COMM Final

How do you learn to deliver a successful speech?

-Draw on Conversation skills -Draw on Writing skills -Develop an effective oral style -Demonstrate Respect for Difference -

Keys to Effective Delivery

(1)naturalness 1) Strive for naturalness Act naturally, and pretend you are having a professional conversation. (2)enthusiasm 2) Show enthusiasm Speak about topics which interest and excite you; this will inspire your audience as well. (3)confidence 3) Project a sense of confidence Try to appear confident even if you are nervous and focus on your message rather than yourself and your nerves. (4)directness. 4) Engage directly with audience members Connect with your audience by establishing eye contact with them, using a friendly tone of voice, smiling, and maintaining close physical positioning.

Speaking outline

(aka delivery outline)- is your actual outline you will use when you are practicing and presenting your speech. Speaking outlines contain your ideas in a condensed and brief form. Speaking outlines should contain phrases or key words.

Working outline

(aka preparation outline)- its purpose is to organize and back up your main points using the evidence you've collected to formulate your supporting points. Your working outline will contain your ENTIRE speech (word for word), supporting points, and all when completed. A working outline usually contains full sentences (aka sentence outline) expressed in the way the speaker would like to convey his/her ideas during the actual presentation.

Audience analysis

(keeping the audience in mind) is crucial for an effective persuasive speech

When Creating the Working Outline:

**Prepare the body section of the speech before the introduction and conclusion sections,** keeping them separate from each other. Mark which speech points need source credit. Prepare a bibliography. Formulate and assign a Speech Title to your speech which informs the audience of the subject in a way that encourages them to want to listen or read it. ** After one completes his/her working outline, s/he should transfer the ideas from there to a speaking outline. A speaking outline should only contain phrases or key words.** Why should someone transfer his/her ideas from a working outline into a speaking outline? **A working outline (which contains full sentences) is more likely to cause the speaker to read the outline verbatim(word for word), preventing the speaker from enforcing eye contact with audience, having natural gestures, or notice and adjust to audience feedback.**

Public-speaking anxiety (PSA)

- a situation-specific social anxiety that arises from anticipating giving an oral presentation.

Speaking from memory

- also known as oratory, is when presenters memorize entire speeches, word for word. -Potential downfalls of using this method: a. It is not a natural way to present a message; it stifles enthusiasm and threatens a relaxed delivery. b. You may end up forgetting parts of speech. -If you must use this delivery, make sure to practice a lot.

Preparation anxiety

- arises while actually preparing for the speech.

Internal listening distractions

- distractions from listening that arise from our own thoughts and feelings (i.e., internally).

External listening distractions

- distractions from listening that originate outside of us, in the environment.

Pre-performance anxiety

- happens during rehearsal of the speech. -For example, you might think your speech isn't sounding the way you want it to while practicing.

As you listen to speeches

-Evaluate the evidence in terms of accuracy and credibility. -Analyze the speaker's assumptions and biases. -Assess the speaker's reasoning (is there faulty logic or any fallacies). -Consider multiple perspectives (to compare to the speaker's perspective). -Summarize and assess the relevant facts and evidence.

Special occasion speech

- is a speech that is prepared for a specific occasion and for a purpose dictated by that occasion. Special occasion speeches can be either informative, persuasive, or both. However, the main goal for this type of speech is to either: entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or set a social agenda. A) to entertain- with this type of speech, the audience expects a lighthearted, amusing speech. They may also expect the speaker to offer some information or insight into the topic at hand. B) to celebrate (a person, place, or event)- with this type of speech, the audience expects the speaker to praise the subject of the celebration. Also, the speaker must conform to the norms of the ceremony or occasion. C) to commemorate (an event or person)- i.e. memorials- with this type of speech, the audience expects the speaker to offer remembrance and tribute to the person or event. D) to inspire (inaugural addresses, keynote speeches, and commencement speeches)- with this type of speech, the audience expects to be motivated by examples of heroism and achievement. E) to set social agendas (conventions, fundraisers, gatherings for cause-oriented organizations)- with this type of speech, the audience expects expression and reinforcement of the group's goals and values.

Speaking impromptu

- is a type of delivery that is unpracticed, spontaneous, or improvised, and involves speaking on short notice or without prior preparation. -To succeed in impromptu speaking you should anticipate situations that might require a speech. -Think about your listeners' interests and viewpoints. -Listen to what others around you are saying and incorporate keys ideas into your speech. -If a speaker is before you, acknowledge him/her and then make your points. -Stay on the topic; don't wander. -Use transitions to organize your points.

Listening distraction

- is anything that competes for the attention a listener is trying to give something else. There are two types of listening distractions (1: External Listening Distractions and 2: Internal Listening Distractions)

Active listening

- is focused, purposeful listening.

Articulation

- is the clarity or forcefulness with which the sounds are made, regardless of whether they are pronounced correctly. Poor articulation is MUMBLING - slurring words together at a low speech volume. Sometimes the problem is LAZY SPEECH - not taking time to correctly pronounce words and slurring them together. Try to be aware of your speech pronunciation and practice speaking clearly, properly, and slowly as incorrect articulation and poor pronunciation are generally a matter of HABIT and can be improved with practice and awareness.

Listening

- is the conscious act of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and nonverbal messages. -Listening involves consciously selecting what you will listen to, giving it your attention, processing and understanding it, remembering the information, and responding to it either verbally, nonverbally, or both.

Performance anxiety

- is the most common type of speech anxiety and occurs just as you begin your speech. -Most of the time, this type of anxiety fades away as your speech progresses and your delivery will get easier.

Dialogic communication

- is the open sharing of ideas in an atmosphere of respect (in order to achieve understanding between the speaker and listener(s).

Nonverbal immediacy

- is the perception of physical and psychological closeness between the speaker and listeners.

Hearing

- is the physiological, largely involuntary process of perceiving sound.

Visualization

- is the practice of summoning feelings and actions consistent with successful performance. -It is a highly effective method of reducing speech anxiety.

Pre-preparation anxiety

- occurs the minute you know you are going to have to give a speech.

Selective perception

- people pay attention selectively to certain messages while ignoring others -we pay attention to what we hold important -we pay attention to information that touches our beliefs and expectations and we ignore, downplay, or even belittle messages that contradict them.

Critical thinking

- the ability to evaluate claims on the basis of well-supported reasons.

scanning

- the movement of your gaze from one listener to another and from one section to another, pausing to gaze at one person long enough to complete one thought.

Specific speech purpose

- the speaker's speech goal in terms of what you want the audience to learn or do as a result of the speech. *Note that the speaker should establish his/her specific speech purpose before preparing the speech in order to help guide the speaker while s/he maintains a clear focus in mind.

Speaking extemporaneously

- this type of speech is prepared and practiced in advance, giving full attention to all facets of the speech- content, arrangement, and delivery alike. -Usually speakers use key-word or phrase outlines to guide them. a. This type of outline allows the speaker flexibility in adapting to the specific speaking situation and the audience's feedback. -Most speakers prefer this method of delivery over the others. -A potential downfall to using this method is the speaker may forget his/her point during the speech, since the outline will only have key words or phrases. a. Therefore, one should practice his/her speech several times (utilizing the outline s/he will be using for the speech delivery) to prevent this from occurring. PreviousNext

Defensive listening

- when listeners decide either that they won't like what the speaker is going to say or that they know better.

