Comprehensive AP

experimental method

The approach, pioneered by Galileo, that the best way to explore the universe was by making repeatable, controlled, experiments to find out what actually happened instead of just speculating.

guild system

The organization of artisanal production into guilds, each had a monopoly over its trade and right to train apprentices and hire workers. -dominated production in towns and cities -economic privileges and social identity -competition with rural workers. -Jean-Baptiste Colbert revived urban guilds and encouraged high-quality production and to collect taxes. -guild masters had privileges from the French crown, including rights to produce and sell certain goods, access to restricted markets in raw materials, and rights to train apprentices, and open shops. -group identity: had to be good Christians, several years of experience, stiff fees, and made masterpiece -In England, guilds weren't that powerful because of national regulations -In France, the crown relied on them for taxations and quality standards. -German guilds most powerful, protested encroachment of non-guild workers. -Enlightenment ideals criticized guilds because they were "outmoded and exclusionary institutions" that obstructed technical innovation and progress. French guilds were abolished for a short period of time. -Guilds were actually pretty flexible by adopting new technologies and circumvented impractical rules. Some masters made partnerships with non-guild workers. Economic regulation sometimes gave confidence to have commerce.

pluralism

The clerical practice of holding more than one church benefice (or office) at the some time and getting the income from both

Adam Smith

-"...Wealth of Nations" -criticized guilds for stifling and outmoded restrictions -free competition was better, protecting consumers from overcharging and gave all citizens fair chance. -government had three duties (1)defense from foreign invasion (2)keep civil order with police and courts (3) sponsor public works and institutions. -made economic liberalism -applauded rise in real wages of British workers -"No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the far greater part of the members are poor and miserable." -hated division of labor and wanted to raise workers' living standards. -inspired domestic reformers and independent global merchants who wanted free trade instead of colonial monopolies.

John Locke.

-"Essay Concerning Human Understanding" was first major text of Enlightenment. This and Principia were huge. -Thought all ideas were derived from experience. -Tabula rasa is the idea that the human mind is blank at birth and the environment writes on it and grows understanding and beliefs. -Human development is therefore determined by education and social institutions. -Theory of sensationalism, the idea that all human ideas were a result of sensory impressions. -System of systematic justification of Bacon's emphasis on observation and experimentation.

Immanuel Kant

-"On the Different Races of Man" the thought that there were four races which all derived from the original race of "white brunettes" from northern Germany. -"What is Enlightenment?" To dare to know! -Individuals must obey all laws no matter how unreasonable. -Enlightenment will be a result of being able to exercise reason publicly in print.

Baron de Montesquieu

-"Persian Letters" an extremely influential social satire about amusing letters supposedly written by two Persian travelers, who saw European customs as strange. -Similar to cultural relativity because (like Michel de Montaigne) it showed the idea that cultures aren't necessarily superior or inferior, but just different. -Montesquieu saw the difference between men and women as a representation of the overall social and political system. Used oppression of harem women to symbolize Eastern political tyranny. Used the harem womens' overthrow of the eunuchs as a symbol that despotism must always fail. -Used Persians' observations of habitual infidelity of French wives and the also strength of female power behind the throne to make fun of social and political customs (which was saying that mistresses and female courtiers could have more access to the kings than government ministers). -wrote "The Spirit of Laws," a comparative study of republics, monarchies, and despotism- A PIONEERING STUDY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. APPLIED CRITICAL METHOD OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO THE PROBLEM OF GOVERNMENT. -focused on conditions that would promote liberty and prevent tyranny. Argued to separate powers, with political power divided by a variety of classes holding unequal rights and privileges. Thought that the parlements in France were defenders of liberty against royal despotism.

Anabaptists

-"rebaptizers" -called radicals because they wanted a more extensive break with current ideas -some lived in communal ownership of property, living simply, and rejecting anything unbiblical. Some hated deviators, but others promoted tolerance -often were pacifists, refusing to hold office or swear oaths -were outcasts and often hated -Both Protestant and Catholic officials felt threatened by the political, economic, and social implications of ether ideas, and their rejection of a state church, which the authorities thought was the only way to maintain order -in Saxony, Strasbourg, and Swill cities, radicals were banished or executed by burning, beating, or drowning. -Quakers had pacifists, Baptists had emphasis on inner spiritual light, and Congregationalists with democratic church organization.

