Communication Techniques

Higher-Level Thinking

Higher-level thinking can be promoted in a variety of ways in the classroom. Questions based on Bloom's taxonomy at the evaluation, synthesis, and analysis levels promote higher-level thinking. Higher-level thinkers ask pertinent questions, make inferences, assess arguments, and are able to suspend judgment until all facts are gathered and considered. Teachers must be mindful to promote higher-level thinking in the classroom, and not just factual recall. Open-ended questions require higher-level thinking and probe for student understanding. Open-ended questions have no right or wrong answers.

Providing Clear Directions

Beginning teachers must take time to plan for clear directions. Clear and focused directions require no more than three student actions in one statement: state the type and quality of performance expected, describe each step of the task, and provide visual as well as oral representation of more complex directions. Beginning teachers often plan a narrative script ahead of time and demonstrate or model a task before asking students to perform the activity on their own.

Break Down Complex Tasks

Breaking down more complex tasks, such as long-term projects or group projects, is important for students, especially those with learning differences and attention difficulties. The teacher should provide clear directions, as stated in the previous section of this chapter, and should offer frequent "check-ins" to encourage students when they are making progress and to re-teach students when they are having difficulties.

Setting Clear Expectations

Clear expectations can be conveyed in several important ways. First, the teacher can tell the students what they are going to learn in a lesson and why it is important. At the close of the lesson, the teacher can help students see when they can and cannot use this new information in new contexts. Clear expectations for student performance and behavior can be set in mutually agreed upon rules and criteria for excellence in student work. Setting up routines, procedures, and schedules help students become more responsible for their own learning and provide necessary structure to the school day. For students, parents, and administrators, teachers can provide clear expectations about units of study, goals, and standards the unit addresses.

The Importance of "Saving Face"

Another important communication continuum to consider is where the importance of "saving face" falls in a culture. By saving face, I refer to an act that avoids the loss of a person's dignity or prestige. In a culture where saving face is highly valued, people tend to maintain harmony, avoid confrontation, and have a difficult time saying no. The overall goal in such a culture is harmony. Often, what one says and what one feels is not the same. In a culture where saving face is less important, a person's dignity is less important. Facts and getting something done efficiently are more highly valued. Criticism and feedback are straightforward, and it is fine to confront people or to say no.

Social Styles

Are you the type of person who loves a big gathering with lots of friends, or would you prefer a smaller get-together with a close friend or a few couples? Your students also have social styles that impact their learning in the group setting of your classroom; therefore, students need opportunities to work in the whole group, small groups, and individually in the course of the school day, in the case of younger learners, and in the course of the school week, in the case of older students.

Learning Styles

As discussed in Chapter 7, people have a variety of ways of making sense of what they are learning, such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile learning styles. Teachers strive to communicate with their students in a way that is most beneficial to each student's learning style. For example, after I explained a three-step task to my juniors, I wrote a brief, bulleted list of the directions on the chalkboard and then asked students to visualize each step and ask questions, as needed.

Communication is a key aspect of culture.

Differences between cultures can be perceived as threatening, so a teacher must be mindful of these differences in the classroom. The best way to learn about another's language and culture is, quite simply, to experience that language and culture. I am reluctant to share specific patterns of cultural and linguistic communication in this book because many misconceptions and stereotypes exist. I will leave this to anthropologists, linguists, sociologists, and you, the future classroom teacher. Nonetheless, I strongly suggest that, as a role model for your students, you learn as much as possible about the diverse languages and cultures in your community.

Goal-Setting

Early in the school year, the teacher can help students to articulate long-term and short-term learning goals. Parents can also provide direction and support for a student's goal-setting. Once goals have been established, the teacher can show respect and support for each student's goals and share student successes with the class. This practice fosters a sense of teamwork and camaraderie among students, and it helps the students to see individual goals and differences as strengths.

Degree of Directness

First, we'll consider the level of directness in communication. On the most direct side of a communication continuum, people say what they mean and mean what they say. There is little subtlety, and it's important to tell it like it is. A person with a direct communication style believes honesty is the best policy and that the truth is more important than sparing a person's feelings. On the other end of this communication continuum, people with an indirect communication style imply or suggest what they are saying. You must be a good interpreter of the person's meaning and use inference to gather the person's true message. Those with an indirect communication style believe that, if the truth hurts, it should be tempered.