Scriptwriting

- when we as listeners focus on what we, rather than the speaker, will say next.

Offer constructive and compassionate feedback when evaluating others' speeches

-Be fair and honest in your evaluation. -Adjust to the speaker's style. -Be compassionate in your criticism. -Be selective in your criticism.

Learn from Feedback

-Consider any audience feedback after your speech to help you improve your future speeches.

Set listening goals

-Determine ahead of time what you need and expect from the listening situation (i.e., recognize how and why it will benefit you to actively listen in a particular situation).

Identify What Makes You Anxious

-First, identify what is making you nervous -Do you feel different than others and view these differences as possible shortcomings? -Do you feel self-conscious being the center of attention?

You need to orally acknowledge speech sources in order to . . .

-Increase the odds that audience members will believe in your message. -Demonstrate the quality and wide range of research to your audience. -Illustrate that reliable sources support your position, thesis, & main points. -Avoid plagiarism and gain credibility as an ethical speaker who gives others credit for their work. -Enhance your authority and win support for your point of view. -Enable listeners to locate your sources and pursue their own research on your topic. While you are obligated to acknowledge the works of others that you utilize, you do not have to credit ideas that are common knowledge.

Use Proven Strategies to Build Your Confidence

-Prepare and rehearse your speech delivery several times. -Modify your thoughts and attitudes a. Replace any negative thoughts with positive ones, and encourage positive self-talk. -Visualize Success a. is the practice of summoning feelings and actions consistent with successful performance. b. It is a highly effective method of reducing speech anxiety. -Try relaxation techniques such as meditation or controlled breathing. -Use movement to minimize anxiety a. Try to utilize natural hand gestures and body movements throughout your speech and feel free to walk around during some of your speech delivery to release any tension or nervousness.

Listen for main ideas

-Try to recognize the speaker's key points as they are usually repeated throughout the speech (in the introduction, body, and conclusion sections).

Rhetorical situation

-a circumstance calling for a public response; this is essentially the reason that the speaker is deciding to give over the speech.

Public Speaking

-a vital life skill -a potent weapon in career development -will help you be a more engaged citizen -you need to be thoughtful and inclusive of the audience by recognizing them and relating your message to them by making specific references to yourself and the audience.

Strive to be

-an ethical listener -Refrain from disruptive and intimidating tactics such as heckling, name-calling, or interrupting. -Speak up, respectfully, if an argument is morally offensive.

Noise

-any interference with the message. Different types of noise include: 1) physical sounds- such as cell phones ringing or people talking, 2) psychological distractions- such as strong emotions, or 3) environmental interference- such as the room being too cold.

Work to overcome

-cultural barriers

Speaking from manuscript

-is reading the speech verbatim from a prepared written text containing the entire speech, word for word. -Potential downfalls of using this method: a. This delivery restricts eye contact, body movement, and expressiveness. b. The speaker may appear boring or monotonous to audience. c. It is most useful when very precise messages are required. -When speaking from a prepared text, try to deliver the speech naturally. -If you must use this method: try to maintain some eye contact with the audience, vary your tone of voice, become familiar with your speech, use large font, and offer interesting presentation aids.

language used in speech

-is simpler, more rhythmic, more repetitious, and more interactive

Pitch

-is the range of sounds from high to low (or vice versa). -Pitch conveys your mood, reveals your level of enthusiasm, and expresses your concern for the audience. -Speakers should vary their pitch to avoid a monotonous delivery.

Intonation

-is the rising and falling of vocal pitch across phrases and sentences -Intonation powerfully affects the meaning associated with spoken words. -Varying your intonation can give a phrase different meanings. a) i.e.- "Stop." versus "Stop!"... the exclamation mark at the end adds emphasis versus just a period.

Audience-centered perspective

-keeping the needs, values, attitudes, and wants of the audience firmly in focus.

Beware of

-laziness -overconfidence

Public Speaker

-must be able to address diverse audiences with sensitivity and respect -Def; a speaker delivers a message with a specific purpose to an audience of people who are present during the delivery of the speech. Public speaking always includes a speaker who has a reason for speaking, an audience that gives the speaker its attention, and a message that is meant to accomplish a specific purpose. Public speakers address audiences largely without interruption and take responsibility for the words and ideas expressed.

Feedback

-the audience's response to a message which can be conveyed both verbally and nonverbally.

Message

-the content of the communication process.

Channel

-the medium through which the speaker sends a message. *Note that if a speaker delivers a message in front of a live audience, the channel is the air through which sound waves travel.

Shared meaning

-the mutual understanding of a message between the speaker and audience.

Encoding

-the process of converting thoughts into words. *Note that the speaker encodes the message and the audience encodes the feedback.

Decoding

-the process of interpreting the message. *Note that the audience decodes the speaker's message and the speaker decodes the audience's feedback.

Receiver

-the recipient of the source's message. *Note that the audience is the receiver of the message and the speaker is the receiver of the feedback.

Source

-the sender who creates the message. *Note that the speaker is the source of the message and the audience is the source of the feedback.

Depending on the nature of your topic/issue, there are 3 different kinds of claims:

1) Claims of fact- focus on whether or not something is true or whether or not something will happen (i.e., will or does something actually occur or not?). -i.e., Does smoking lead to lung cancer? 2) Claims of value- address issues of judgment by attempting to show why something is right or wrong, good or bad, worthy or unworthy -i.e., Is a particular thing ethical? 3) Claims of policy- recommend that a specific course of action be taken, or approved of, by the audience (i.e., something "ought to be done" and there would be a better outcome). -i.e., If you vote to support a certain proposition, a better outcome will occur.

A good introduction section should:

1) Gain the audience's attention... how? use a compelling quote tell a story pose a question relate unusual/interesting info. humor refer to the audience- identify and find common ground with audience by expressing shared interests/goals you both have. refer to the occasion- reference/acknowledge the speaking occasion. 2) Preview the topic & purpose- make sure to let the audience know your main speech topic/goal which is your thesis. 3) Preview the Main Points- after revealing your thesis, briefly preview the MPs of your speech (by using Preview Statements such as, "I will be discussing three main points..."). 4) Motivate the audience to accept your goals- make the audience care about your topic and convey to them why they should believe what you say about it. How? Make the topic relevant to them- tell them why they should care about your topic, what they will gain by listening to you, and demonstrate how your speech goal is consistent with their motives and values. Establish your credibility as a speaker- make a simple statement of your qualifications for speaking about a topic. Do so by pointing out your knowledge, experience, or perspective that is different or more extensive than your audience.

How do you select a speech topic?