Results of the Thirty Years' War

-1/3 to 2/5 of rural population died, leaving entire areas depopulated -Trade in southern German cities destroyed, such as Augsburg -Agricultural areas suffered -small farmers lost their land, letting nobles enlarge their estates and have even greater control.

foundling homes are big in 18th century

-100k abandoned children, mostly infants, usually offspring of illegitimacy explosion. -Christian charity, but about half died in the homes.

The Storming of the Bastille

-1788 bad grain harvest caused the cost of bread to soar, causing a depression. -food was expensive, and the demand for manufactured goods collapsed. A lot became unemployed, and there were bread riots. -the king called an army and dismissed liberal ministers like the finance minister, so it looked like the king would use violence to establish control. -people were afraid that the dismissal of the finance minister would put them at the mercy of aristocratic landowners and grain speculators. -People began to seize arms for the defense of the city, so they went to the Bastille, a royal prison, to search for weapons and gunpowder. -extremely violent. The governor was hacked to death and his head stuck on a pike and paraded through the streets.

Francois Mitterand

-1981 lurch to the left -program of nationalization and public investment designed to spend the country out of economic stagnation -failure, so he quickly re-privatized the nationalized industries.

Reunification of Germany

-9 million (half the population) went across the border. most returned home but it was fun to cross. -Helmut Kohl presented a step-by-step plan for reunification -one for one exchange of East German marks for west German marks. -well financed conservative-liberal Alliance for Germany, tied to Kohl's West German Christian Democrats -pledged never to develop nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons -made huge loans to Gorbachev's Soviet Union.

Estates General

-A legislative body in prerevolutionary France made up of representatives of each of the three estates. It was called in 1789 for the first time since 1614. -most voters elected lawyers and government officials to represent them, and few delegates to represent the poor. -A general agreement that royal absolutism should give way to a constitutional monarchy in which laws and taxes would require the consent of the Estates General in regular meetings. They wanted individual liberties to be guaranteed buy law and that economic regulations would be loosened. -Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes wrote "What is the Third Estate?" saying that the third estate is the one with the true strength of the French nation. -The third estate refused to do any business until the king forced the clergy and nobility to sit with them in a single body. called national assembly

rococo

-A popular style in Europe in the 18th century, known for its self pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids. -Argued that feminine influence in drawing room wine hand in hand with emergence of polite society. -Some philosophers wanted greater rights (but not equal) and more education for women

Edict of Restitution

-All Catholic properties lost to protestants restored -Only Catholics and Lutherans allowed to practice their faith. -Issued between the Danish and Swedish phases of the 30 Years War.

Enlightened Absolutist Frederick II

-Also called Frederick the Great -When Maria Theresa of Austria inherited Habsburg dominions when Charles VI died, he invaded Silesia, defying the Pragmatic Sanction, a diplomatic agreement never to invade, ensuring Maria Theresa's succession. -Maria Theresa was forced to succeed almost all of Silesia to Prussia. Prussia doubled its population to 6 million people. -Maria Theresa allied with France and Russia. Caused the Seven Years War -began to consider how humane policies might strengthen the state. -allowed religious freedom -Promoted advancement of knowledge, improving schools, and letting scholars publish their findings. -laws were simplified, torture abolished, and judges gave verdicts quickly and impartially. -became famous for hard work and honesty. -promoted reconstruction of agriculture and industry. -justified the monarchy in terms of practical results, "only the first servant of the state", and he did not mention the divine right of kings. -abstractly condemned serfdom, bothered serfs -extended privileges of the nobility, who was the backbone of the army. -refused to free Jews just like serfs.

public sphere

-An idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics. -Lending libraries were important for people who could not afford their own books. Also, book clubs, Masonic lodges, and journals helped create the public sphere. -Even ordinary people could participate because more books were being published, and philosophical ideas were popularized in cheap pamphlets. Illiterates could go to public readings.

Renaissance stimulated scientific progress

-Ancient works were translated in the vernacular, and especially in mathematics, the translations were accompanied by the smart Arabic commentaries. -The artists' turn toward realism and use of geometry to portray three dimensions taught scholars to use close observations and to use mathematics. -Printing gave a fast and cheaper way to circulate new ideas. -even in 1484, the king of Portugal commissioned mathematicians to make tables to help the seamen find their latitude. To solve navigational problems, the telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump were invented. -Better instruments allowed more accurate observations which often led to new discoveries.

