variety of articles related to a specific subject area. When researching, it is important to understand the difference between general interest periodicals and scholarly research journals. General interest periodicals include magazines and newspapers which provide a wide array of knowledge and keep readers up to date on the news within a larger cultural context. These publications are targeted toward the general public and they often use pictures and advertising to attract attention. Examples of respected general interest publications include The Atlantic, Women's Health, The New York Times, and National Geographic (American Society of Magazine Editors, 2011). These publications are intended for profit. The information in them is edited to make sure it will appeal to the audience, is well written, and consistent with the commercial goals of the publication. General interest periodicals are good for context and current events information. A newspaper is a circulating library with high blood pressure. ~ Arthur Baer If you are looking for more rigorous research, such as an international relations expert detailing what forms of aid are best for nations experiencing uprisings, you will need a scholarly research journal. A scholarly research journal is not for profit. It is designed to publicize the best research in a particular area. These publications are targeted toward scholars who specialize in a given subject or type of research. Examples of respected scholarly journals include Journal of the American Medical Association, Harvard Law Review, and Quarterly Journal of Speech. These journals engage in a process of peer review in which scholars send their articles to the editor and the editor has other experts in the field examine the article to determine the quality of its research, writing, and fit with the scholarly goal of the publication. Full-Text Databases Rather than searching for a print copy of the latest periodical, many people now find articles on the computer using specialized electronic databases that contain the full text of periodicals. Most school libraries subscribe to a variety of databases which compile articles from journals within a particular specialization, industry, or field. Libraries tend to organize links to these databases on their website in two ways: (1) by the area of specialization, or (2) by the name of the database. You can use the list of specializations to identify databases that will pertain to your topic. Full-text databases allow you access to the citations, abstracts, and articles in the journals they index. However, they sometimes limit access to the full text of articles that were published within a certain date range. If you find a title that looks promising, but is not available in the database you are searching, try the search in another database. Databases often give you the opportunity to search for articles matching your desired time period, author, publication, or key words. Some databases, such as EBSCO, allow you to specify whether you are looking for general interest or scholarly publications. Internet Resources Search Engines A search engine can be your most important resource when attempting to locate information on the Internet. Search engines allow you to type in the topic you are interested in and narrow the possible results. Some of the most popular search engines include Google, bing, Yahoo!, and Ask. These sites provide a box for you to type a topic, phrase, or question, and they use software to scan their index of existing Internet content to find the sites most relevant to your search. Always scan the first few pages of search results to find the best resource for your topic. Skimming the content of the pages returned in your search will also give you an idea of whether you have chosen the most appropriate search terms. If your search has returned results that are not relevant to your speech, you may need to adjust your search terms and try a new search. Pay close attention to the first few sites listed in search results. Some databases allow "sponsored links" to appear before the rest of the results. These sites may or may not be relevant to your search, but they have paid for the top spot on the list and therefore may not be the most relevant. When search engines display sponsored sites first, they typically distinguish these from the others by outlining or highlighting them in a different color. Defining Search Terms In the early stages of research it may be helpful to simply search by topic. As you scan the results, watch for other useful terms that arise in relation to the topic and jot them down for possible use in later searches. Since people may write about the topic in different terms than you tend to think about it, paying close attention to their language will help you refine your search. Another way to approach this is to consider synonyms for your search terms before you even begin. In order to help with the search, you may use Boolean operators, words and symbols that illustrate the relationship between your search terms and help the search engine expand or limit your results. Although search engines regularly adjust their Boolean rules to avoid people rigging the site to show their own pages first, a few basic terms tend to be used by most search engines (BBC, 2012). Boolean Operators OR The word "OR" is one way to expand your search by looking for a variety of terms that may help you support your topic. For example, in a speech about higher education, you might be interested in sources discussing either colleges or universities. In this case using the term "OR" helps expand your search to include both terms, even when they appear separately. AND /+ Using the word "AND" or the "+" symbol between terms limits your search by indicating to the search engine that you are interested in the relationship between the terms and want to see pages which offer both terms together. If you are giving a speech about Hillary Rodham Clinton's work in the Senate, you might search Hilary Rodham Clinton AND Senate. This search would help you find information pertaining to her senate career rather than sites that focus on her as First Lady or Secretary of State. NOT /- Using the word "NOT" or the "-" symbol can also limit your search by indicating that you are not interested in a term that may often appear with your desired term. For example, if you are interested in hyenas, but want to limit out sites focused on their interactions with lions, you might search hyena -lion to eliminate all of the lion pages from your search. " " Quotation marks around a group of words limit the search by indicating you are looking for a specific phrase. For example, if you are looking for evidence that human behavior contributes to global warming, you might search "humans contribute to global warming," which would limit the search far beyond the simple human + global warming by specifying the point you seek to make. When you have a well-defined area of research, it is best to start as specific as possible and then broaden your search as needed. If there is something on exactly what you want to say, you don't want to miss it wading through a sea of articles on your general topic area. To make the best use of your search engine take some time to read the help section on the site and learn how their Boolean operators work. The help section will offer additional tips to assist you in navigating the nuances of that site and executing the best possible search. Google You may be at least somewhat familiar with Google, the name that has become synonymous with "internet search," and called "the most used and most popular search engine"(Tajane, 2011). You may already be adept at searching Google for a wide variety of information, but you may be less familiar with some of its specialized search engines. Three of these search engines can be particularly helpful to someone seeking to support their ideas in a speech: Google Scholar, Google Books, and Google Images. Google Scholar The search engines listed earlier in this chapter will help you explore a diversity of sites to find the information you are looking for. However, certain topics and certain types of speeches call for more rigorous research. This research is typically best found in the library, but