1) Identify personal interests. -What are some of your favorite hobbies or activities? -Would sharing certain personal experiences of yours benefit the audience somehow? 2) Consider current events. 3) Is there any local community news/issues to consider addressing? 4) Stay away from overused and highly sensitive topics. 5) Try brainstorming to generate ideas. -Brainstorming- is a method of spontaneously generating ideas through word association, topic mapping, or internet browsing. -Word association- one type of brainstorming technique that involves writing down one topic that might interest you and your listeners and then continuing to write down the first thing that comes to mind related to the topic you just jotted down. -Topic mapping- another type of brainstorming technique in which you lay out words in diagram form to show categorical relationships among them. 6) Use internet tools. -You can use library portal databases. -Popular search engines such as Google offer specialized searches within sources such as books, news, blogs, and images.

There are two broad categories of supporting material:

1) Primary sources- provide firsthand accounts or direct evidence of events, objects, or people. -i.e., the speaker's own personal knowledge and experience or interviews and surveys conducted by the speaker him/herself. 2) Secondary sources-provide analysis or commentary about things not directly observed or created. -i.e., the vast body of information gathered by others and not by the speaker him/herself such as books, newspapers, periodicals, government publications, encyclopedias, etc. -Before utilizing any secondary source, make sure to examine the author's background, the credibility of the publication, the reliability of data or statistical information, and the recency of the information.

Types of Transitions

1) Restate-forecast form- these types of transitions restate the point just spoken about and preview the next point about to be covered. (i.e., Now that we've established ___________, let's take a look at ___________). 2) Preview statements as transitions- they briefly introduce the upcoming Main Point in the speech. (i.e., Now, we are going to take a look at what the causes for the rising gas prices are). 3) Internal summaries- these types of transitions sum up and highlight the important ideas which the speaker had just discussed before moving on to the next speech point.

A good conclusion should:

1) Signal to the audience that your speech is coming to an end and provide closure. Signal closure by using a transition statement (i.e., in closing). Signal closure subtly by varying your tone, pitch, rate of speech, or rhythm (i.e., slowing down).Finish soon after signaling the end of your speech 2) Restate your Thesis - reiterate your topic/main idea. 3) Restate your Main Points - summarize the key points (i.e.- I have just explained how...). 4) Challenge the audience to respond- different ways for different speeches. Informative speech- challenge the audience to use the information they've learned to benefit them. Persuasive speech- CALL TO ACTION (is unique to persuasive speeches)- is when the speaker challenges the audience to see a problem in a new way, to change their beliefs about the problem, or to change both their actions and beliefs about the problem. 5) Make the speech memorable so the message is more likely to linger with the audience after the speech. How? Use the same devices as the introduction- quotes, short stories, questions, humor, startling statements, and references to the audience and occasion.

There are 2 ways a person can process a message:

1) central processing- occurs when people are motivated and able to think critically about a message (they feel involved in the message due to the speaker). -Listeners who seriously consider what your message means to them are the ones most likely to act on it. 2) peripheral processing- occurs when people lack the motivation or ability to judge an argument because they see it as irrelevant, too complex to understand, or unimportant, and thus don't pay close attention to it. -These people who peripherally process the message will be unlikely to change their attitudes or actions.

There are 3 components to a speaker's credibility/ethos

1) competence- demonstrating mastery over the subject matter (stress your expertise). 2) moral character- is reflected in an honest presentation of the message. 3) goodwill- as demonstrated by the speaker's interest in and concern for the needs of the audience relative to the speech.

Pinpoint the Onset of Anxiety

A) Pre-preparation anxiety B) Preparation anxiety C) Pre-performance anxiety D) Performance anxiety

an argument consists of 3 core elements

A claim (also called a proposition)- states the speaker's conclusion about some state of affairs; it is essentially what the speaker is attempting to prove. -The claim often takes the form of a THESIS statement. Evidence- is material that substantiates the claim; it is essentially the proof for your claim. A warrant- provides reasons or justifications for why the evidence supports the claim. It is a line of reasoning that explains why the evidence proves the claim.

Make Sure to Avoid Fallacies in Reasoning.

A logical fallacy- is either a false or erroneous statement or an invalid or deceptive line of reasoning.

Counterarguments

Addressing the Other Side.

Cite Quotations, Paraphrases, & Summaries

Always CREDIT others' ideas. You can cite other people's ideas in three ways: Direct quotations are statements made verbatim. Paraphrase is a restatement of someone else's statements, ideas, or written work in the speaker's own words. Summary is a brief overview of someone else's ideas, opinions, or theories. You should always and credit sources for any facts and statistics.

Pay attention to body language.

Animate your facial expressions. i) Smile at the audience as this builds a connection, goodwill, comfort, and rapport with them. Maintain eye contact. i) This shows acknowledgement and respect for each audience member and establishes a positive relationship and trust with them. ii) Speakers should use scanning- the movement of your gaze from one listener to another and from one section to another, pausing to gaze at one person long enough to complete one thought. Use gestures that feel natural (not exaggerated or distracting). i) Notice the gestures you use while practicing your speech because physical gestures fill in the gaps your speech, as in illustrating the size or shape of an object or expressing the depth of an emotion, Create a feeling of immediacy i. Use enthusiastic vocal delivery, eye contact, animated facial expressions, and natural body movements to establish the perception of a bond between you and the audience. Maintain Good Posture i. Standing straight helps the speaker appear authoritative and confident.

Nonverbal communication

Approximately 93 percent of a speaker's message is communicated through nonverbal communication. this includes body movements, physical appearance, and qualities of voice.

Ethos

Aristotle coined this term to mean moral character. Now it refers to a speaker's credibility.

Logos

Aristotle coined this term to refer to appealing to the audience's reasoning and logic on a topic. Reason or logic provides the justification for the audience to act. Therefore, persuasive speeches are built on arguments.

Therefore, when using a popular search engine such as Google, you must

Be a Critical Consumer of Information.

There are 6 commonly used speech organizational patterns

Chronological pattern of arrangement Spatial pattern of arrangement Causal (cause-effect) pattern of arrangement Problem-solution pattern of arrangement Topical/categorical pattern of arrangement Narrative organizational pattern of arrangement

Sample Argument:

Claim- Cigarette smoking may lead to lung cancer. Warrant (connects the claim to the evidence)- There are several studies which have reported links between people who smoke and those who get lung cancer. Evidence- (List actual findings from studies) In the following studies, it was shown that 90% of ppl who smoked got lung cancer years later.

How to Gain & Sustain the Audience's Involvement

Demonstrate your topic's RELEVANCE early on. In the introduction of your speech, express to your audience why they should care about your topic and what they will be learning about it. Use audience analysis Determine the type of audience you are speaking to- is it a GENERAL or SPECIALIZED AUDIENCE? Next, using audience analysis & based on the type of audience you have and HOW FAMILIAR THEY ARE WITH YOUR TOPIC, determine what listeners will want to know and need to be told about your topic. For example, if you are speaking to musicians (i.e., specialized audience), they might want to hear technical information about different musical instruments versus a general audience who may not understand details about musical instruments. Present new and interesting information. Try to uncover fresh & unusual YET CREDIBLE information about your topic. Tell moving stories or give startling facts. Look for ways to increase audience understanding by helping them follow along. Because the audience CANNOT REWIND what you as a live speaker say, make sure to help them follow along easily during your speech... How? State your thesis & preview your Main Points in the introduction section of your speech. Use clear transitions (words, phrases, or sentences that tie speech ideas together and help audience members follow your points).Use repetition- repeat key ideas and concepts to help audience grasp and retain information.