Protestantism under Edward VI, Henry VIII's son

-Archbishop Thomas Cranmer simplifies the liturgy, invites protestants to England -made "Book of Common Prayer" in English, provided order for services and the prayers of the church of England.

Jews in the Enlightenment

-Baruch Spinoza. Thought that mind and body are united, God and nature are the same thing, and good and evil were relative values. -people began to look at truth and morality in relative terms: in Europe, men bowed to show respect. In Siam, men turn their back on women to show respect. In Europe, they grew their hair and shaved their beards. Turks shaved their heads and grew their beards.

1960s East Bloc

-Berlin Wall built in 1961 -socialist leaders try decentralization and limited market policies to help economies -Hungary's New Economic Mechanism was successful then reversed: some private retail, private agriculture -East Germany's New Economic System let limited privatization

Enlightenment desire to classify nature

-Carl von Linne thought that nature was organized into a God Given hierarchy. With taxonomies of plant an animals, they classified humans into hierarchically ordered races. -Comte de Buffon argued that humans originated with one species that then developed into distinct races due to climatic conditions. -Now divided humans into race instead of nations, and used race to biologically divide humans. Thought they were biologically superior, so scientific racism helped legitimate and justify the tremendous growth of slavery during the 18th century. -James Beattie and Johann Gottfried von Herder believed that Europeans had started out as savage nonwhites and that each skin-color-classified race was as worthy as each other (respectively). -Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that women's natural passivity to argue for their passive role in society. Wanted a division of gender roles and thought woman's had unnatural and destructive tendencies. He wrote "The Social Contract" where he talked about the general will and popular sovereignty. The general will is important, reflecting the people who have replaced the sovereign power.

Religion in Colonies

-Catholics sponsored missionary efforts like Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans, and other missions. -Friars were some of the first Europeans to try to understand the native languages -Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico City became the icon of Spanish-American Catholicism. -missionaries baptized up to 10 million indigenous peoples. Protestants were less active. -some slave owners refused to baptize slaves in case that gave them more rights. -In Caribbean, sometimes their native religious beliefs combined with Christian traditions. -Jews were eager participants in the new Atlantic community and established a network of the mercantile communities along its trade routes. -Jews were persecuted about how many slaves they could own in Barbados though Jews were white and could not be slaves they had lower status than Christians.

Queen Elizabeth I

-Catholics want a Catholic leader, Puritans want nothing Catholic -called "supreme governor of Church of England." Catholics could remain loyal without denying pope -required subjects to attend Church of England services but they could do whatever privately. Did not want to make "windows into men's souls" -Anglican church like Protestant because conducted in English, no monasteries, and no celibacy. Still have archbishops and bishops though, with elaborate services, and clergy having distinctive robes. -Executed Mary, Queen of Scots because she was next in line and was in a plot to kill Elizabeth. -pope encouraged Philip II to retaliate. Sent Spanish Armada

Imperial Diet in 1530

-Charles V called to meet at Augsburg -Lutherans developed their statement of faith called Ausgburg Confession. -Charles rejected and ordered him to return to Catholicism. Demand backfired -Protestant territories formed military alliance. Charles V couldn't win because he was busy with: Habsburg-Valois wars(1521-1559), the Ottoman Turks had taken Hungary and besieging Vienna, religious conflict at home, and colonial expansion. -Habsburgs initially very successful which scared the pope and France who did not want Charles V to become even more powerful. -Pope withdrew the papal troops, and France sent money to troops and Lutheran princes.

Diet of Worms

-Charles V's first diet -Luther refused to take back his ideas -created broader audience for reforms -throughout Europe people began to preach against existing doctrines, and more support for Luther. -"Unless I am convinced by the evidence of Scripture or by pain reason, I cannot and will not recall anything, for it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience."

