COMP GOV: Nigeria

changes in Nigeria's executive branch

(1979) Presidential system established with two-term limit for the chief executive (1983) Palace coup established military dictatorship with subsequent coups; all promised "transition to democracy" (1999) First presidential election; civil rule returned but the presidents elected in 1999 and 2003 were military generals

The People's Democratic Party

(1998) A better-established political party; the party of Olusegun Obasanjo that originated in the north. Generally done well in National Assembly and governor elections.

Action Congress of Nigeria

(Formerly known as Action Congress) A third political party that unsuccessfully ran Atiku Abukbakar in 2007 and Nuh Ribadu in 2011. Won 18 seats in the Senate and 53 seats in National Assembly in 2011, giving it the second largest number in both houses of the legislature.

labor unions

(type of interest group) Independent and politically powerful before 1980's military oppression; challenged gov'ts during colonial and post-colonial eras but Babangida regime limited influence through corporatism. Still alive and retains an active membership; could play a vital role in policymaking process. Power clear in 2007 when Nigeria Labor Congress called worker strike.

human rights groups

(type of interest group) Organized to promote human rights; loosely connected but willingness to collaborate/remain active might play an important role in democracy. University students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, professional groups remain active promoters.

business interests

(type of interest group) Tended to work in collaboration with the military regimes in last decades, shared spoils of corruption within elite classes. Some have operated in private sector. Associations for manufacturers, butchers, car rental firms, etc.; leading force in promoting economic reform in Nigeria.

democratization

-some checks/balances between gov't branches -independent decisions in courts -revival of civil society -independent media -peaceful succession of power -improving freedom house scores -privatization

Senate

109 senators, 3 from each state, 1 from Abuja. Elected by direct popular vote. Regional representation with a wide array of ethnicities that try to form coalitions; PDP majority party. Represent many different ethnicities. Four year terms.

Sokoto Caliphate

A Muslim state during Pre-Colonial era that encompassed the entire northwest, orth midsection, and part of the northeast; traded with Europeans and eventually succumbed to British rule by 1900

Yoruba

A West ethnic group in Nigeria who formed several kingdoms in what is now Benin and Southern Nigeria.

rentier state

A country that obtains much of its revenue from the export of oil or other natural resources (Iran, Nigeria)

Nigeria Labor Congress

A labor union in Nigeria that called and orchestrated a general strike of workers in 2007 to protest the government's hike in fuel prices and taxes. Gov't agreed to rescind hikes but strikers wanted more reductions

Power Holding Company

A para-statal founded by President Obasanjo to provide better electrical service. Originally named N.E.P.A. Nicknamed "Please Hold Candle."

hisbah

A police force charged with enforcing Islamic morality in Nigeria (most practices now banned)

The Congress for Progressive Change

A political party founded in 2009 in preparation for the 2011 elections; created by Muhammadu Buhari

federal character

A principle that recognizes people of all ethnicities, religions, and regions. Takes their needs into account. Senators represent diverse states. President must receive 25% of vote in 2/3 of regions. Negative effect of bloating bureaucracy with corruption. Based on "national question" going unanswered.

Transparency International

A private organization that compiles statistics about corruption in countries around the world (Nigeria ranks very low)

economic structural adjustment

A program during the Babangida regime supported by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund; sought to restructure and diversity the Nigerian economy so that is could decrease its dependence on oil. Gov't also promised to reduce spending and privatize para-statals. Mixed results.

the military

A strong force behind policymaking in Nigeria; lost its credibility as a temporary, objective organization that keeps order by being active in political affairs. Subject to internal discord and mistrust. Divided into military in barracks and military in government. One of few institutions that is truly national in character.

patrimonialism

A system in which the president is the head of an intricate patron-client system and dispenses government jobs and resources as rewards to supporters. Cabinet positions and other government jobs part of president's patronage system. Still in place despite civilian rule. Cabinet positions, bureaucracy chiefs, and virtually all gov't jobs part of president's system.

mass media

A well-developed, independent press that reflects ethnic divisions within the country. Northern generals interpret criticisms of press as ethnic slurs reflective of region-based stereotypes. Media actively reported 2011 elections, journalists highly critical. Radio is main source of information with newspapers/tv more common in cities. All 36 states run their own radio stations.

Ansaru

An Islamist group in the north that kidnapped several foreign construction workers in the state of Bauchi

prebendalism

An extremely personalized system of rule in which all public offices are treated as personal fiefdoms (patron-clientelism). Seen in Nigeria. By creating large patronage networks based on personal loyalty, civilian officials have skewed economic and political management to such an extent that they have often discredited themselves.