Strengthen your Case with Organization.

Different target audiences will require different strategies and different organizational speech patterns. The most common organizational pattern for persuasive speeches is the problem-solution pattern. -It first demonstrates the nature and significance of the problem (i.e., defines what the problem is), and then provides justification for a proposed solution (i.e., offers a way to overcome the problem). Sometimes you can add a third main point to the problem-solution pattern and make it a problem-cause-solution pattern. -This pattern first addresses the nature of the problem, then the reasons for the problem, and a proposed solution (explain why it should work). Another way one can organize speech points is by the comparative advantage pattern which illustrates how your viewpoint or proposal is superior to one or more alternative viewpoints or proposals. -This pattern is most effective when the audience is already aware of the issue or problem.

Record references as you go.

Don't forget to maintain a works cited page to avoid losing track of sources as you write your speech.

Research shows several factors increase the odds that the speaker's efforts at persuasion will succeed:

Establish your credibility and bond with the audience. Make the message personally relevant to the audience. Demonstrate how any change you propose will benefit the audience (make the listeners understand that changing will benefit them in some way). Don't expect major changes in attitudes or behaviors from your audience (set modest goals). -The persuader who seeks only minor changes tends to be more successful than the speaker who seeks major changes. Focus on issues which audience members would feel strongly about. Otherwise, if they are not interested in the topic, they will not pay attention to your speech. Expect to be more successful when addressing an audience whose position differs only moderately from your own. -If they are completely against your position, it will be very difficult to get them to change so drastically. Incorporate stories to gain the audience's attention.

Avoid plagiarism.

Ethical speakers avoid plagiarizing other people's ideas or words.

Fair use, copyright, and ethical speaking.

Ethical speakers seek permission as needed when including copyrighted materials from print and online sources in a speech.

invective

Ethical speech steers clear of invective- verbal attacks designed to discredit and belittle those with whom you disagree.

hate speech

Even though it's protected under the First Amendment, speakers should avoid using hate speech- which is any form of verbal or nonverbal offensive communication directed against people's race, ethnicity, national origin, gender, religion, etc. Though allowed, unethical speech should be AVOIDED.

Arrange Main Points in a Pattern

How well an audience will understand a speech is directly linked to how well it is organized. Use any of the patterns we spoke about from CH 12 to arrange your main points... i.e., Topical, chronological, spatial, problem-solution, cause-effect, & narrative patterns of arrangements.

Refer orally to your sources.

Identify the source of your information and provide a context for accurate interpretation.

Qualify the Source.

In order to demonstrate a source's credibility or trustworthiness, offer source qualifies. -source qualifier- is the brief description of the source's qualifications to address the topic. -mention the source's credentials and relevant group or organizational affiliations. -Consider what the audience's perception of your sources would be... Would they be accepting of them? This is where audience analysis would play a role in your choice of supporting materials.

First Amendment

In the United States, the First Amendment protects the right to free speech for both the ethical and the unethical speaker.

Each culture has core values:

Individualistic cultures promote self-reliance and individual achievement. Collectivist cultures promote interdependence and group harmony.

A speech is composed of 3 general parts

Introduction, Body, & Conclusion

reckless disregard for the truth

It is only defamatory if it is proven that a person spoke with reckless disregard for the truth- when a person knowingly states false information.

How can you encourage central processing?

Make your argument practical and applicable to your audience. Present the argument at an understandable level to your audience. Demonstrate common bonds with your audience (by identifying with them and using inclusive words such as I, we, us). Stress your credibility to offer the claims (explain your expertise or experience you have in your topic).

Provide facts and statistics

Most people require some type of evidence, usually in the form of facts and statistics, before accepting someone else's claims or position. Facts are truly factual only when they have been independently verified by someone other than the source.

Refine your topic and then form a specific speech purpose.

Narrow your topic. -If you have a general topic idea, decide what aspect of your topic you'd like to speak about. Form a specific speech purpose. -Specific speech purpose- describes in action form what you want to achieve with your speech. -It is not a full sentence, and therefore, is used by the speaker to guide him/her when writing his/her speech. =What do you as the speaker want the audience to get from your speech. What is your specific aim or goal of your speech?

Types of Speaking Outlines:

Phrase outline Key-word outline

types of definitions

Operational definition- defining a topic by explaining what it does. (a machine) Definition by negation- defining a topic by describing what it is not. Definition by example- defining the topic by providing several concrete examples. Definition by synonym- defining the topic by comparing it to something with which it is synonymous. Definition by word origin- defining the topic by illustrating the root meaning of the term in question (i.e., "rival" derives from the Latin word of rivalis).

CULTURE

SHAPES VALUES, and PERSUASION depends on appeals to an audience's values. Therefore, an audience's culture will affect their response to persuasion.

Library Portal vs Popular Search Engine:

Sources in a library portal are carefully selected by trained professionals. A library portal's resources have been verified/checked by an information specialist for reliability and credibility. Library Portals may give you access to the deep (or invisible) Web- the portion of the Web that general search engines cannot access because the information is licensed or fee-based (this includes password-protected sites, documents behind firewalls, and the contents of proprietary databases). Therefore, through a library portal, you can access scholarly publications/journal articles (peer-reviewed articles that were reviewed and edited by experts in the field to make sure they are credible). In library portals, sources are categorized according to topics and might be easier to find. HOWEVER, popular search engines (i.e., Google or Yahoo) have no standards for source credibility and can contain false and/or biased information.