Google has an added feature that makes finding scholarly sources easier. On Google Scholar you can find research that has been published in scholarly journal articles, books, theses, conference proceedings, and court opinions. Google Scholar is not only helpful for focusing on academic research; it has a host of features that will help to refine your search to the most helpful articles. You can search generally in Google Scholar and find citations of useful articles that will help support your ideas, but you may not always find the full text of the article. You can ask Google Scholar to help you find the full text articles available in your library's databases by telling it which library you want to search. To do this, click the "scholar preferences" link next to the search button on scholar.google.com. Then scroll down to the section titled "library links," and type the name of your school or library, then click "find library." When the search is complete, check the box next to the name of your library so that Google knows to include it in the search. Once you have included your library, the search results you get will have links that lead you to the articles available in your library's databases. Clicking the links will lead you to your library databases and prompt you to log into the system as you would if you were searching on the library site itself. Even when you are linked to your library's databases, there may be articles in your search results that you do not have electronic access to. In that case, search your library catalog for the title of the journal in which your desired article appears to see if they carry the journal in hard copy form. If you still cannot find it, copy the citation information and use your interlibrary loan system to request a copy of the article from another library. I find I use the Internet more and more. It's just an invaluable tool. I do most of my research on the Net now... ~ Nora Roberts In addition to enhancing your database searches, Google Scholar can also help you broaden your search in two strategic ways. First, underneath the citation for each search result, you will see a link to "related articles." If you found a particular article helpful, clicking "related articles" is one way to help you find resources that are similar. Second, as you know, researchers often look through the bibliography of a helpful source to find the articles that author used. However, when you are dealing with an older article, searching backwards in the bibliography may lead you to more outdated research. To search for more recent research, look again under the search result for the link called "cited by." Clicking the "cited by" link will give you all of the articles that have been published since, and have referred to, the article that you found. For example, if you are giving a speech on male body image you might find Paul Rozin and April Fallon's 1988 article in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology comparing opposite sex perceptions of weight helpful. However, it would be good to have more recent research. Clicking the "related articles" and "cited by" links would lead you to similar research published within the past few years. Google Books Just as Google Scholar can be used to enhance your research in scholarly periodicals, Google Books can be used to make your search for, and within, books more efficient. One way to enhance your research is to search for books on Google Books and then use your library site to see if they currently have the book, or if you will need to order it through interlibrary loan. The other way that you can use Google Books is to make your skimming more effective. Earlier in this chapter you learned that you should strategically skim books for the information that you need. You can do that with Google Books by looking up the book, and then using the search bar on the left side of the screen to search for keywords within the book. Google Books does not print books in their entirety, and often will omit pages surrounding a search result, so relying on the site to allow you to read enough of the book to make your argument is risky at best. Instead, use this site to help you determine which books to obtain, and which parts of those books will be most relevant to your research. Google Images Google Images may be useful as you seek visual aids to illustrate your point. You can search Google Images for photographs, charts, illustrations, clip art and more. Since search engines match the terms you put in, it is possible that your topic could yield images containing adult content. To prevent receiving adult content, you can use the "safe search" settings (located in the option wheel in the far upper right hand corner of the menu bar) to limit your exposure to explicit images. The setting has three options: 1. Strict filtering: filters sexually explicit video and images from Google Search result pages, as well as results that 2. Moderate filtering: excludes sexually explicit video and images from Google Search result pages, but does not filter results that might link to explicit content. This is the default SafeSearch setting. 3. No filtering: as you've probably figured out, turns off SafeSearch filtering completely (Google, 2012). Remember that, as with other outside sources, you will need to offer proper source citations for every image that you use. Additionally, if you plan to post your speech to the internet or publish it more widely than your class, consider using only images that appear in the public domain so that you do not risk infringing on an artist's copyright privileges. It is not ignorance but knowledge which is the mother of wonder. ~ Joseph Wood Krutch Websites When you use a more general search engine, such as Google or bing, you are looking for websites. Websites may be maintained by individuals, organizations, companies, or governments. To keep your research on track, be sure to continue asking yourself if the sources you have found support your specific purpose statement. Most websites are created to promote the interests of their owner, so it is very important that you check to see whose website you are looking at. Generally the author or owner of the site is named near the top of the homepage, or in the copyright notice at the bottom. Knowing who the site belongs to will help you determine the quality of the information it offers. In addition to knowing the owner, it is important to look for the author of the material you are using. For example, an article on a reputable news site like CNN.com may come from a respected journalist, or it may be the opinion of a blogger whose post is not necessarily vetted by the company itself. Use the section of the chapter on evaluating information to determine whether the site you have found is a credible source. Don't leave inferences to be drawn when evidence can be presented. ~ Richard Wright Government Documents Governments regularly publish large quantities of information regarding their citizens, such as census data, health reports, and crime statistics. They also compile transcripts of legislative proceedings, hearings, and speeches. Most college and university libraries maintain substantial collections of government documents. Additionally, these documents are increasingly available online. Government documents can be helpful for finding up-to-date statistics on an issue that affects the larger population. They can also be helpful in identifying strong viewpoints concerning government policies. Now, whenever you read any historical document, you always evaluate it in light of the historical context. ~ Josh McDowell One of the most helpful resources for searching government documents is http://fedworld.ntis.gov/. This site allows you to search Supreme Court decisions, government scientific reports, research and development reports, and other databases filled with cutting edge research. It also lists all major government agencies and their websites. Another excellent way to locate government documents is to use the Monthly Catalog of U.S. Government Publications. This index is issued every month and lists all of the documents published by the federal government, except those that are restricted or confidential. You can use the index to locate documents from