MEND (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta)

An idealistic group that wants more oil money going to the people of the Delta states; has chosen violent methods such as kidnapping foreign workers. Siphoned oil illegally; gun-running.

Niger Delta

An oil-rich region in the south of Nigeria, which has suffered pollution related to the extraction of oil and years of fighting between insurgents and government forces

Nigerian colonial era

Authoritarian rule, interventionist state, individualism, Christianity, intensification of ethnic politics. Emphasized differences between north and south, introduced western-style education, instituted corruption among elites, and reinforced growing social cleavages.

elections of 2011

Considered to be a big improvement over 2007 elections; reforms initiated by the INEC. Goodluck Jonathan won by 59%, Buhari 32%. PDP won majority in both houses with other parties winning senate and house seats. Reforms controlled fraud but flaws were noted. Exposed ethnic/religious divide between north and south; violent protests from poverty discontent reflected cleavages and left national question open.

para-statals

Corporations owned by the state and designated to provide commercial and social welfare services; theoretically privately owned, but executives woven into patronage system. Commonly provide public utilities; control major industries. Create state corporatism. Inefficiently run and corrupt.

Nigerian voting behavior

Difficult to track, have voted in large numbers before, fraudulent elections, some legitimate voters have been unable to cast votes

informal economy

Economic activity that is neither taxed nor monitored by a government; and is not included in that government's Gross National Product; as opposed to a formal economy

Goodluck Jonathan

Elected President in 2010 after Umaru Yar'Adua

Hausa-Fulani

Ethnic group in northern Nigeria that was muslim and had a strong central government

political system

Federal system with government organizations on local, state, and national levels; three branches of government (executive dominates). Four republics; 36 state governments, 774 local governments. Federalism/checks and balances currently do not operate; state/local governments totally dependent on federal government

Nigerian civil society

Formal interest groups a d informal voluntary associations actively sought to influence political decisions, trade unions and professional organizations particularly active, legal/medical/journalism associations also articulate interests

government structure in Nigeria

Formally federalist and democratic but has not operated as such; economy under state control. International factors forced Nigeria to turn to supranational organizations for help in restructuring the economy.

Ken Saro-Wiwa

Founder of the Movement for Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) which works to apply national laws to secure financial benefits for the Ogoni and to hold foreign-operated oil companies to environmental standards. Detained and hanged under orders from military-arranged court.

military in barracks

Fulfills traditional duties of the military; its leaders have often been critical of of military control of military power. Military NOT holding high political position, being just the military

the judiciary

Had autonomy during early independence; common, customary, sharia law. Military rule destroyed court system. Today judicial review exists (in theory). Federal and state courts, Supreme Court, Federal Court of Appeals. States may authorize traditional courts, such as sharia courts. Stronger/more independent now than before; heard accusations of voting fraud.

House of Representatives

Has 360 members that are elected from single member districts by plurality vote. Regional representation with a wide array of ethnicities that try to form coalitions; PDP majority party. Represent many different ethnicities but low female representation. Four-year terms

interest groups in Nigeria

Have played an important role in Nigerian government/politics; an array of civil society organizations that often cooperate with political parties. Categories include labor unions, business interests, and human rights groups.

biafra

Independent state from Nigeria made up mostly by the Igbo; created a civil war from 1967-1970, the country stayed together but only by military rule

rent-seeking

Individuals, groups, and communities have learned to a rentier state this way, primarily by competing for the gov't's largesse. Those that win do so by political connections provided through the patron-client system.

National Assembly

Nigeria's presidential system with a bicameral legislature

Nigerian political culture

Patron-clientelism, state control/rich civil society, tension between modernity and tradition, religious conflict, geographic influences

social cleavages in Nigeria

Poverty, religion, region (north vs. south), urban/rural differences, social class

Muhammadu Buhari

President of Nigeria

Umaru Musa Yar'Adua

President of Nigeria from 2007-2010; removed the anti-corruption head of Economic and Financial Crimes Commission from office

executive branch

Presidential system established in 1979 after a failed parliamentary system due to ethnicity fragmentation; palace coup by Muhammadu Buhari in 1983 (created military dictatorship). Dictators promised a "transition to democracy;" generally repressive, under patrimonialism.

political parties in Nigera

Regionally and ethnically based; extreme factionalism led to so many parties that it was almost impossible to create a coherent party system. Multi-party system reinforces ethnic/religious cleavages and form around individuals. Trend is to lose regional base and to draw support from many parts of the country

legislative elections

Senate has 109 senators, 3 from 36 states and 1 from Abuja, elected by direct popular vote. 360 members of House of Representatives elected from single member districts by plurality vote. No runoffs for each; regional representation/a wide array of ethnicities that try to form coalitions. PDP holds majority, but power is weak in both houses.