Types of Special Occasion Speeches

Special occasion speeches include: speeches of introduction, speeches of acceptance, speeches of presentation, roasts & toasts, eulogies & tribute speeches, after-dinner speeches, and speeches of inspiration. 1) Speech of introduction- is a short speech with 2 goals: 1) for the speaker to "warm up" the audience in preparation for the main speaker and 2) to motivate audience members to listen to what the main speaker has to say. -These speeches should build the listeners' interest in and credibility of the speaker to come. -A good speech of introduction balances 4 elements: 1) describe the speaker's background and qualifications for speaking (establish the speaker's relevancy to the occasion). 2) briefly preview the speaker's topic (why people should be interested in the speaker's upcoming speech). 3) ask the audience to welcome the speaker. 4) be brief (just prepare and motivate the audience for a maximum of 2 minutes). 2) Speech of acceptance- is made in response to receiving an award, and its purpose is to express gratitude for the honor bestowed on the speaker. -Tips: Prepare in advance (if you know or suspect you'll be receiving an award, decide before the event what you will say).Express what the award means to you (describe its value to you and be humble).Express gratitude (thank those people involved in helping you attain your achievement as well as those organizations involved in giving you the award). 3) Speech of presentation- has 2 goals: 1) to communicate the meaning of the award (what is the award for and what it represents) and 2) to explain why the recipient is receiving it (describe the recipient's achievements and special attributes that qualify him/her as deserving of the award).It is also good to plan the physical presentation of the award. 4) Roast & Toast -A roast- is a humorous tribute to a person in which a series of speakers jokingly poke fun at him or her. -A toast- is a brief tribute to a person or event being celebrated. -The goals of both are to celebrate an individual and his/her achievements. -Tips: Prepare, highlight the good traits of the person being honored, be positive, and be brief. 5) Eulogy & other tributes- the goal is to celebrate/praise & commemorate the life of a deceased person while consoling those who have been left behind. -Tips: Try to be in control of emotions during the delivery, refer to the family of the deceased, and speak positively but realistically of the person. 6) After-dinner speeches- can be given at any time (not just after dinner) during any type of business, professional, or formal meeting or occasion. -It's expected to be a lighthearted and entertaining speech which also gives listeners insight into the topic at hand and/or to hear an outline of priorities and goals for the group. -This speech must recognize the occasion by connecting the speech to it, balance seriousness and lightheartedness, and avoid comedy. 7) Speech of inspiration- the goal is to uplift members of the audience and to help them see things in a positive light. -Because it motivates the audience to positively consider, reflect on, and sometimes act on the speaker's words, it utilizes persuasive elements. -Effective speeches of inspiration appeal to the emotions of the audience in order to encourage them toward making an effort and remind them of a common good. -Do so by expressing shared values and real-life stories. -Use vivid imagery and repetition. -Be dynamic, make your goal clear, organize the speech well, and close with a dramatic/memorable ending which encourages the audience to feel or act according to your speech goal.

Share stories.

Stories (or narratives) - tell either real or imaginary tales that help us make sense of our experience. As supporting material, stories may be brief and simple descriptions of short incidents or relatively drawn-out accounts that constitute most of the presentation. One popular type of story is an anecdote- a brief story of an interesting and often humorous incident based on real life, with a recognizable moral (lesson).

HOW DO YOU PREPARE A SPEECH FOR THE LISTENING EAR?

Strive for simplicity Be concise Use frequent repetition Use Personal Pronouns

Persuasive Appeals

Target the Listeners' Needs & Motivations

Draw on testimony.

Testimony - is firsthand findings, eyewitness accounts, and people's opinions. Types of testimony Expert testimony- is provided by professionals who are trained to evaluate or report on a given topic. Lay testimony-is supporting evidence provided by nonexperts who have witnessed or experienced events related to the subject. In either case, the credibility of the source is important, and it is up to the speaker to establish that credibility. When using testimony in a speech, always cite the source's name, title, and relevance to the topic.

Monroe's motivated sequence pattern is a 5 step sequence used if you want to encourage the audience to ACT (to do something).

The five steps are: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. The *attention* step addresses listeners' core concerns, making the speech highly relevant to them. The *need* step isolates and describes the issue to be addressed; by showing audience members that they have a need that must be satisfied or a problem that must be solved by the speaker, the speaker gives them a reason to listen to the message. The *satisfaction* step identifies the solution to the problem; this step offers audience members a proposal to change or reinforce their attitudes, beliefs, and values in order to satisfy their need or problem. The *visualization* step entails the speaker presenting the audience with a vision of anticipated outcomes associated with the solution; SHOW the audience how their changing based on your proposal will actually benefit them. The *action* step involves making a direct request of the audience to accept your message and ACT accordingly.

Offer examples

The purpose of examples is to aid understanding by making ideas, items, or events more concrete and by clarifying and amplifying meaning. Examples can be brief, extended, or hypothetical.

speaker credibility

Therefore, speakers should display speaker credibility (modern term for ethos) through:

Why do you need to prepare the body section of your speech before your introduction and conclusion sections

This way you know your MPs you need to PREVIEW in the Intro. A good speech Introduction invites listeners to give their attention to your speech, and a good Conclusion helps the audience remember the message and react the way the speaker wants them to. An audience usually decides within the first few minutes whether they want to continue to listen to a speech or not... that's why making a good speech introduction is important An Introduction should be brief, not dragged out so the audience doesn't get bored.

Present statistics ethically.

To present statistics ethically, take care to avoid even unintentional inaccuracies. Use statistics only from trustworthy and reputable sources. Present statistics in their proper context. Avoid presenting data as absolute by presenting it as tentative information. Avoid cherry-picking- or selectively presenting only those facts or statistics that support your points while ignoring competing data.

Being ethical means to adhere to certain moral ground rules or "pillars of character" including:

Trustworthiness- is a combination of honesty and dependability. Respect- is to treat audience with civility and courtesy. Responsibility- is being accountable for what you say (be accurate, careful, and objective). Fairness- is making a genuine effort to see all sides of an issue and acknowledging the information listeners need in order to make informed decisions. Be Civic minded- means caring about your community, as expressed in your speeches and your deeds.

Steps or Strategies to Reduce Confusion

Use Analogies and Build on Prior Knowledge. Use analogies to relate a difficult topic, concept, or phenomena to something the audience already knows ( i.e., comparing a satellite's orbit to a penny dropped into water). Appeal to different Learning Styles Check for Understanding Check for the audience's feedback, including nonverbal signals such as blank stares which indicates a lack of focus or understanding. Then, invite questions.

Use inclusive, unbiased language

Use culturally sensitive, & gender-neutral language. Don't use stereotypes or negative descriptions of people. Explain terms that may be foreign to some listeners. Don't use only masculine or feminine pronouns, rather be INCLUSIVE and say both masculine & feminine ones like "his & her" or use gender neutral terms like "you" or "your".

When Creating the Speaking Outline:

Use either large notecards or regular 8.5x11 sheets of paper and use large enough print to see words easily during delivery. Include any delivery cues that may help you deliver your speech more effectively. -i.e., Show yourself on the outline when to transition, when to pause or slow down, and when to point to your diagram or model. Practice your speech using your speaking outline. ** A speaking outline encourages the speaker to become familiar with the speech points and to use the key words or phrases as only a reminder of what you want to say.**

Choose Words that Create a Lasting Impression

Use repetition to create rhythm- repeat key words or phrases to create a distinct rhythm to your speech This ingrains the message into the listeners minds.

Beware of commercial factors.

Watch out for commercial influences on your search results, which can result in listings that appear solely because advertisers paid for it. Paid placement- is the practice some search engines engage in of charging for guaranteed higher rankings. Paid inclusion- is the practice of charging companies for inclusion in a search engine without a guarantee of ranking.

Avoid a Mechanical Delivery.

When citing your sources throughout your speech, avoid a mechanical delivery of your oral citations by varying the wording you use to acknowledge your sources. This helps to avoid an interruption in the natural flow of your speech delivery. For example, sometimes you can say, "According to Dr. ___ " and other times you can say, "As reported by Dr. ___".

Note:

While the complete title, list of authors, etc. of the references you used should be included in your written Works Cited (bibliography) page, you should keep the oral citations in your speech presentation brief.

common knowledge

You don't need to cite common knowledge- information that is likely to be known by many.

Establish the source's trustworthiness.