Congress, the courts, or even the president. The index arranges reports alphabetically by the name of the issuing agency. The easiest way to search will be on the Government Printing Office website at catalog.gpo.gov. If you would prefer to work with hard copies of the reports, head to your library and search the subject index to find subjects related to your speech topic. Each subject will have a list of documents and their entry number. Use the entry numbers to find the title, agency, and call number of each document listed in the front of the index (Zarefsky, 2005). Statistics Using statistics in public speaking can be a powerful tool. It provides a quantitative, objective, and persuasive platform on which to base an argument, prove a claim, or support an idea. Before a set of statistics can be used, however, it must be made understandable by people who are not familiar with statistics. The key to the persuasive use of statistics is extracting meaning and patterns from raw data in a way that is logical and demonstrable to an audience. There are many ways to interpret statistics and data sets, not all of them valid. A common misunderstanding when using statistics is "correlation does not mean causation." This means that just because two variables are related, they do not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other variable to occur. For example, consider a data set that indicates that there is a relationship between ice cream purchases over seasons versus drowning deaths over seasons. The incorrect conclusion would be to say that the increase in ice cream consumption leads to more drowning deaths, or vice versa. Therefore, when using statistics in public speaking, a speaker should always be sure that they are presenting accurate information when discussing two variables that may be related. Statistics can be used persuasively in all manners of arguments and public speaking scenarios—the key is understanding and interpreting the given data and molding that interpretation towards a convincing statement. Evaluating Information The popular online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, is a great resource for general information. It is a good place to start in order to determine search terms and potentially relevant strains of thought on a given topic. However, it is not the most credible source to cite in your speech. Since anyone can update the site at any time, information may be entirely inaccurate. When using Wikipedia, look for source citations and follow the links to original source material. To determine whether or not the information is comprehensive, check to see that it thoroughly covers the issue, considers competing perspectives, and cites the sources where supporting material came from. First, check to see that your source not only discusses issues that pertain to your topic, but thoroughly explains the reasoning behind the claims it offers. Often you will already be familiar with the topic, but you will require the addition of strong reasoning to properly support your ideas. If your source cannot provide strong reasoning, it is not the best quality source. Second, determine whether the source considers competing perspectives. If your source does not also recognize and consider opposing arguments, it is not the best quality source. Third, check to see that your source offers supporting data and or if it includes non-credible citations, it is not the best quality source. It is fine to use a source that is weak in one of these areas if you still find it compelling, but know that you may need to back it up with additional credible information. If the source is weak in multiple areas, do your best to avoid using it so that it does not weaken your speech. In addition to the quality, you should examine source credibility. When evaluating credibility, focus on the sources' qualifications, the parity of their message with similar sources, and their biases. One of the most important elements of credibility is qualification. Sometimes qualifications will be linked to a person's profession. For example, if you are talking about earthquakes, you might want the expertise of a seismologist who studies earthquake waves and their effects. However, professional expertise is not the only type of credibility. If you want to discuss the feeling of experiencing a major earthquake, testimony from a survivor may be more credible than testimony from a scientist who studied the event but did not experience it. When examining credibility, check to see that the person has the training or experience appropriate to the type of information they offer. Next, check to see whether the information in your chosen source aligns with information in other sources on the issue. If your source is the only one that offers a particular perspective, and no other source corroborates that perspective, it is less likely to be credible. Additionally, check for bias. All sources have bias, meaning they all come from a particular perspective. You must check to see whether the perspective of the source matches your own, and whether the perspective overwhelms the ability to offer reliable information on an issue. Also check to see whether the source is affiliated with organizations that are known to hold a particularly strong opinion concerning the issue they are speaking to. In your speech, make reference to the quality and credibility of your sources. Identifying the qualifications for a source, or explaining that their ideas have been used by many other credible sources, will enhance the strength of your speech. You may be tempted to stop once you have found one source that supports your idea, but continuing to research and comparing the information in each source will help you better support your ideas. It will also prevent you from overlooking contradictory evidence that you need to be able to address. Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism Style Guides Once you have evaluated and gathered the appropriate sources to support your ideas, you will need to integrate citations for those sources into your speech using a style guide such as those published by the Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), or The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). These style guides help you determine the format of your citations, both within the speech and in the bibliography. Your professor will likely assign a particular style guide for you to use. Plagiarism Plagiarism is the act of presenting someone else's work or ideas as your own. Sometimes this is intentional, meaning people choose to copy from another source and make their audience think that the idea was original. Students in speech classes sometimes buy speeches from the internet, or repeat a speech written by a friend who took the class in a previous semester. These actions are cheating because the students did not do the work themselves, yet they took credit for it. Most instances of blatant cheating, such as these, are quickly caught by instructors who maintain files of work turned in previously, or who are adept at searching the Internet for content that does not appear original to the student. Consequences for this type of plagiarism are severe, and may range from failure of the course to expulsion from the school. More often, plagiarism occurs by mistake when people are not aware of how to properly summarize and cite the sources from which they took information. This happens when someone incorporates words or ideas from a source and fails to properly cite the source. Even if you have handed your professor a written outline of the speech with source citations, you must also offer oral attribution for ideas that are not your own. Omitting the oral attribution from the speech leads the audience, who is not holding a written version, to believe that the words are your own. Be sure to offer citations and oral attributions for all material that you have taken from someone else, including paraphrases or summaries of their ideas. When in doubt, remember to "always provide oral citations for direct quotations, paraphrased material, or especially striking language, letting listeners know who said the words, where, and when" (Osborn & Osborn, 2007). Whether plagiarism is intentional or not, it is unethical