legislative branch

Taken several different forms since independence; disbanded often by military rulers. National Assembly replaced parliamentary system; Senate and House of Representatives. Almost no power under military rule; only recently an executive power check.

constitutionalism

The acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles

economic issues

The country finds itself deeply in debt, most live on poverty. Squandering of wealth a huge issue; situation complicated by ethnic and regional hostilities/gov't distrust. Rentier state; people use rent'seeking behavior. Participation in informal economy- unreported incomes. 1970's oil wealth gave international leverage; gained clout whenever Middle Eatern tensions have cut off oil supplies. Reliance on oil means country suffers when prices drop. Stealing oil, unknown actual production. MEND

military in government

interdependence of military and government; military involved in government policymaking and decisions - president being a military leader

the bureaucracy

British allowed Nigerians to fill lower-level jobs during colonial rule; grown tremendously. Thought to be bloated, corrupt, inefficient. Many government agencies are para-statals, which serve as contact points between the government interests (government controls interactions).

Abuja

Capital of Nigeria

presidential elections

Citizens elect. If a presidential candidate does not receive an outright majority, a second ballot election may take place. Must also receive at least 25% of all votes cast in 2/3 of the states (unusual requirement that reflects Nigeria's attempt to unite).

Nigerian attitudes towards government

Low level of trust (possibly because of Babangida and Abacha), skeptical about prospects for a democracy, do not believe there are free/fair/competitive elections, not satisfied with democracy in general

Olusegun Obasanjo

Military dictator who in 1979 willingly stepped down for a democratically-elected president, Shehu Shagari (who was forced out in 1983 by a military coup led by Muhammed Buhari)

custodial theory

Military rule is justified because it "prepares" the country for democracy

Ibrahim Babangida

Military ruler of Nigeria from 1985-1993 who sought to establish the failed Third Republic; famous for his "custodial theory" of the government; isolated citizens. Example of corrupted leader as he maintained large foreign bank accounts with funds diverted from the state and given through patron-clientelism to elites (along with Sani Abacha).

2008 crisis

Nigeria didn't suffer as much because banking system improved significantly (Obasanjo); paid of debts under structural adjustment program. Sharp decrease in oil did great deal of economic damage, devalued the naira.

election fraud

Nigeria has made significant progress in being able to sustain four regularly scheduled popular elections in a row. INEC attempted to cleanse electoral elections by declaring 6 million names to be fraudulent in 2003 but corruption still existed. 2007 elections were even worse, but 2011 considered to be a big improvement. Elections are violent and divided.

biafran war

Nigerian Civil War (1967-70) was a war fought to counter the secession of Biafra from Nigeria. Biafra represented nationalist aspirations of the Igbo people, whose leadership felt they could no longer coexist with the Northern-dominated federal government. The conflict resulted from political, economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions which preceded Britain's formal decolonization of Nigeria in 1960-1963.

Igbo

Nigerian ethnic group who are mostly Christian, located in the southeast part of Nigeria

Nigerian modern era

Parliamentary system replaced by presidential system, intensification of ethnic conflict, military rule, personalized rule/corruption, federalism, economic dependence on oil. Parliamentary government replaced by a military dictatorship, series of violent coup d'etats, lack of nationalism and constant conflict.

Independent National Election Commission

The electoral body which was set up to oversee elections in Nigeria; widely accused of corruption in 2007 election; parties register with it

Sani Abacha

The military ruler of Nigeria from 1993 until his death in 1998 who alienated citizens. Example of corrupted leader as he maintained large foreign bank accounts with funds diverted from the state and given through patron-clientelism to elites (along with Ibrahim Babangida).

Mshood Abiolao

The winner of 1993 election annulled by Babangida; detained and eventually died while in custody. People believed that justice was not served

Nigerian pre-colonial era

Trade connections, early influence of Islam, kinship-based politics, complex political identities, democratic impulses. Development dictated by geography, change occurred through cultural diffusion, Fulani came to the north and established the Sokoto Caliphate which traded with Europeans.

regimes in Nigeria

Used to vary widely among regions from monarchies to kinship-based rule. Regime type changed dramatically with colonization/British imposition of indirect rule. British created chiefs and created authoritarian rule, which has continued. Military-style regime emerged by 1966.

national question

Who should rule, and how? And should Nigeria even stay a state?