You need to establish source credibility to your audience in order for them to accept information that you are presenting to them. Source credibility - is the level of trust in a source's credentials and track record for providing accurate information. -To demonstrate a source's trustworthiness, describe its qualifications to report on the information, including relevant affiliations and credentials. -Be aware that while a credible source is usually accurate, it can sometimes be mistaken, so make sure to offer a variety of sources and not just one to support and justify your major speech points.

Speaking with the qualities of dignity and integrity

are universally seen as central to ethical behavior.

Epiphora

a repetition of a word or phrase at the END of successive statements. i.e., Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address - "...that government of the people, by the people, for the people..."

3) Causal (cause-effect) pattern of arrangement

a speech arrangement where the main points represent a cause and effect relationship. **(good for informative speeches)** With this pattern, each main point represents one cause or effect. You can can list many causes and one effect or one cause and many effects (each represented by a main point). i.e. causes for gas prices rising - there may be a few causes that are each represented by a MP and one effect (gas price rising). You can also place the effect(s) first and then list the causes next (each represented by its own main point).

Coherence

a speech exhibits coherence when it is organized clearly and logically. This means to place the coordinate and subordinate points in their correct order regarding their importance in comparison to each other and their logical flow (chronologically- first, second, third steps).

Unity

a speech exhibits unity when it contains only those points implied by the purpose and thesis statement. In other words, every single main point directly supports the Thesis statement and every supporting point provides evidence for the main points.

method of delivery

a)Speaking from manuscript b)Speaking from memory c)Speaking impromptu d)Speaking extemporaneously

Communication ethics

addresses our responsibilities in public speaking when seeking influence over other people and for which there are positive and negative, or "right" and "wrong", choices of action.

Each culture

also has its own cultural norms (rules of behavior) & cultural premises (values about identity and relationships- i.e. equality versus social hierarchy). -Appeals that run contrary to a group's cultural norms or rules of behavior will usually fail. Each culture stresses certain appropriate emotions their people should feel. -individualistic cultures- may appeal to ego, pride, anger, and happiness. -collectivist cultures- may appeal to empathy, identification, shame, and indebtedness.

1) Chronological pattern of arrangement

an arrangement of the main points according to their natural time-ordered, chronological occurrence. With this pattern, place the main points/events in the order they occurred.

2) Spatial pattern of arrangement

an arrangement of the main points in order of their physical proximity or direction relative to one another. Use this style in order to describe the physical arrangement of a place, scene, or object. Use this style if you are giving the audience a "tour" of a particular place (i.e. your trip to the museum, in order of what you encounter as you walk through and progress to each room). This pattern is also good to use when describing a particular phenomenon across regions of the country (i.e. growth of marketing sales among each region of the country- Western, Eastern, and Central).

A speaker

an choose to offer only one side of the argument or also address opposing views. 1) A one-sided message- does not mention the opposing claim(s). 2) A two sided message- mentions opposing points of view and sometimes refutes them.

General speech purpose

answers the question for your speech, "What is my objective in speaking on this topic to this audience on this occasion?"

Orally Acknowledge

any source that would require credit in written form. For each source, alert audience members to the type, the author or origin, the title or description, and the date of the source.

Dialects

are distinctive ways of speaking associated with particular regions or social groups. When speaking publicly, use pronunciation and grammar that will be understood by all audience members.

Facts

are documented occurrences that include events, dates, times, people, and places.

data

are raw, unprocessed facts, and information gives it context and makes sense of it. Data= numbers such as "9 percent" Information= "The NY population grew 9 percent from 2011 to 2012."

Arguments

are stated positions, with support for, or against, an idea or issue.

Values

are the most enduring judgments or standards of what is good and bad in life, and of what's important.

Public domain works

are those that have fallen out of copyright and may be reproduced by the public.

Transitions

are words, phrases, or sentences that tie the speech ideas together, enabling the speaker to move smoothly from one point to the next. Transitions help the speech flow & CUE the audience that you will be moving onto your next point. Use transitions BETWEEN each speech SECTION as well as between Main Points & between Supporting Points. One can use transitional words & phrases (to compare- similarly, likewise; to contrasts idea- however, in contrast; time sequence- first, second: to explain- for example, furthermore: to summarize- in conclusion, finally). Transitions help listeners review and evaluate the key theme (and flow) of the speech so far.

Balance

balance suggests that appropriate emphasis or weight be given to each part of the speech relative to the other parts and the theme. The body of the speech should always be the longest part, and the introduction and conclusion should be roughly the same length and shorter in comparison to the body.

Conclusion

brings closure to the speech by restating the thesis, summarizing the main points, and restating why the thesis/speech is relevant to the audience.

goodwill

by being genuinely interested in the welfare of and caring about the audience.

good moral character

by being honest and straightforward.

competence

by having a solid grasp of the material you're speaking about.

Persuade listeners

by showing the audience they have a need which they want fulfilled and then explain to them how to fulfill it.

A speech that contains both primary and secondary sources

can be more compelling and believable than one that relies on one source type alone

Thesis statement

clearly expresses the central idea of your speech in full sentence form. It clearly and concisely identifies to your audience, in one sentence, what your speech is about. Because the thesis is in full sentence form, the speaker formally shares it with the audience, so they understand what the speech is about. Make the thesis relevant and interesting to your audience.

Phrase outline

contains partial constructions of sentences to form each point.

Oral citation

credits the source of speech material that is derived from other people's ideas to your audience during your speech. For each source, plan on alerting the audience to -the following: -the author or origin of the source -the type of source -the title or a description of the source -the date of the source.

Pauses

enhance meaning by providing a type of punctuation, emphasizing a point, drawing attention to a thought, or just allowing listeners a moment to contemplate what is being said. Pauses can be used strategically within a speech to enhance meaning. Avoid using meaningless vocal fillers like "uh", "hmm", or "you know".

Introduction

establishes the purpose of the speech and shows its relevance to the audience.

Supporting material

examples, narratives, testimony, facts, and statistics that support the speech thesis and form the speech.

You should be

excited enough about your topic to be willing to devote the necessary time to research your topic and organize your speech.

By Demonstration

explaining how something works or actually demonstrating it, using an object, a representation, or some other visual aid. i.e., recipe cooking steps.

Main Points (aka MPs)

express the key ideas of the speech and should function as major ideas or claims being made in support of the speech thesis. MPs should flow directly from the speech goal and purpose... The number of MPs should be restricted to somewhere between 2-5. If you feel that more main points are necessary, you should look into narrowing your thesis (so you have a more specific point to prove).

Speakers should

focus on alternating among several different types of supporting material, such as narratives, testimony, facts, and statistics. Using a variety of supporting materials derived from multiple sources to illustrate each main point will make your presentation more interesting and credible to your audience.

When using emotional appeals

focus on appealing to emotions that lie within the audience's "comfort zone."

A conclusion

gives you the opportunity to leave an impression on your audience that will accomplish the goal(s) of your speech.

Psychologist Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs

has long been a basis for motivation oriented persuasive speeches.

6) Narrative organizational pattern of arrangement

having the speech consist of a story or series of short stories, incorporating character(s), plot, setting(s), and vivid imagery. Generally when using this pattern, one **should incorporate another pattern of arrangement with it** such as cause-effect in order to give it structure. When using this pattern for a speech, you must STRUCTURE it with a thesis, MPs, transitions, etc.