Monarchies in France in 15th and 16th century

-Charles VII revived the monarchy and France -reconciled the Burgundians and the armagnacs who had been in civil war for 30 years. -reorganized the royal council giving more power to lawyers and bankers. -strengthened royal financers through taille (land tax) and gable (salt tax) -first permanent royal army -his son, Louis XI is "spider king" and was treacherous, using the army to control nobles and curb urban independence. he used it to conquer burgundy when its leaders died. Louis gained counties of Anjou, Bar, Maine, and Provence. -Marriage of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany added Brittany -King Francis I and Pope Leo X made Concordant of Bologna which gave the pope the right to receive the first year's income of new bishops and abbots, but the French ruler could select the bishops and abbots. The French kings controlled the appointment and the policies of the church officials in the kingdom.

Long Parliament

-Charles had to summon Parliament to put the Presbyterian Scots down who revolted due to the reforms of William Laud. -the parliament thought the king was being a despot because he had been taxing for stuff like "ship money" where costal districts have to pay for the cost of defense ships. -the Long Parliament enacted legislation that limited the power of the monarch and made government without Parliament impossible

Helmut Kohl

-Christian democrat chancellor of West Germany -cut taxes and government spending -increasing unemployment in heavy industry but solid economic growth. -agreed to deploy U.S. Pershing II and cruise missiles on West German territory and contributed to renewed superpower tensions. -presided of the dismantling of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the reunification of Germany, and the end of the Cold War.

Desiderius Erasmus

-Christian humanist. -The Education of a Christian Prince combined idealistic and practical suggestions for the formation of a ruler's character by studying Plutarch, Aristotle, Cicero, and Plato. -The Praise of Folly was a satire of worldly wisdom and a plea to educate Christian children and a critical edition of the Greek New Testament. -wanted that "even the weakest woman should ... read the epistles of Paul" "translated into all languages" Scots, Irishmen, Turks, Saracens. -Two Fundamental Themes: (1) education is necessary for reform and improvement. Should study Bible and classics. (2) "philosophy of Christ" meaning that Christianity is an inner attitude not a formalism with special ceremonies. -Erasmus' words spread faster than Petrarch due to printing press

Stenka Razin

-Cossack rebellion leader. Attracted a lot of urban poor and peasants, killing landlords and government officials. The rebellion was defeated. -This rebellion was due to a law extending serfdom to all peasants in the realm, giving lords unrestricted rights over serfs and making punishments for hiding runaways.

Catholic Reformation

-Counter-Reformation that opposed Protestants intellectually, politically, militarily, and institutionally

Reform movements in Czechoslovakia 1977

-Czechoslovak president Vaclav Havel signed Carter 77, citing the government for ignoring the human rights agreement of the Helsinki accords

Tycho Brahe (BRA-hee)

-Danish, observed the "new star" of 1572. -Got grants from the king of Denmark, built most sophisticated observatory. -Wrote RUDOLPHINE TABLES, which were tables of planetary motions. He compiled a ton of data with the naked eye. -He could not make much sense from this data because he did not know advanced math.

Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts

-Edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. -set out to find co-authors, to examine rapidly expanding set of human knowledge. Wanted to teach people to think critically and objectively. -72,000 articles by leading scientists, writers, skilled workers, and progressive priests, and had every aspect of life and knowledge. -Thought the knowledge would result in greater human happiness.

Appeal of Protestant Ideas

-Educated people and humanists because he advocated a simple, personal religion based only on faith, return to the spirit of the early church, and the centrality of Scriptures in liturgy, and abolition of elaborate ceremonies. -Literate city residents: insistence that everyone should read and reflect on scriptures -Jealous townspeople: clergy should pay taxes and not have special privileges. -German rulers: appeal to national feeling "we germans", also legal confiscation of lush and rich lands, and used religion to extend financial and political independence from HRE -Luther had great linguistic skill in his two catechisms, and hymns, and his translation of the New Testament into German.

reading revolution (18th century)

-Enlightenment time -Germany: the number of new books per year went from 600 to 2,600. Religious books declined, and arts and sciences increased. -reading is not as patriarchal and communal, without the father slowly reading the text aloud to savor the word. -Now reading was done differently, more individual and silent, and the texts could be questioned. -New ways of relating to the written word