and someone committing plagiarism will often be sanctioned based on their institution's code of conduct. Conclusion Remember that in order to convince an audience and appear credible, you will need to offer support for each of your ideas. Gathering testimony from experienced and expert individuals will lend excitement and credibility to your speech. Combining testimony with resources from the library, such as books, periodicals, and reference material, will help you backup your ideas. Examining credible Internet resources can also enhance your speech by yielding the most up-to-date evidence for the points you hope to make. With so much information available it is possible to support almost any idea. However, you will need to take care to ensure that you offer the highest quality and most credible support. Do this by gathering a variety of sources and comparing the information to make sure the support is consistent across sources, and that you have accounted for any possible contradictory information. As you integrate the sources into your speech, remember to ask: "Does this evidence support my specific purpose statement?" and "Is this evidence appropriate for my audience?" Also, don't forget to offer written and oral attribution for each idea. Using the various resources available you will likely find more evidence than you can possibly incorporate into one speech. These questions will assist you as you refine your support and craft the most compelling speech possible. Review Questions and Activities 1. For each of the claims below, identify the most compelling form of evidence that the speaker might offer. List as many as you can think of. a. Photo-retouching alters our perspective on beauty. b. The Internet is an effective protest tool. c. Body scanners in airports are detrimental to our health. 2. You are giving a speech about the importance of legislation banning text messaging while driving. You want to offer diverse support for your argument that the legislation is necessary. What research tools would you use to find the following forms of evidence? a. A personal narrative concerning the effects of texting while driving. b. An academic study concerning the effects of texting while driving. c. Existing legislation regarding cell phone use in automobiles. d. A visual aid for your speech. 3. Checking the quality of your evidence is an important step in refining support for your argument. What are three elements that you should look for when determining source quality? Why is each element necessary? 4. You are giving a speech about bed bugs. You point out that bed bugs are a common pest that can be found almost anywhere. You have found a variety of sources for your speech including a bed bug registry website where people can report seeing bed bugs in hotels, an encyclopedia entry on bed bugs, a blog containing pictures and personal testimony about an experience with bed bugs, a scientific study on the conditions under which bed bugs thrive, and a psychological study concerning the way that people are conditioned to respond to the sight of bugs in their bed. Which of these is the most credible source to support your point? Why? 5. The following is an excerpt from John F. Kennedy's 1963 Civil Rights Address. Read the excerpt, and offer your own paraphrase of his ideas without incorporating any direct quotations from the text: I hope that every American, regardless of where he lives, will stop and examine his conscience about this and other related incidents. This Nation was founded by men of many nations and backgrounds. It was founded on the principle that all men are created equal, and that the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened (Kennedy, 1963). 6. Imagine you are giving a speech on [fill in the blank]. Write a potential specific purpose statement. Then identify three types of research that you would integrate in order to offer balanced and compelling support for your statement. ACTIVITIES 1. Get to know your library. Use your library website to determine the name of the librarian who works with your major, or in the area of your speech topic. This activity is not designed for you to get the librarian to do your work for you, but rather for you to get to know the librarian better and make them a partner in your research process. 2. Using the topics below, or your own speech topic, practice developing productive search terms. Begin by brainstorming synonyms for the topic. Then, consider other concepts that are closely related to the topic. Using those terms, conduct a preliminary search in the search engine of your choice. Skim the content on the 3-5 most promising results and highlight common terms and phrases that appear on each page. Those common terms and phrases should help you narrow your searches as you move forward with your research. a. National Security b. Alternative Energy c. Economic Stability d. Media Piracy e. Privacy f. Local Events 3. Using one of the topics listed in the previous activity, conduct a search on the topic using identical search terms in Google Images, Google Scholar, and Google Books. For each search, identify the source that you think would best support a speech on the topic. Cite each source using a consistent style guide (MLA, APA, or Chicago), and offer your evaluation of the sources' relevance, quality, and credibility. 4. Watch Stephen Colbert's report concerning Wikipedia or search "wikiality" if the link does not work (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20PlHx_JjEo). Using research that you have found on your speech topic, update the Wikipedia page for your topic. Be careful not to replicate the errors that Colbert discusses. Offer only accurate information, and cite the source where support for your entry can be found. Glossary Bias The predisposition toward a particular viewpoint. Boolean Operators Words and symbols that illustrate the relationship between search terms and help the search engine expand or limit results. Expert Testimony Testimony that comes from a recognized authority who has conducted extensive research on an issue. Interlibrary Loan The process of borrowing materials through one library that belong to another library. Lay Testimony Any testimony based on witnesses' opinions or perceptions in a given case Parity Similarity of information across sources. Personal Testimony An individual's story concerning his or her lived experience, which can be used to illustrate the existence of a particular event or phenomenon. Search Engine Software which uses algorithms to scan an index of existing Internet content for particular terms, and then ranks the results based on their relevance. Source Credibility Signs that a person is offering trustworthy information. Style Guide An established set of standards for formatting written documents and citing sources for information within the document.

Chapter 8

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: ● Identify, define and give an example of each of the four main types of delivery ● Determine the best speaking style for different types of speaking occasions ● Identify and utilize voice aspects of speaking ● Recognize and utilize the key "ingredients" of a well-performed speech ● Adapt to the physical aspects of a speaking venue ● Plan the speech in preparation for delivery/performance of a speech. Introduction Imagine this. A speech topic is perfectly chosen; the content is nicely organized and flawlessly researched; a great deal of work was invested in preparing the outline of the speech, but the speech is poorly delivered. Will the speech be effective? Will the audience stay alert and follow it? Will the audience properly interpret the speaker's intended message? These last questions contribute to the universal fear of public speaking. It is not the preparation of a speech that strikes terror in the hearts of so many, but the performance of a speech! Don't lower your expectations to meet your performance. Raise your level of performance to meet your expectations. Expect the best of yourself, and then do what is necessary to make it a reality. ~ Ralph Marston Since an audience does not usually read the text of a speech, but simply listens to it, all the preparation of the content by the speaker must be encoded into a complex combination