Student Question Generating

Good questions make great hypotheses. When students ask good questions, they are demonstrating a higher level of understanding of concepts. Teaching students to generate good questions is important to their higher-level thinking. Best practices for teaching students to generate questions include: Probing for understanding Modeling higher-level questioning Highlighting patterns and connections Provide a framework for the questioning Provide scaffolding of instruction and watch for misconceptions (correct, as needed)

Signal Transitions

Having a classroom routine and a posted schedule implicitly signals transitions from one activity to the next, but teachers often need to explicitly signal transitions for the wide variety of learners in the classroom. The elementary teacher often uses a clapping pattern, a song, or a bell to signal 5 minutes of work time left or time's up. The secondary teacher often lets the students know more verbally when transitions will occur, although I have worked with several teachers who use music or timers to signal transitions in the upper grades. For example, students work for a set amount of time and then when time is up they will share the work.

Panels and Debates

A panel is a formal discussion structure in which four to eight participants discuss a topic while the rest of the class listens. After the panel discussions, the class is able to question the panel members and discuss the topic further. A debate is another formal discussion structure made up of a set of speeches by students from two opposing views. Debate groups present their views, followed by rebuttals of the opposing side's views.

Curbing School Violence

If students do not feel safe, they will struggle to do well in school. School violence not only involves guns, knives, drugs, and gangs, but also includes bullying, harassment, intolerance, and insults. One way schools are working to curb violence is to create a more personalized school environment. Smaller class sizes, advisories, and schools within a school are models for creating a personalized environment. Research shows that when children feel a strong sense of belonging in school, they engage in fewer violent acts and do not allow their peers to engage in violence. Two-way communication between home and school can also diminish school violence.

Problem-Solving

In a classroom environment that promotes problem-solving, students see challenges as problems to be solved, rather than negative or frustrating events. Students who are problem-solvers consider their goals, the current situation, and the means to achieve the goal. Teachers play an important role in problem-solving discussions by asking probing questions and encouraging students to articulate their goals and situations, and then consider possible ways of achieving these goals. Also, teachers can model their thinking process in a variety of situations throughout the school day.

Other Areas of Diversity in Classrooms Today

In addition to being knowledgeable and appreciative of cultural and linguistic diversity in your classroom, teachers must also be understanding and aware of other areas of diversity in classrooms today.

Risk-Taking

In order for students to take risks—to ask a "silly question" or to offer an incorrect response—the teacher must ensure that the classroom environment promotes risk-taking. Such an environment does not allow sarcasm, interruption, ridicule, or harassment. The teacher can reframe "incorrect" responses as positive steps toward achieving deeper under- standing and achieving a learning goal.

Communication Techniques

In this chapter, you will study key theories and terms covered on the PLT test sections with the constructed-response questions. You should carefully read and study this content on communication techniques, as it will help you respond to the case histories and create your constructed-response answers. Specifically, this chapter offers ideas for effective communication with students, colleagues, parents, and others you'll interact with when you are a teacher. As you'll recall, the Communication Techniques Content is not found in the multiple-choice format questions.

"With-it-ness"

Kounin describes teacher "with-it-ness" as an ability to know what is going on in the classroom at all times. For example, the teacher must have an ability to attend to a group, and also be aware of the actions of the remainder of the class. One lesson beginning teachers learn early is to not keep your back to the class for too long a period of time!

Literature Circles

Literature circles are small groups of students who read and discuss the same materials together. The teacher talks to all of the students about their responsibilities, key roles, and necessary new content, and then they break into small groups, each group working independently to discuss and understand the text. Common literature circle roles include facilitator, connector, summarizer, vocabulary master, and illustrator. Literature circles offer students an opportunity to actively participate in discussions and to take responsibility for learning.

Getting the Discussion Started

Methods to start a discussion include opening with a shared experience, a concrete experience (such as showing an object that symbolizes a key concept), reading aloud a passage of the text, showing a film clip, or playing a music clip. Students can also complete a quick-write (a free recall writing) based on the experience or the reading assignment. It's also helpful to set out the parameters of the discussion, such as guidelines for turn-taking and for ending the discussion.