14th and 15th century art

-Filippo Brunelleschi made dome on cathedral of Florence -Lorenzo Ghiberti made bronze doors on the baptistry -to glorify families of patrons and less so groups -Michelangelo Sistine Chapel of the Vatican's ceiling. Commissioned by Pope Julius II. -Michelangelo's David became a symbol of perfection and Renaissance artistic brilliance -Michelangelo's Last Judgement on the wall of the Sistine Chapel which is a symbol of terror and divine power. -religious topics are still popular, but the patron and the family were often in the scenes. pagan gods were also big in the art now. -portraits became more popular, showing human ideals in a realistic stile -Giotto led the way in realism. The body was not as stiff as normal but everything has a better perspective and seems more human. -Donatello had balance and self awareness. -Filippo Brunelleschi also made hospitals for orphans in a very calculated and artistic way. -Van Eyck was one of the first to sue oil paint successfully. The religious scenes are also very realistic and have a lot of personality. Northern architecture was not change much like in Italy. -Pope Julius II tore down the old St. Peter's Basilica and began to make a new one. Michelangelo did the dome. Also made the Pieta, Moses, Capitoline Hill also. -Raphael (Sanzio) did a lot of frescoes and portraits. He had a large workshop and wrote treaties that talked about the importance of imitating nature and having an orderly sequence of design and proportion. -Titian did mannerism when sometimes they made distorted figures, exaggerated musculature, and heightened color. -Botticelli's Primavera -women could not learn frescoes or the male nudes, but Artemisia Gentileschi did a lot of painting because she was probably the eldest daughter or there was no sons.

Galileo Galilei

-Florentine man who made the experimental method. See card. -formed law of inertia. see card -made a telescope by himself, and discovered the first four moons of Jupiter, which suggested that it could not be imbedded in a crystal sphere. -Wrote "Siderus Nuncius" which says that there are a bunch of stars stuck everywhere and there are no spheres -Holy Office banned Copernican supporting works. -Believed his theories did not detract from the perfection of God. -Wrote "Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World." Openly harpooned the ideas of Aristotle and Ptolemy. He was tried for heresy by the Papal inquisition. He recanted under torture.

St. Petersburg under Peter the Great

-Gave St. Petersburg modern planning. Drafted 25k to 40k men during the summer with out pay to labor in St. Petersburg. -Forced nobles to live in there most of the year -new merchants and artisans also had to live there. -required nobles to shave beards and wear Western clothing. -they had to got to parties where men and women could mix and choose their own spouses.

Ostpolitik

-German for eastern policy -Willy Brandt flew to Poland to sign a historic treaty of reconciliation -W.B. laid a wreath at the tomb of het unknown soldier and another commemorating the armed uprising of the Warsaw ghetto. -W.B. formally accepted existing state boundaries in return for mutual renunciation of force. -direct relations with East Germany. Aimed for practical improvements instead of reunification.

Argula von Grumbach

-German noblewoman who wrote religious pamphlets supporting Protestant ideas -not allowed tone a member of the clergy but wanted to 'confess God on earth"

Prussian Army

-Great Elector's grandson is Frederick William I. the "Soldiers King." He eliminated the last of parliamentary estates and local self government. -always wore an army uniform. -Made an honest and conscientious bureaucracy to administer the country and foster economic development. -Best army in Europe with skill, precision, and discipline. -Originally declared forced, lifelong conscription. Many people upset by this so he had all men do TRAINING and be reservists, allowing him to preserve agricultural production and army size. Let the Junkers lead the army proudly.

Habsburgs

-HREmperor Frederick II married Princess Eleonore of Portugal and got a lot of money. His son Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy, who inherited the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Burgundy. Habsburgs became the most powerful ruling family in the empire. -French not happy because they considered Burgundy French, so Austrian Habsburgs and French kings hate each other. -Maximilians's grandson is Charles V, who believed it was his duty to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christendom.

Monarchies in England in the 15th and 16th centuries

-Henry IV's government was dominated by aristocracy, and had a lot of local violence. -War of the Roses between York and Lancaster. This war hurt trade and industry and agriculture. Yorks won and helped crush power of he nobility and to establish order. Machiavelli would have liked because Edward IV Yorkist that won, his brother Richard III, and the Tudor Henry VII were ruthless and cunning. -All the rulers except Henry VIII tried to use diplomacy to avoid expensive wars. So monarchy doesn't depend on parliament for money which decreased aristocratic influence. -Henry VII distrusted the nobility and this was revealed in his royal council. Few great lords were his advisors. Instead he chose smaller landowners and those trained in law. -His oldest son Arthur marries Catherine of Aragon, the oldest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. By this marriage, the council got international recognition. -The council also had a judicial offshoot: the Court of the Star Chamber. The accused could not see the evidence, there were secret sessions, torture was used, and there were no juries. Greatly reduced aristocratic troublemaking. -Henry VII was a good king who died after making a land of peace and stability with good economy.