of communication channels (words, sounds, visual elements, etc.) ready to be performed. The purpose of this chapter is to offer guidance to transfer the speech from the page to the stage. Practice is the key to excellent performance. Trite as it might sound (or obvious), the basic foundation for a good speech delivery involves the two "P's": Preparation and Practice. There is not an actor, athlete, or musician worth his/her salary who does not prepare and practice. Even when a performance is given with spontaneity, the "P's" are crucial. This chapter will describe the basic methods of delivery, and offer guidance in the aspects of presentation (such as voice, inflection, eye contact, and body and facial language). Some basic strategies for in setting up the room and podium for speaking will also be covered. It is delivery that makes the orator's success. ~ Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe Methods of Delivery There are four basic methods (sometimes called styles) of presenting a speech: manuscript, memorized, extemporaneous, and impromptu. Each has a variety of uses in various forums of communication. Manuscript Style The word manuscript is the clue to the style. The speech is written and the speaker reads it word for word to the audience. Originally, it was done from the hand-written paper manuscript. While the manuscript style is common, the paper is now gone. Today, teleprompters are commonly used by Newscasters, Presidents, or political figures. Why is the manuscript important and in use? Precision. In the news-reporting industry every fraction of a second counts because broadcast time is costly. Also, the facts and names must be exact and accurate so there is no room for error. Errors in reporting decrease the credibility of the news organization and the newscaster. Memorized Style The memorized style of speaking is when the manuscript is committed to memory and recited to the audience verbatim (word for word). In the days when elocution was taught, this was a typical approach. A speech was a recitation. Where is a memorized delivery style still common? Due to copyright laws and licensing contract agreements (other than scripts that are in the public domain), actors on stage are obligated to memorize the script of the play and perform it verbatim, exactly as written. It is typical for speakers on high school and university speech and debate teams to memorize their competitive speeches. Some monologists also use a memorized delivery style. In all cases, they create the impression that the speech is spontaneous. You might consider using the memorized delivery style if your speech is relatively short, or you know you will have to deliver your speech repeatedly such as a tour operator would. Impromptu Style Theoretically, an "impromptu" speech is made up on the spot. It is unprepared and unrehearsed. Often ceremonial toasts, grace before meals, an acknowledgement, an introduction, offering thanks and so on, fall into this category. While there are some occasions when a speech in those categories is actually prepared (prepare your acceptance for the Academy Award BEFORE you are called!), there are many occasions when there is little or no opportunity to prepare. Impromptu speeches are generally short and are often given with little or no notice. Notes are rare and the speaker generally looks directly at the audience. It would be presumptuous and arrogant to declare rules for Impromptu Speaking. It is fair to explain that "impromptu" describes a range from absolutely no preparation, to a modest amount of preparation (mostly thought) and rarely incorporates research or the formalities of outlines and citations that more formal speeches would include. Be still when you have nothing to say; when genuine passion moves you, say what you've got to say, and say it hot. ~ D. H. Lawrence Extemporaneous Style Sandwiched between the memorized and impromptu delivery styles you find the extemporaneous speech style. For this style, the speech is not completely written out. It is usually delivered with keynotes for reference. Most public speaking courses and books describe extemporaneous speeches as carefully prepared and rehearsed, but delivered using notes of key words and phrases to support the speaker. Phrasing is pre-rehearsed, words are pre-chosen, and the organization is fluid and well constructed. There should be no fumbling for words, no rambling, and length of time should be carefully monitored. The style does offer the speaker flexibility to include references to the immediate surroundings, previous speeches, news of the day, and so on. How you develop the notes and what they look like are up to the individual, but a natural extemporaneous delivery is difficult if you are relying on a manuscript. Under no circumstances should the speaker be spending more than 20% of the speaking time looking at the notes. It would be ideal to practice so you only glance at your notes approximately 5% of the time of the speech. The extemporaneous style is the method most often recommended (and often required) in today's public speaking courses, and is generally the best method in other settings as well. While it is not the only method of delivering a speech, it is the most useful for presentations in other courses, in the corporate world and in pursuing future careers. The trouble with talking too fast is you may say something you haven't thought of yet." ~ Ann Lander Vocal Aspects of Delivery Though we speak frequently during the course of a day, a formal speech required extra attention to detail. What can one do in advance to prepare for a speech? The challenge is partly determined by the speaker's experience, background and sometimes cultural influence and existing habits of speaking. Articulation, Pronunciation, Dialect, Tone, Pitch, and Projection each depends on long-term practice for success. These aspects are like signatures, and should be developed and used by each speaker according to his or her own persona. Voice, or vocal sound, is made when controlled air being exhaled from the lungs, passes over the vocal cords causing a controlled vibration. Articulation Articulation is how well and correctly we form our vowels and consonants using our lips, jaw, tongue, and palate to form the sounds that are identified as speech. We are often judged by how well we speak in general. We are perceived as more prepared, credible, and effective when we articulate well. Diction and enunciation are other terms that refer to the same idea. For instance, saying "going to" instead of "gonna" or "did not" instead of "dint" are examples of good versus poor articulation. Consonants and vowels are spoken with standard accepted precision, and serious students and speakers will strive to practice the clarity of their sounds. Proper diction is as integral to the English language as proper spelling, but it takes practice. Pronunciation Proper articulation applied to a given word is that word's pronunciation. The pronunciation includes how vowels and consonants are supposed to sound, as well as which syllable is emphasized. With online dictionaries now readily available, one needs only to "look up" a word and select "play" to hear an audible recording of the official and precise way a word should be pronounced. Now there is no excuse for mispronouncing a word in a speech. A mispronounced word will obliterate a speaker's credibility, and the audience's attention will be focused on the fault rather than the message. Try This! Pronunciation 1. Flip through a book, article or scholarly work until you come to a word that is unfamiliar and you can only guess its pronunciation. 