Outlines

help you organize your speech while revealing any logical missing points you may need, and they are also a guideline for your presentation. There are two outlines one should create during the speechmaking process

By Definition

identifying the essential qualities and meaning of something. i.e., defining a complex concept like... what is cholesterol?

Fighting words

inciting words which provoke people to violence.

Body language

includes facial expressions, eye behavior, gestures, and general body movements during the delivery of a speech. Audience members pay close attention to the messages sent by the speaker's body language.

Vocal variety

includes the use of all the aforementioned vocal elements together to achieve a successful speech delivery (volume, pitch, speaking rate, and pauses). Vocal variety comes naturally when you are ENTHUSIASTIC about sharing your topic with your audience.

Copyright

is a legal protection afforded original creators of literary and artistic works. Works created from 1978 to date, a copyright is good during the author's lifetime plus 50 years, and can be extended thereafter.

An argument

is a stated position, with support for or against an idea or issue.

Example

is a typical instance of something.

A well-organized speech

is characterized by 1) unity, 2) coherence, & 3) balance.

vivid imagery

is concrete language that brings into play the senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing, and touch to paint mental pictures. Use lots of descriptive adjectives to help the audience envision or sense what you are speaking about.

Information

is data that is presented in an understandable context.

Ethics

is derived from the Greek word ethos, meaning "character." Aristotle said that audiences will be more willing to listen to and trust a speaker with good credibility.

Propaganda

is information represented in such a way as to provoke a desired response. The purpose of propaganda is to instill a particular attitude and to encourage you to think a particular way (i.e. advertisement).

Common knowledge

is information that is likely to be known by many people and described in multiple places (is widely distributed).

An audience

is more likely to be receptive to changing their attitudes if the speaker seems competent, truthful, and concerned about the audience's needs.

Speech anxiety

is normal as well as helpful! Nervousness and the adrenaline that comes with it can actually help your speech performance.

specialized audience

is specific to a group or occasion (i.e., a group of musicians or fundraiser audience).

Pronunciation

is the correct formation of word sounds (saying words correctly).

Disinformation

is the deliberate falsification of information (i.e.- doctored photos or reports; made up magazine stories).

Voice

is the feature of verbs that indicates the subject's relationship to the action. Make sure the subject you speak about performs the action/verb rather than performed in the past. Passive: A test was announced by the instructor. Active: The instructor announced a test. **(This is BETTER.) Statements using an active voice are more assertive, clear, and direct; while a passive voice is more weak and indirect.

Speaking rate

is the pace at which you convey speech It is the most effective way to hold an audience's attention. Speaking TOO SLOW may put audience to SLEEP, speaking TOO FAST means may illustrate you're UNSURE or NOT CONFIDENT in what you are saying... so speak at a rate that is somewhere in between. Being alert to your audience's reactions is the best way to determine whether you are speaking too rapidly or too slowly. Serious topics benefit from a slower speech rate.

Reasoning

is the process of drawing conclusions from evidence. Arguments can be reasoned deductively, inductively, or causally. 1) Deductively (general case to specific)- reasoned arguments begin with a general principle or case, followed by a specific example of the case, which then leads to the conclusion. -I.e., All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal). 2) Inductively (specific cases to general) reasoned arguments move from specific cases to a general conclusion supported by those cases. 3) Causal reasoning (cause-effect) follows the notion that one event, circumstance, or idea is the cause of another (effect).

Volume

is the relative loudness of a speaker's voice while delivering a speech. Typically, the proper volume is slightly louder than normal conversation, but it depends on the size of the room and the audience, the availability of a microphone, and background noise.

alliteration

is the repetition of the same sounds, usually the same first letter of words next to each other. Example of alliteration from MLK's speech is:"Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York."

domain

is the suffix at the end of the address .edu, gov, .com (commercial/business), a tilde (~) in a web address usually indicates a personal web page.

Oral style

is the use of language that is simpler, more repetitious, more rhythmic, and more interactive than written language. Unlike readers of an essay or passage, a live audience cannot reread the speaker's speech. Therefore, it's important to make sure your speech is well-prepared for the "listening ear" as a live audience only has one chance to hear and retain the spoken message.

Plagiarism

is the use of other people's ideas or words without acknowledging the source. a serious breach of ethics.

Another way to persuade audience members

is to encourage mental engagement by INVOLVING THEM in the MESSAGE.

The goal of a persuasive speech

is to influence the attitudes, beliefs, values, and/or behavior of the audience by appealing to some combination of their needs, desires, interests, and even fears.

An important MEASURE of ethical speaking

is whether or not it contributes something worthwhile and positive to public discourse.

even though people have the right to speak freely

it is their responsibility to speak ethically and influence others responsibly.

figures of speech

make striking comparisons that help listeners visualize, identify with, and understand the speaker's ideas. 2 types of figures of speech I want you to know: simile - explicitly compares one thing to another, using like or as.i.e., S/he works like a dog. metaphor - compares one thing to another by saying "a" is actually "b".i.e., The U.S. is a melting pot..

Use words accurately

make sure words are used in their correct context. Use the "ACTIVE" vs "Passive" voice.

Every key claim

must be supported by convincing evidence or supporting material.

A good topic

must stir the audience's curiosity as well as your own.

Anaphora

one type of repetition in which the speaker repeats a word or phrase at the BEGINNING of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. i.e., MLK I Have A Dream speech - "I have a dream that... I have a dream that..."

Supporting Points

organize the evidence you have gathered to explain or justify the main points. They should further help your main points prove your thesis. Use INDENTATION and numbers/letters/or roman numerals to arrange your supporting points and sub-supporting points.

4) Problem-solution pattern of arrangement

organizes main points to demonstrate the nature and significance (effects) of a problem and to provide justification for a proposed solution. **(good for persuasive speeches)** With this pattern, you can have a simple set up with one main point describing the problem and the next main point offering a solution. A better option with this pattern is to have one main point describing the problem, another MP explaining the effects the problem has on who/what & why, and the following MPs telling why certain already attempted solutions did not work. Lastly, one can then offer potential good/effective solutions to the problem.

doctrine of fair use

permits the limited use of copyrighted works without permission for use in scholarship, criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, and research. Classroom speeches fall within these parameters. Therefore, as long as you CREDIT the source, for CLASSROOM purposes, you have more flexibility with using copyrighted work.

learning styles

preferred ways of processing information. Learning styles/preferences include Visual- through pictures, graphs Aural-spoken word, live lecture, discussion, tapes Read/write- text-based delivery, handouts, PowerPoint slides Kinesthetic-hands on applications, through real life demonstrations

Body

presents the main points that are intended to support and fulfill the speech thesis as well as the supporting points which justify the main points.

Informative Speech

provides new information, new insights, or new ways of thinking about a topic. There might be some elements of a persuasive speech within an informative, but the key is to focus on ENLIGHTENING the audience when delivering an informative speech rather than focusing on modifying the audience's attitudes like a persuasive speech would.