Catherine the Great

-Her husband Peter III came to power during the Seven Year's War. He became unpopular when he withdrew, so she disposed of him with her lover and his brothers. -continued Peter the Great's effort to bring western culture to Russia, bringing architects, sculptors, musicians, and intellectuals. Bought masterpieces, and patronized philosophers -offered to publish Diderot's Encyclopedia and gave him money. -won good press, and she wrote plays and loved good talk so she set tone for Russian nobility. She westernized the imagination of the Russian nobility. -began to prepare a new law code, restricting rooter, and allowed limited religious toleration. Tried to improve education and strengthen the local government. -When Emelian Pugachev made a serf uprising, and proclaimed himself the true tzar, Catherine defeated him and was executed, so she stopped reforming. -Since the peasants were dangerous, she gave the nobles absolute control of their serfs and extended serfdom into new areas like Ukraine. She needed the nobles support because her empire rested not eh support of the nobility. She released the nobles from taxation and state service. Nobles were most powerful, and serfs were most oppressed under Catherine. -she wanted to expand. Conquered descendants of Mongols and Crimean Tartars, and began the conquest of Caucasus. Greatest achievement was the partition of Poland. -When she was doing so well conquering territories, Frederick of Prussia proposed that she stop attacking the Turks (which was disturbing the balance of power) and in return Prussia, Russia, and Austria would each take a large piece of Polish territory. -made Pale of Settlement, a piece of land where most Jews were required to live.

Absolutism in Prussia

-Hohenzollern elector Frederick William "great elector" wanted to unify his provinces of Brandenburg, Prussia, and scattered holdings on the Rhine. -F.W. crushed potentila opposition. Prussian cities began to be subjected to new taxes on goods. The estates power began to decline because F.W. had financial independence and superior force. F.W.'s son Frederick I was called king of Prussia as a reward for aiding HRE in Spanish Succession.

Return of Serfdom in the East after Black Death in 17th

-In the west, the peasants were able to escape serfdom because they acquire enough land to support themselves. -In the east, lords forced the serfs to stay on the land to deal with the labor shortage. The lords kept taking more and more land and randomly forced the serfs to work more and harder. Sometimes they worked for six days a week without pay. -They needed permission to marry or could be forced to marry -Lords could relocate the land or sell serfs apart from family -Legal system corrupt: the local lord was the prosecutor, judge, and jailer. -Consolidation of serfdom incased with the growth of commercial agriculture, especially in Poland and Eastern Germany because the lords squeezed the surplus from the peasants, and sold the surpluses to foreign merchants. Especially England and the Netherlands benefited. -Landlords sold directly to foreigners bypassing local towns, and eastern towns lost their right of refuge and had to return runaways. The population declined overall.

Counterculture Movement/ "Youthquake"

-Inspired by American civil rights movement: legal means, public demonstrations, sit-ins, bus boycotts -Civil Rights Act, Voting Rights Act -UC Berkeley challenged limits on free speech and academic freedom

Monarchies in Spain in the 15th and 16th centuries

-Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married and pursued a common policy: Spain stayed loose confederation of kingdoms that each had their own cortes (parliament) and laws, courts, taxation, and coinage. -excluded high nobles from royal council and appointed lesser landowners and people trained in Roman law -got the right to appoint bishops in Spain and Hispanic territories by Alexander VI (Cesare Borgia's father). This made a national church. -They entered into Granada and end the reconquista, so Granada was incorporated int the Spanish kingdom. Then Ferdinand conquered Navarre in the north. -During the reconquista, many Christian kings had give Jews rights and privileges. They supported the monarchy. Over time Christians borrowed form the Jewish money lenders and began to resent them. -anti-Jewish preaching, the scapegoat in the Black Death, 40% of Jewish population killed or forced to convert. called conversos or New Christians. They were well educated and had a lot of influence. People resented their success. -Convinced Pope Sixtus IV to punish converts from Judaism who apparently had insincere conversions. Even if they were actually Christian by that point, they argued that Jewish blood was forever hereditary. -issued an edict expelling all practicing Jews from Spain. 150k/200k fled. -Granada Muslims were forced baptized and then also New Christian to be persecuted by the inquision. -Joanna, F&I's second daughter married Philip who is heir to the holy roman empire. Their son was Charles X. Charles X's son Philip II joined Portugal to Spanish crown later to unite the Iberian peninsula.