2. Go to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary website, and look up the word. 3. When the definition appears, click the icon of the loudspeaker. The word is audibly pronounced for you. The online dictionary is useful in both articulation as well as pronunciation. Accent, Dialect, and Regionalisms Subtleties in the way we pronounce words and phrase our speech within a given language are evident in accents, regionalisms, and dialects. An accent refers to the degree of prominence of the way syllables are spoken in words, as when someone from Australia says "undah" whereas we say "under." A regionalism is a type of expression, as when someone says, "The dog wants walked," instead of "the dog wants to go for a walk." Dialect is a variety of language where one is distinguished from others by grammar and vocabulary. In Pennsylvania you might hear people say that they are going to "red up the room," which means, "to clean the room." Those who depend on speaking for a career (broadcasters, politicians, and entertainers) will often strive for unaccented General or Standard English. Listen to most major network newscasters for examples of regionalism-free speech. Any speaker should be aware of how accent, dialect, and regionalisms can be perceived by a given audience. If you speak in a way that the audience might find difficult to understand, make an extra effort to pay attention to the phrasing and pace of your speech. Ask a sympathetic and objective listener to help you when you practice. We often refuse to accept an idea merely because the tone of voice in which it has been expressed is unsympathetic to us. ~ Friedrich Nietzsche Vocal Quality The quality of the voice, its timbre (distinctive sound) and texture, affects audibility and can affect articulation. Our voices are unique to each of us. Some examples of vocal quality include warm, clear, soft, scratchy, mellow and breathy. Each speaker should practice at maximizing the vocal effect of his or her voice, which can be developed with vocal exercises. There are numerous books, recordings and trainers available to develop one's vocal quality when needed. The quality of one's voice is related to its range of pitch. Pitch and Inflection The pitch is the "highness" or "lowness" of the voice. Each of us has a range of tone. Vocal sounds are actually vibrations sent out from the vocal cords resonating through chambers in the body. The vibrations can literally be measured in terms of audio frequency in the same way music is measured. When the pitch is altered to convey a meaning (like raising the pitch at the end of a sentence that is a question), it is the inflection. Inflections are variations, turns, and slides in pitch to achieve the meaning. With good animated inflection, a speaker is more interesting, and the inflection conveys energy and "aliveness" that compels the audience to listen. The human voice is the most beautiful instrument of all, but it is the most difficult to play. ~ Richard Strauss If you THINK varied pitch, you can SPEAK varied pitch. Think of pitch inflections as seasoning spices that can make the speech more interesting. Sing "Happy Birthday." You do not have to concentrate or analyze how to create the melody in your voice. Your memory and instinct take over. Notice how the pitch also provides an audible version of punctuation, letting the audience know if your sentence has ended, if it is a question, and so on. The melody lets the audience know that there is more to come (a comma) and when the phrase is ended (a period). Remember that in a speech, the audience does not have the written punctuation to follow, so you have to provide the punctuation with your inflection. Try This! Vocal Variation Find a listening partner. Using only the sounds of "la" ha," and "oh," covey the meaning of the following: 1. It's the biggest thing I've ever seen! 2. I've fallen and can't get up! 3. I've got a crush on him/her. 4. That soup is disgusting and spoiled. 5. I got an "A" in my Speech Final! Those who do not use inflection, or use a range of pitch, are speaking in monotone. And, as the word implies, it can be monotonous, boring, and dull. A balance between melodramatic and monotonous would be preferred. The inflection should have a meaningful and interesting variety. Be careful not to turn a pattern of inflection into a repetitive sound. Think through each phrase and its musicalization separately. A word of caution: Inflection and varied pitch must be "organic," that is to say, natural for the speaker. You cannot fake it, or it sounds artificial and disingenuous. It is a skill that needs to develop over a period of time. Rate of Speaking In order to retain clarity of the speech with articulation and inflection, the speaker must be aware that there is a range of appropriate tempo for speaking. If the tempo is too slow, the speech might resemble a monotonous peal. If it is too fast, the articulation could suffer if consonants or vowels are dropped or rushed to keep up the speed. Table 8.1: Finding the Right Pace for Your Speech If you speak too quickly... If you speak too slowly... the audience might get the impression you are just trying to get it over with or that you don't want to be there. the audience can forget the first part of your sentence by the time you get to the last! (It happens!) the audience has a difficult time catching up and comprehending what you are saying. They need time to digest the information. So plan on periodic pauses. your audience may lose interest in what you're trying to say. As a speaker, you cannot race with the audience, nor drag their attention down. Like Goldilocks, look for the pace that is "just right." A comfortable and clear pace is the best. An ideal speaking rate will allow you to comfortably increase your pace to create a sense of excitement, or slow down to emphasize the seriousness of a topic. It is simple nonsense to speak of the fixed tempo of any particular vocal phrase. Each voice has its peculiarities. ~ Anton Seidl Pauses Versus Vocalized Pauses A text that is read has punctuation that the reader can see...miniature landmarks to define the text. When spoken, similar punctuation is needed for comprehension, and the speaker's responsibility is to offer the text with pauses. Space between phrases, properly planted, gives the audience the opportunity to understand the structure of the speaker's sentences. It also gives time for the audience to "digest" information. Generally, spoken sentences need to be simpler and shorter than what can be comprehended by reading. Pauses can help increase comprehension. However, pauses that are filled with "uh's, "um's," "like," etc.,are called vocalized pauses, or fillers, and should be avoided. Vocalized pauses commonly occur when we are gathering our thoughts and we instinctively try to fill the silence. When overused, they can be distracting and give the impression of a lack of preparation. Vocal Projection The volume produced is projection. Supporting the voice volume with good breathing and energy can be practiced, and helping a speaker develop the correct volume is a main task of a vocal trainer, teacher or coach. Good vocal support with good posture, breathing, and energy should be practiced regularly, long before a speech is delivered. There are numerous exercises devoted to developing projection capabilities. While there is no need to shout, a speaker should project to be easily heard from the furthest part of the audience. Even if the speech is amplified with a microphone/sound system, one must speak with projection and energy. As with your rate of speech, you should speak at a volume that comfortably allows you to increase the volume of your voice without seeming to shout or decrease the volume of your voice and still be heard by all audience members. Do not expect to walk up to the podium and have a full voice. Actors spend about a half- hour doing vocal warm-ups, and singers warm up much more. You might not have an opportunity to warm up immediately before your speech, but when you can, warm up with humming, yawning (loudly) or singing scales: all while breathing deeply and efficiently. It will loosen your voice, prevent irritation, and fire up your vocal energy. One final note: If public speaking is or will be an important part of your career, it would be sensible to have an evaluation of your voice, articulation and projection done by an objective professional so you can take any remedial action that might be recommended. There are courses of study, private lessons, and professional voice coaches to work with your voice projection, tone, and pitch. Try This! Projection Go to the room in which you are to speak. Have a friend sit as far away from the lectern as possible. Rehearse your speech; talking loudly enough so your friend can hear you comfortably. That is the projection you will need. When you mentally focus on the distant listener, you will tend