Gestures

Nonverbal communication, such as gestures, also plays an important role in effective classroom communication. Positive gestures include nodding, the thumbs-up sign, and smiling. Gestures may also communicate negative messages, so teachers must be mindful of their nonverbal messages, such as turning away from a student to attend to some- thing else, pointing, and tapping a foot. Teachers often videotape lessons to reflect on lesson strengths and areas to improve, and video can help teachers see the gestures they use and student reactions. Many of us have gestures that are part of a habit of communication (using my hands to gesture when I talk is one of mine!), so video or peer observations can help teachers know which communications are perceived positively and which are perceived in a less desirable way.

Positive Interdependence

Positive interdependence is built when students must work well together to successfully complete a task. The previous ex- ample of Mr. Wynkoop's "Mission Impossible" also built positive interdependence. Once the students opened the envelope in the center of the classroom, they learned that they would be working in groups of four and that each group had tasks as- signed to help the whole class achieve their "mission." Within each group, individual students had responsibility for a part of the assignment. For example, one student had to define three key vocabulary words; another had to learn more about the author. The students were able to help each other achieve the task and had to work together responsibly and effectively. Each student had to make a contribution, and each received an individual grade for his or her contribution.

Factual Recall

Questions on the knowledge level of Bloom's taxonomy require factual recall. For example, who, what, when, why, and how questions. Other ways to promote factual recall include flash cards, games that require memory and immediate recall, and computer drill programs. Approaches to improving memory may include: Mnemonic devices (described in Chapter 8) Mental imagery—suggesting students form pictures in their mind Patterns of organization—present material to students in a logical and organized manner and help students see the pattern to the content Recitation—the student reads and repeats important content out loud.

Reader Response

Readers can respond to text in two main ways: 1. With an efferent stance 2. With an aesthetics tance When students discuss the text with an efferent stance, they make sense of the content, the meaning of the text, or the factual points of the text. When students discuss the text with an aesthetic stance, they connect personal experiences to the text, discussing thoughts and feelings about the text. Reader response is grounded in the theory that readers bring prior knowledge and experiences to reading and attempt to make meaning from text. The following formula provides a visual representation of a current view of making meaning with texts: Reader + Text = Meaning A teacher with this view of student response strives to question students in order to help them come to their own interpretations of the text, not necessarily the teacher's or the author's view. Reader response is a way of communicating with students about their interpretation of texts.

Explicit Teaching

Rosenshine (1987) suggests ten basic principles for the development of an explicit teaching session: 1. Short statement of lesson purpose 2. Short review of previous, prerequisite learning 3. Present new material in small steps, with student practice 4. Provide clear, detailed explanations and instructions 5. Provide active practice for all students 6. Ask effective questions, check for student understanding, and encourage all pupil response 7. Guide students during practice 8. Offer feedback and corrections 9. Provide practice for independent work and monitor students 10. Continue practice until students are ready to use new information confidently and independently

Five important knowledge bases for teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students

Self knowledge: Teachers must first understand the influence of their own cultures before they can meet the diverse cultural and linguistic needs of their own students. Teachers must critique their own values to ensure that these values are not inadvertently creating barriers to teaching all children. Cultural knowledge: A teacher with cultural knowledge shows an understanding of the importance of culture and how culture affects student views of the world. Teachers can meet the diverse needs of their students by knowing their students' families, languages, literacy practices, communities, and values. Linguistic knowledge: Teachers must understand the patterns of communication and dialects of the students they teach. Even though Standard American English (SAE) is the language of instruction in a majority of public schools, it is not always the language in the classroom. Delpit (1993) suggests that teachers must acknowledge and validate a student's home language. Teachers can foster a student's classroom communication by building on the student's home language and linguistic strengths. Culturally informed teaching knowledge: Teachers who have culturally informed teaching knowledge create a collaborative and culturally sensitive classroom environment. Teachers must learn to support the learning needs of each individual student, be sensitive to and respectful of a student's culture, and see the students' differences as "funds of knowledge" (Moll, 1992). Knowledge of multicultural materials and methods: Multicultural literature and texts that present balanced global views of historical events offer powerful ways for teachers to show respect for their students' cultures, as well as promote cross-cultural understanding.