Italy let some women help in universities in science connected areas

-Italian universities attracted more women. -allowed to work as makers of wax anatomical models, botanical and zoological illustrators. -involved in informal scientific communities such as salons, scientific experiments, and writing learned treatises.

Charles I

-James I's son tried to finance and run the government without parliament and tried to finance with emergency taxes. This brought the country to a crisis.

Glorious Revolution

-James II appointed Roman Catholics to positions in the army, universities, and local government. -granted religious freedom to all -Parliament offered the English throne to James' Protestant daughter Mary and her husband Prince William of Orange. They were crowned. -minimum of bloodshed. showed supremacy of Parliament.

James I

-James Stuart, Elizabeth I's Scottish cousin -did not display majesty of monarchy. cheer at his arse. -believed that the monarch had a divine right to his authority and is responsible to God. This went against the english view that property could not be taken away without due process of law.

Asia in the information age

-Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan borrowed money from US and Europe to restart their economies. They began exporting high-tech consumer good to the West. -"tiger economies" such as the were competitive because labor cost were low so manufacturing.

Jews during Enlightenment

-Jews were discriminated against, and were forced into ghettos and excluded from business and professional activities. -rulers relied on Jewish bankers for loans. -large and and closely knit diaspora: prominent in international trade

Reformation in Denmark-Norway

-King Christian III quickly accepts the Reformation. -Lutheran ideas spread very quickly. -in 1530, he broke with the Catholic church and most clergy followed. -Northern Norway and Iceland was violent reactions, and gradually imposed anyway on unwilling populace.

Reformation in England

-King Henry VIII wanted a new wife, combining political, social, economic, and personal reasons. -Married to Catherine of Aragon, the widow of his older brother Arthur. Had to get papal permission to do this. This new marriage cause Mary Tudor. Wanted annulment and also in love with Anne Boleyn -pope said no because Charles V was in Rome, and Pope Clement VII was their prisoner. Charles V was Catherine of Aragon's nephew, so he did not want an annulment. -Made himself head of the church of England. Those that disagreed were beheaded including Thomas More, the chancellor and author of Utopia. -Anne Boleyn did not have males, and beheaded her. Jane Seymour died in childbirth but gave him Edward. Henry had three more wives. -maintained Catholic doctrines like confession, clerical celibacy, and transubstantiation. -Thomas Cromwell helped him dissolve the monasteries because he wanted their wealth. Enriched the treasury. The redistribution of land strengthened the upper class and the Tudor dynasty and Protestantism. -Thomas Cromwell centralized household, council, secretariats, the Exchequer. New departments of state made. Surplus funds for where there were deficits. Balancing resulted in greater efficiency and better economy. Grew the centralized state.

Cossacks

-Landlords under Ivan the Terrible began demanding more from the serfs. They fled and joined free groups and warrior bands called cossacks. They lived on borders of Russian territory. Moscow formed some alliances with Cossacks. -Cossacks rebelled during the "Time of Troubles." A lot of ordinary people suffered drought, crop failure, and plague, leading to suffering and death. Cossacks demanded fairer treatment. Moscow crushed the Cossack rebellion and Michael Romanov was the new tzar.