to project better. Words mean more than what is set down on paper. It takes the human voice to infuse them with deeper meaning. ~ Maya Angelou Nonverbal Aspects of Delivery Personal Appearance Here is the golden rule: Dress appropriately for the situation. You should be comfortable and confident knowing that you look good. It is good practice to dress a bit more formal than less. Err on the side of formal. Most class speeches would be best in business casual (which can vary from place to place and in time). The culture or standards of the audience should be considered. There are exceptions depending on the speech. A student once arrived in pajamas to deliver his 9 a.m. speech. At first, I thought he got up too late to dress for class. However, his speech was on Sleep Deprivation, and his costume was deliberate. What he wore contributed to his speech. If you have long hair, be sure it is out of the way so it won't cover your face. Flipping hair out of your face is very distracting, so it is wise to secure it with clips, gel, or some other method. Be sure you can be seen, especially your eyes and your mouth, even as you glance down to the podium. Hats should be avoided as they block your face and affect eye contact with the audience. Think of it as an interview...just like in an interview, you will want to make a good first impression. The corporate culture of the business will determine the dress. Always dress at the level of the person conducting the interview. For example, a construction foreperson (or project manager) will conduct an interview to hire you as a carpenter. Do not dress like a carpenter; dress like the project manager. Movement and Gestures Overall movement and specific gestures are integral to a speech. Body stance, gestures and facial expressions can be generally categorized as body language. Movement should be relaxed and natural, and not excessive. How you move takes practice. Actors usually have the advantage of directors helping to make decisions about movement, but a good objective listener or a rehearsal in front of a large mirror can yield productive observations. Moving around the performance space can be a very powerful component of a speech; however, it should be rehearsed as part of the presentation Too much movement can be distracting. This is particularly true if the movement appears to be a result of nervousness. Avoid fidgeting, stroking your hair, and any other nervousness-related movement. Among the traditional common fears of novice speakers is not knowing what to do with one's hands. Sometimes the speaker relies on clutching to the podium or keeping hands in pockets. Neither is a good pose. Try This! Gestures Using only your hands, convey the following: 1. "It's OK." 2. "I give up." 3. "He's crazy." 4. "We will be victorious." Facial Expressions Since facial expression is a valid form of communication, it is integral to delivering a speech. The face supports the words, and the speaker's commitment to the material is validated. The press scrutinizes a politician for every twitch of insincerity. Detectives have created a science of facial communication for interviewing suspects. Like inflections, gestures and movement: facial expressions should be organic and spontaneous, not contrived. If there is a hint of artificiality in your expression, you will sacrifice your credibility. Try This! Facial Expressions While looking in a mirror, try to express these thoughts without words: 1. "I am thrilled that I am getting a raise." 2. "I am worried about tomorrow." 3. "Lemons are too sour for me." 4. "I am suspicious about what he did." After you have determined a facial expression for each, say the phrase. And see how well the verbal expression goes with the nonverbal expression. Eye Contact Next to clearly speaking an organized text, eye contact is another very important element of speaking. An audience must feel interested in the speaker, and know the speaker cares about them. Whether addressing an audience of 1000 or speaking across a table, eye contact solidifies the relationship between the speaker and audience. Good eye contact takes practice. The best practice is to be able to scan the audience making each member believe the speaker is speaking to him or her. However, there are some eye contact failures. Head Bobber This is a person who bobs his or her head looking down on the notes and up to the audience in an almost rhythmic pattern. Balcony Gazer A person who looks over the heads of his or her audience to avoid looking at any individual. The Obsessor A person who looks at one or two audience members or who only looks in one direction. The best way to develop good eye contact is to have an objective listener watch and comment on the eye contact. The eyes are called the windows to the soul, and the importance of eye contact in communication cannot be overemphasized. Ideally, a speaker should include 80% to 90% of the delivery time with eye contact. With good eye contact, the speaker can also observe and gauge the attention and response of the audience. This is actually part of the feedback process of communication. The ideal is that the audience is not overly aware of the speaker using notes. How do you develop good eye contact? First, practice the speech with a generous amount of eye contact. Second, know the speech well enough to only periodically (and quickly) glance at your notes. Third, prepare your notes so they can be easily read and followed without hesitation. There are no secrets to success. It is the result of preparation, hard work, and learning from failure. ~ Colin Powell Mastering the Location The Room Do not wait until the moment you step up to speak to see what it will be like. Check out the room (venue) and the podium before you need to speak. Check the width of the room and where the audience will be seated. Rehearse giving the imaginary audience eye contact. Will you be brighter than the audience? Will they be able to see your face? Can you easily project your voice to the back row? Will you have a microphone? The Podium or Lectern Check the podium. Approach it with the confidence you should exhibit when speaking. Touch it. Lean on it. Is it the right height? (It should be about the height of your elbow.) Is it sturdy? Are your feet visible? Is there enough light to see your notes placed on top. Is the podium easily visible to the entire audience? How far left or right do you need to look to see the whole audience? ● If you are using note cards, try placing them on the podium to be sure they will work, and you can maneuver them easily. ● Plan where you will stand. It does not have to be behind the lectern. Practice standing with good posture; know where you will keep your hands and be sure your gestures are not hidden by the podium. ● You might be a speaker who does not stay behind the podium, but you should still check it out. Every morsel of familiarity will contribute to your confidence in speaking. The Equipment If you are using any multimedia such as PowerPoint, slides, video, or music, try it long before the speech. Of course, you would have practiced the speech with the media on your own, but if at all possible, run it in the venue in which you will speak. ● Check the controls, slide clicker, and the relationship between the screen and the podium. Be sure the audience can see you as well as the screen. The screen should be positioned so you can glance at it without turning away from the audience. You should not be reading from the screen. ● Check your own files to be sure the equipment in the room can play it correctly. Do not assume that every file can be played. Always be prepared by having multiple versions of your audio/video. If you have only one version, and it does not play, you will be very frustrated. Even seasoned presenters break into a cold sweat over equipment failures or unpleasant surprises so avoid the stress by checking the equipment. Using a Microphone In some cases, most likely outside of a classroom situation, there will be a microphone for amplification. If at all possible, test it before the performance. Be sure the amplification is suitable for your projection. Be sure how near or far you should be for proper audio pick-up. It is important to note that amplification cannot make up for poor articulation