Socioeconomic Background

Socioeconomic status (SES) and school achievement are highly correlated. Teachers must consider similar aspects of understanding differences in SES cultural and linguistic diversity as they do for students from cultural and linguistically diverse backgrounds. You may experience teaching students from a much higher SES or much lower SES than your own. The key here is to have high expectations for all of your students and to communicate these expectations positively and supportively.

Eye Contact

Some students believe their teachers really do have eyes in the back of their head! This, of course, is not a prerequisite to good teaching, but keeping your eyes on your students, making eye communication, and fully attending to your students' communication are all signs of a teacher who communicates effectively. One should be mindful that not all students will be comfortable making eye contact with the teacher, though. This could be for cultural reasons, or it could be because of a timid personality or difficulties with social skills.

Reports

Students can prepare reports to present and discuss with the class or a wider audience. In doing so, students can employ a variety of creative formats. For example, students might use Power Point or artwork to present report information to the school community in an effort to inform others about a topic of interest.

Personal Space

Teachers can communicate respect for students by understanding their students' need for personal space. Some children need lots of personal space, while others do not seem to know where their space ends and a classmate's begins. For ex- ample, a first-grader may need redirection or structure when she wants to always sit next to the teacher or to brush her friend's hair. One fourth-grade student I observed appeared to cringe when the student teacher knelt at a reasonable distance beside him to explain something. I later learned from the classroom teacher that this student was diagnosed with a mild level of autism and that the student needed an exceptional amount of space when working with others. In addition, a simple gesture such as patting a student on the back can be misunderstood or upsetting to the student. It's important to know and respect your students' needs for personal space. Of course, you will also want to teach your students to respect each other's needs for personal space, as well as your own.

Planning for Discussions

Teachers should be mindful of the following points when preparing for classroom discussions: 1. Determine goals of the discussion 2. Assess prior knowledge and experiences of the students 3. Assess and build your background knowledge on the topic 4. Provide a supportive environment for discussion 5. Offer your viewpoint, when necessary, to build knowledge or correct misinformation 6. Allow for alternative viewpoints—to agree to disagree 7. Plan for meaningful connections between the discussion, other course content, and real-life experience

Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

The demographics of our communities are rapidly shifting. This rapid change suggests that the enrollment of school- children from linguistically and culturally different populations (from the so-called "mainstream" U.S. culture) is expected to increase. To improve the achievement of all children, teachers must be responsive, sensitive, and informed about the variety of cultures in the U.S. and particularly in their school community. By linguistic diversity, I refer to the many students whose first language is not English, as well as the variants of English that are spoken in American schools. By cultural diversity, I refer to Sonya Nieto's (1999) definition of culture, which describes it as a multidimensional constellation of ever-changing values, traditions, relationships, and worldview that binds a people together. People can come together by a combination of factors, such as shared history, geographic location, language, social class, and religion. Researchers have found that teachers' expectations, when communicated both verbally and nonverbally, influence children's behavior and performance. Therefore, teachers must treat all students as competent and expect high standard work from all children. To do so, teachers must not only know their content, but also know their students.

Whole-Class

The entire group is taught in whole-class discussion. Teachers often use whole-class discussion for lectures, demonstrations, explanations, questioning, recitations (oral practice), and work on a set of problems, or use of the same materials, such as a science text or a piece of literature. Whole-class discussions are helpful when the information to be covered requires a common understanding for all, but it should not be the only or primary method of discussion because differentiated instruction cannot occur in this configuration. Also, students have fewer opportunities for active participation during whole-class discussions, which can lead to disruptive classroom behaviors.

The Task and the Person

The last pattern of communication we'll consider is the importance of the task compared to the importance of the person. In a culture where the task is foremost, the task is separated from the person. People do business first and socialize or engage in a bit of small talk. Building relationships is not central to getting the job done well. In a culture where the person is foremost, the goal is to build relationships first. The task and the person cannot be separated. The people in this culture often begin with small talk and then move to business. Personal relationships are central to getting the job done well.