By Description

providing an array of descriptive details that paint a mental picture of a person, place, event, or process. Use concrete words and vivid imagery to help listeners visualize your ideas.

By Explanation

providing reasons or causes, demonstrating relationships, and offering interpretations and analysis. i.e., explaining the relationship between two different variables or phenomena.

Statistics

quantified evidence that summarizes, compares, and predicts things. Types of statistics: A frequency- is a count of the number of times something occurs and can help listeners see comparisons between two or more categories, indicate size, or describe trends (can be used for census - i.e., total population of males were ___ & females __). A percentage- is the quantified portion of the whole and can clearly express proportion, showing how similar or different categories are. percentages are good for comparing categories (i.e., there were 51% of men versus 49% of women in the group). An average- describes information according to its typical characteristics. There are three types of averages. 1) Mean- is the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores. 2) Median- is the centermost score in a distribution. 3) Mode- is the most frequently occurring score in the distribution

Dignity

refers to bearing and conduct that is respectful to self and others.

Misinformation

refers to something that is not true (i.e. on the internet there can be an urban legend- a fabricated story passed around by unsuspecting people). i.e., if you share a wealthy person's picture or post on Facebook, he said he will give you a $1,000 check.

Integrity

refers to the incorruptibility of the speaker—that s/he will avoid compromising the truth for the sake of personal expediency.

Use frequent repetition

repeat key words & phrases. Repetition adds emphasis to important ideas (so the audience remembers), helps listeners follow your logic, & adds rhythm and drama to your speech language.

Persuasion

requires a balance of reason and emotion, and the audience members must be well disposed toward the speaker.

Public discourse

s any speech that involves issues of importance to the greater community at large. I.e., focus on the advancement of constructive goals.

Types of evidence

secondary sources- sometimes referred to as external evidence because the knowledge comes from outside the speaker's own experience. -I.e., examples, narratives, testimony, and facts and statistics (see Chapter 8). -Secondary sources is the most common form of evidence. speaker's expertise- a speaker's opinions based on his/her own experience and knowledge. -This should only be used if the audience would consider the speaker's opinions, experience, and knowledge to be credible in the topic s/he is speaking about. Finally, it is helpful and more effective to offer evidence that relates directly to the audience's needs and motivations; make it personal to them (i.e., how will it benefit them personally). Otherwise, they may not care to act on your suggestions.

Persuasive Speeches

should Appeal to Reason (Logos), Emotion (Pathos), & Credibility (Ethos).

Defamatory speech

slander which can potentially harm a person's reputation at work or in the community. Speech that expresses blackmail, perjury, child pornography, or obscenity.

concrete language

specific, tangible, definitive language Using specific, concrete language to clarify your main points ensures that your audience understands your exact message and speech purpose.

Special occasions

stand out from the ordinary rhythm of life as they mark passages, celebrate life's highlights, and commemorate events. They usually feature the observance of important ceremonies, rituals, and speeches.

Maslow

suggested that each person has a set of needs that are hierarchically embedded, ranging from essential to less critical. Here are the needs listed from important to less important according to Maslow: physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, self-actualization needs. An individual's essential needs (i.e., physiological & safety) must be fulfilled before the less critical needs (i.e., social, self-esteem, self-actualization) can become important and motivating. Maslow's approach shows that successful persuasive appeals depend on UNDERSTANDING what MOTIVATES the audience and targeting their NEEDS.

Good speeches contain

supporting material which is accurate, relevant, and interesting.

The speech purpose of an informative speech

to inform- to increase the audience's awareness and understanding of a topic by defining, describing, explaining, or demonstrating your knowledge of the subject.

Free speech

the right to be free from unreasonable constraints on expression.

While unethical speech is protected under the First Amendment

there are UNPROTECTED types of speech which are ILLEGAL:

Use Transitions

to Give Direction to the Speech

To inform

to communicate knowledge.

Use alliteration

to create poetic flow.

There are three general speech purposes

to inform, to persuade, and to mark a special occasion.

The general speech purpose of a special occasion speech

to mark a special occasion- to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or set a social agenda.

The general speech purpose of a persuasive speech

to persuade- to influence listeners to accept your position on a topic and perhaps take action.

abstract language

try not to use is general or nonspecific language, leaving meaning open to interpretation. You don't want to leave them confused as to what you mean or what you want them to do, so stay away from abstract, nonspecific language.

Use words appropriately

uphold correct American English grammar rules. Only use slang when appropriate (as long as you ensure the meaning is clear to your audience, it can add humor or friendliness to your speech).

Use Personal Pronouns

use WE, US, I, & YOU. By doing so, you follow the notion of INCLUSION! Speaking inclusively is a direct form of address which causes the audience to pay attention and listen to your message. For example: Not using a personal pronoun: Someone should vote yes on that Proposition. Using a personal pronoun: YOU should vote yes on that Proposition.

Be concise

use fewer words and shorter sentences to express your thoughts (no run on sentences).

Key-word outline

uses the smallest possible units of understanding to outline the main and supporting points. (This encourages increased eye contact with the audience and more freedom to move around during delivery).

5) Topical/categorical pattern of arrangement

when each main point is a category of the speech topic and all the main points (aka MPs) are of relatively equal importance. i.e.- You want to offer three reasons why Hawaii is a nice State to visit.

Strive for simplicity

when given the choice between to synonyms, pick the simpler term. Try not to use unnecessary jargon- which is specialized, "insider" language of a given profession.

Be your own editor

who discerns whether or not the information being offered is credible and comes from a trustworthy source. What criteria do you look for when evaluating a web source found on a popular search engine (such as Google) to determine its level of credibility? Examine the domain of the Web address to understand the nature of the site. Look for an "about" link which describes the organization or a link to a page with more info to determine the nature of the site's content. Beware of sites without an about link. Identify the creator of the information. -Is there a biography about the author? List of credentials? Resume? Contact info? Check for (currency) a date of when the page was placed on the Web and when it was last updated. -If missing, can mean the information is outdated or inaccurate. Check that the website documents its sources -You can follow the links to the other sources to and use same criteria to verify credibility. Evaluate information for bias (check for objectivity). -Check that opinions are backed by reliable sources and not just stated because of paid advertising. -Make sure important info is not missing, check for fallacies in logical reasoning, generalizations, & bandwagon.

Appeals that clash with the core values of a culture

will prove unsuccessful.

When addressing an audience who will most likely disagree

with you and/or you feel the opposing argument is vulnerable to attack, consider using the refutation pattern- which addresses each main point and then refutes (disproves) an opposing claim to your position. -First, state the opposing position. Then, refute (disprove) the opposing claim. Next, offer arguments and evidence for your position. Lastly, compare your position with the opposing view to prove your view's superiority.

After first preparing the Body section of the speech

work on your Introduction & Conclusion sections.

In an argument

you ask listeners to accept a conclusion about some state of affairs (aka your claim), support it with evidence, and provide reasons demonstrating that the evidence supports the claim (aka your warrants).

In order to deliver a successful speech

you need to know what your speech topic is (i.e., what you want to speak about) and what your speech purpose is (why you want to talk about it).

After choosing the organizational pattern for your main points

you should outline the speech.