or weak inflections, but it can compensate for a room that is large or acoustically insufficient for speech. If you are prone to move away from the podium, or plan any movement, be aware that the microphone must be considered. If it is a stationary microphone, be careful to maintain a consistent distance, or the volume of your speaking will pop from louder to softer. Changes in volume or position can result in distortion or feedback (an escalating humming sound). Be careful that consonants do not "ring" with amplification. In some venues, the time delay with the reverberation can cause an overlap of vocal sounds. You may have to slow down or use more pauses to prevent syllables from overlapping. I drank some boiling water because I wanted to whistle. ~ Mitch Hedberg Preparation, Practice, and Delivery Preparing Notes Once you have created a comprehensive outline and have thought through your speech, you should be able to create your note cards or whatever you might be using (notes or an iPad for instance). Every speaker is a bit different, and different speech topics and organizational patterns may require different notation techniques. ● Your note cards must have enough information on them to be able to deliver the speech without missing details and organized in the precise order that you have planned. A common technique is to print the outline in a font that is large enough to be read from a distance. ● You should be able to glance at the cards, get your bearings, and look back at the audience. If you are reading the cards word-for-word, there are too many words on them, unless it is an extended exact quote, or group of statistics that must be delivered precisely. ● Be sure your notes or cards are numbered (e.g., boldly in the upper right hand corner), so you can keep them organized. Color-coding is often done to easily distinguish the cards at a glance. Losing your place can be very stressful to you and distracting to the audience. ● Avoid writing or printing on two sides; flipping a page or card is distracting to the audience. The audience should not be aware of the notes. It is best to simply slide the cards aside to advance to the next card. ● Rehearse your speech using the notes that you will bring to the podium. Be sure you can glance at the notes, get your information, and look up to have eye contact with the audience. All the real work is done in the rehearsal period. ~ Donald Pleasence Rehearsing the Speech Remember how to get to Carnegie Hall. Rehearse your speech—aloud and ideally with a colleague or fellow student as an audience. Rehearse in front of a mirror if needed. There are some students who record a rehearsal speech so they can get a real sense of what the audience will hear. If you are using presentation aids, rehearse with them for timing and familiarity so you only have to glance at the screen or easel. Time the speech to be sure it within the assigned time. Phrase the speech as you will phrase it in the actual delivery (and listen for the verbal fillers, awkward pauses, and other non- fluencies). Plan what to do with your hands. You should also know exactly how your speech will begin and end. Regardless of how dependent on notes the speaker may be, here is one constant word of advice: know exactly how you are going to begin your speech. Not just an idea, but verbatim, with every inflection, every gesture, every eye contact with the audience. The first few sentences should be so ingrained, that you could perform it during an earthquake without batting an eye. A memorized introduction accomplishes several goals. First, it gives you the opportunity to breathe, and realize it's not so bad to be up there after all! Second, it lets the audience know you are prepared. Third, it signals to the audience that what you are about to say is important. Finally, it gives you the opportunity for direct eye contact (because you are not reading) and commands the audience's attention. Eye contact is a signal to the audience that you care about them! The conclusion of your speech is equally important. In show business parlance, the end of a song or a scene is called a "button." It is a "TAH-DAH" moment that lets the audience know you are finished, and that it is their turn to applaud. The ending impression your speech leaves with the audience is greatly affected by how effective the ending is. The content and structure notwithstanding, you should also know exactly how you will end (verbatim), so there is no hesitation, no stumbling, no tentative "I guess that's all" feeling. A confident and decisive beginning will draw the audience to you; a confident logical ending will be very effective in preserving a lasting impression on the audience. Stress is an important dragon to slay— or at least tame— in your life. ~ Marilu Henner Conclusion The true test for this chapter is in the actual presentation of the speech. Like voice and diction, understanding what makes a speech effective without practice is insufficient. Merely knowing the best form for a golf swing is useless unless put into practice; and practice reinforces the knowledge. Comprehending the rules for driving on the road is moot (and/or dangerous) if the rules are not obeyed in practice. The same is true for this chapter. Practicing your speech will make you a more effective speaker! A speech is poetry: cadence, rhythm, imagery, sweep! A speech reminds us that words, like children, have the power to make dance the dullest beanbag of a heart. ~Peggy Noonan Review Questions 1. Develop a list of ten potential speech topics. For each topic, think of a setting in which a speech on that topic might be delivered. Next, determine what type(s) of delivery (manuscript, memorized, impromptu, extemporaneous) would be most appropriate for the topic and setting. 2. What three aspects of vocal delivery do you believe are most important to a speaker's credibility? Explain. 3. How might a speaker's accent affect the audience's perception of him or her? Illustrate your answer with an example. 4. What guidelines did you find most useful in the section about what to wear for your speech? 5. How do you perceive speakers who do not make eye contact with their audience? What suggestions would you give these speakers to improve their eye contact? 6. What type of equipment is available in the space(s) where you plan to give your speeches? What kinds of presentations can be used with this type of equipment? 7. List three methods you would personally use to reduce your anxiety before your speeches. 8. What piece of advice from the chapter did you find most useful? Glossary Accent The prominence of a syllable in terms of loudness, pitch, and/or length. Articulation The act of producing clear, precise and distinct speech. Body Language Body stance, gestures and facial expressions. Dialect A variety of language, cant or jargon that is set apart from other varieties of the same language by grammar, vocabulary or patterns of speech sounds. Diction The accent, inflection, intonation and sound quality of a speaker's voice. Also known as enunciation. Elocution The formal study and practice of oral delivery, especially as it relates to the performance of voice and gestures. Extemporaneous Delivery Learning your speech well enough so that you can deliver it from a key word outline. Impromptu Speeches A speech delivered without previous preparation. Inflections Variations, turns and slides in pitch to achieve meaning. Manuscript Delivery Reading the text of a speech word for word. Memorized Delivery Learning a speech by heart and then delivering it without notes. Performance The execution of a speech in front of an audience. Pitch The highness or lowness of one's voice or of sound. Pronunciation Saying words correctly, with the accurate articulation, stress and intonation, according to conventional or cultural standards. Regionalism A speech form, expression or custom that is characteristic to a particular geographic area. Tempo The rate, pace, or rhythm of speech. Timbre The characteristic quality of the sound of one's voice. Tone The particular sound quality (e.g. nasal or breathy) or emotional expression of the voice. Verbatim To say with exactly the same words. Vocalized Pauses Verbal fillers in speech such as "um," "uh," "like," "and," or "you know.