The Role of Context

The second pattern involves context—a continuum of low context to high context communication. Context means the amount of instinctive understanding a person is expected to bring to the communication setting. Low context communication cultures tend to be heterogeneous and individualist. In this culture, little is believed to be known, so there is a high emphasis on verbal communication. High context communication cultures tend to be homogeneous and collectivist (emphasis is placed on the group, not the individual). In a high context culture much is already known by the members, so the spoken word is not the primary means of communicating. Nonverbal cues and the communication setting are central in the communication.

Lifestyles

There are many configurations to our students' families, all of which require us, as teachers, to suspend judgment and to keep an open mind, even when a child's family structure is very different than the teacher's perception of a "good" family. Children live in the homes of happy and healthy single-parents, grandparents, foster-parents, step-parents, same-sex parents, married parents, and more. Of course, not all children live in families that are happy and healthy. As a teacher, it is your responsibility to strive to teach all of your students well. In addition, some children live in several homes in the course of a school year or do not live in a permanent home at all. While working with the diverse lifestyles of our students' families can be a challenge, teachers are responsible for professionally communicating with all children and for communicating with students' caregivers no matter their living situation. Again, focusing on student strengths and valuing what their caregivers can teach us about their child are important strategies for teachers. Support personnel, mentors, and colleagues—such as social workers, psychologists, school nurses, and principals—can provide professional expertise and experience to you as you strive to teach all children well.

Stimulating Curiosity

There are many ways a teacher can stimulate student curiosity to promote student discussion and engagement—music, thought-provoking questions, mystery, film clips, etc. One example that comes immediately to mind is the "Mission Impossible" opening of a lesson conducted by one of my student teachers in an urban high school English classroom. Prior to the arrival of his students, Mr. Wynkoop set up their desks in a circle and put one desk in the center of the class- room. On the center desk, he placed a cassette tape player. As the students arrived, Mr. Wynkoop encouraged the students to play the tape and learn what they would do in English class today. The tape began with the theme from "Mission Impossible," which segued to Mr. Wynkoop's mysterious voice telling the students that they were about to begin a mis- sion that would be impossible to complete without the teamwork of the class. His narration directed the students to an envelope under the center desk. A letter inside the envelope provided further directions for the mission—to read a new piece of literature collaboratively. Clearly, Mr. Wynkoop stimulated the students' and my curiosity, which promoted lots of student discussion to open the lesson!

All Pupil Response

There are several techniques teachers can use to ensure that more than one student responds to a teacher's inquiry. For example, you can give each of your students a set of letters to practice spelling the words you are teaching in a word study lesson.

Behavior modification techniques / conflict resolution techniques

There are two main ways teachers aid students in resolving problems or conflicts in the classroom—behavior modification techniques and conflict resolution techniques. Conflict resolution helps students who have had a conflict to work together to arrive at a mutually beneficial solution. The goal is for students to resolve conflicts peacefully and cooperatively without using the traditional school discipline plans or structures. Behavior modification techniques are used to change observed behavior. The steps include: 1. Identify the problem behavior 2. Plan a method for changing the behavior 3. Offer a positive reinforcement when the student's behavior is positive 4. Use positive reinforcement consistently to shape and change the problem behavior

Room Arrangement

To promote active discussion, your room arrangement must facilitate face-to-face communication. Horseshoe table arrangements, semi circles, or clusters of tables are more effective than arrangements where students' backs are to one another, such as rows.

Noise Level

Too much noise and too little noise can hamper classroom communication. Teachers must determine the "just right" noise level they can tolerate and clearly communicate with students when they are approaching too much noise. Nonverbal cues, such as red, yellow, and green index cards can signal when students can freely talk, when they are at a warning noise level, and when they must stop talking. Conversely, teachers must not require so little noise in the classroom that students have little to no opportunity to talk with one another. Borrowing from James Britton's quote, "Talk is the sea upon which all else floats." Classroom communication clearly requires a certain amount of noise.

Wait Time

Wait time is a purposeful pause of time that a teacher uses to give a student and the remainder of the class a chance to think and more deeply formulate a response. Research studies have shown that teachers usually wait less than 1 second between asking a question and moving to a response. Be sure to give students time to think. Effective discussion leaders use wait time and refrain from interrupting the thinking process with a prompt or another question.

Probing for Student Understanding

When following up on a student's initial response, teachers offer an opportunity to help the student think more deeply. Teachers can ask probing questions, ask other students to respond to the student's initial response, or ask higher-level questions. In addition, following up on a student's response shows the student that the teacher recognizes, appreciates, and values the student's ideas. Teachers might probe for student understanding by asking the following questions: How do you know? Can you tell me more? Please explain your thinking. Convince us of your strategy or argument. Why did you make this conclusion?

Effective Class Management

Whichever style you choose for your classroom management, the following suggestions will help your classroom be- come a place where students can learn and communicate openly: Move around the classroom and maintain eye contact with your students Pace and structure your lessons Establish a quiet signal or routine Maintain an interruption-free place to work Offer positive reinforcement for each student's efforts Allow students to interact and talk with one another during collaborative work times. Of course, there are times when quiet or independent work is necessary, but this should not be the majority of the class period or day. In addition, it is important for teachers to establish daily routines and schedules and to establish classroom rules and consequences. Teachers must also use effective communication skills when working with colleagues and the students' caregivers. It is important for the teacher to maintain two-way communication with parents and guardians, keep accurate records, provide timely feedback, respond to student behavior, and offer objective descriptions of student behavior while maintaining student confidentiality.

Helpful Roles in a Discussion

You can teach your students several roles they can enact during a discussion, such as: Summarizer: This person listens to the discussion carefully and either summarizes one person's point or the en- tire discussion. Note-taker or illustrator: This role requires active listening and good note taking or drawing skills. The notes can be read at the close of the discussion or to open the discussion another day. A visual representation of the discussion can be shared to further the understanding of the group. Quotatable quotes: In this role, the student finds a meaningful line or passage from the text and reads it to the group to trigger deeper understanding in the discussion. Gatekeeper: This person watches the time for the overall discussion as well as the equitable chances for people to speak. Question generator: This person asks probing questions or asks for clarification. Facilitator: The facilitator manages the overall discussion to keep students actively moving toward deeper understanding. Evaluator: The evaluator offers a critical, constructive view of the discussion's process and content.

Scholastic Abilities and Challenges

You may teach students who have been identified as possessing giftedness, a learning disability, a musical or athletic talent, a physical handicap, an attention deficit, a bipolar disorder, Tourette's syndrome, or an addiction to alcohol. Each of these students brings abilities to the classroom that you, the teacher, can identify and can capitalize on when teaching your lesson. Each student brings abilities and challenges; therefore, a teacher must assume responsibility for teaching each student in his or her classroom and must persevere to find the right instructional strategies for each child. Sometimes, you will need to confer with colleagues who have more experience or expertise with students possessing scholastic abilities and challenges.

Promoting Respect and Caring

Effective communication is fostered in an environment that promotes caring and respect. The teacher continually acts as a role model for effective communication and plays a key role in setting up a classroom conducive to open discourse. Teachers who are empathetic, patient, resourceful, and consistent provide an exemplary model of the kinds of behaviors that promote good communication. Active listening, valuing differences, highlighting student strengths, and turn-taking help promote caring and respect between teacher and student, as well as among students. Teachers should be mindful to use appropriate humor to diminish tension if it builds in the classroom, but they should be cautious in the use of sarcasm, especially when it is at the expense of a student. "Saving face" is very important in many cultures, and it is especially important to students in their teenage years. Use of sarcasm can diminish trust and respect in a classroom. Students must also have responsibilities in the classroom, which helps the student develop a sense of shared ownership in the work of school. One of the key responsibilities students can experience is the requirement that they care for others, themselves, and school property.

Highlight Key Information

Effective communicators highlight the key points to remember. You can literally highlight key points on the chalkboard, overhead projector or Power Point presentation. Other ways to "highlight" important information include opening and closing a lesson with the key points to remember, preparing study guides for students, and signaling students when they have learned something important.

Small-Group

Effective small groups are made up of between four and six students. Small groups can be comprised of heterogeneous (different level or style) learners or homogenous (similar) learners. Common types of small groups include ability groups, peer tutors, and cooperative learning groups. Ability groups are groups of students who have been judged to be performing on a similar academic level in a particular content area. Peer tutoring involves peers teaching peers. Teachers can set up peer tutors within the same classroom or might partner with another classroom or grade level of students. Cooperative learning groups are discussed in Chapter 8.