1690 Bill of Rights in England

-Law was made in Parliament and could not be suspended by the crown -Parliament called at least once every three years -independence of judiciary -no standing army in peacetime -Protestants could have arms, but not Catholics. -No Catholics could practice freely or inherit the throne, but Protestant dissenters could.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

-Louis XIV's financial genius -Wealth and economy of France should serve the state. Applied Mercantilist policies to France. -Sent 4,000 colonists to Quebec

Life at Versailles

-Louis needed noble cooperation so he revolutionized court life at Versailles. -There were offices for royal bureaucrats, home for royal family and nobles, thousands of domestic servants. Very cramped. -Elaborate rituals that all the nobles wanted to do like dress the king, full of lots of etiquette, because access to the king meant favored treatment for government offices, military and religious posts, state pensions, honorary titles, and more. -Here there was a new kind of patronage where higher ranked individuals protected lower ones in return for loyalty and services. -Era of French classicalism. These works resembled Renaissance Italy. Imitated style and subject matter. Balance, discipline, and restraint. -While Versailles was the center of European politics, French became the language of polite society and international diplomacy, replacing Latin.

Voltaire

-Loved Newton because he had used genius for the benefit of humanity. -IN THE STYLE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT, HE MIXED GLORIFICATION OF SCIENCE AND REASON WITH AN APPEAL FOR BETTER INDIVIDUALS AND INSTITUTIONS. -pessimistically believed that the best government was a good monarch because humans "are very rarely worth to govern themselves." -Corresponded with Prussian King Frederick the Great, who he called an Enlightened monarch. -Continually criticized indirectly the Catholic Church and Christian theology. -Believed in a distant, deistic God, believing that God was a clockmaker who built an ordinary system and then watched it run. -Hated religious intolerance which led to savage action. They loved simple piety and human kindness. Loving God and neighbor was religion enough.

Reformation in Hungary

-Lutheran was spread by Hungarian students studying at Wittenberg. But the government didn't like them and it became legal to kill Lutherans. But before this was acted on... -Ottomans under Suleiman the Magnificent defeated the Hungarians. Hungary divided into 1) ottoman turks 2) Habsburg 3) Ottoman-supported Janos Zapolya. Different groups ruled different sections. -Ottomans were indifferent, but Christians all paid more taxes to the sultan. -Hungarian nobles accepted Lutheranism, so Lutheran schools increased, and remained Protestant until Habsburg restoration in 1699.

Youth occupations in 17th and 18th centuries

-Many young people worked in the home: boys plowed and wove, girls spun and tended the cows. Many others left home to work elsewhere. -Apprentice boys entered at age 16 and left in the early twenties, and during that time he could not marry. If he was lucky he joined a guild, if not he did tough jobs like farm hands or wage laborer on a road. -Women were seamstresses, linen drapers, or midwives.With more finished goods being produced, the demand for skilled female labor grew and so there were greater opportunities for skilled female labor. Young girls were normally servants in another household. Often beaten, raped, or abused

Louis XIV's Wars

-Marquis de Louvois, the secretary of state for war. -created a professional army where the French state, rather than the private nobles employed the soldiers. -standardized uniforms and weapons, and rational training and promotions -wanted to expand France beyond what he considered its "natural borders" -New borders included some commercial centers in Spanish Netherlands, Flanders, Franche-Comte, Strasbourg, Lorraine. A lot of strain on French resources, and people had to devalue the currency and make new taxes to finance these wars.

Reformation in Scotland

-Mary, Queen of Scots and her father James V opposed reformation, but the people supported John Knox. -John Knox is a Scottish noble who wanted to structure the Scottish church like Geneva, where he had studied with Calvin. -ended papal authority and rule by bishops. Substituted governance with presbyters, or councils of ministers. -Strictly Calvinist in doctrine, simple and dignified service of worship, with emphasis on preaching

Christian Humanism

-Northern humanists who interpreted Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity and humanism in terms of their own religious traditions. -Classic ideas of calmness, social patience, broad-mindedness is like Christian virtues of faith, hope, and love.

17th Century riots over bread and taxes

-Philip IV had revolt in Catalonia, Portugal, Netherlands, Sicily because of food shortages from bad harvests. He tried to lighten the loaf instead of raising prices -Rebels want affordable food and no super high taxes, and wanted to participate in the government. -In France, Dijon, Bordeaux, Montpellier, Lyons, and Amiens people were violent against tax collectors. -In Bordeaux, the new taxes on legal transactions, tobacco, and pewter started an uprising.

civic humanism

-Plato decided that a single enlightened ruler might be best. also that educated men should be active in the political affairs of the city

Role of Religion in science

-Portestant, especially in Calvins, made scientific inquiry a question of individual conscience, not religious doctrine. -Catholic suppressed scientific theories that conflicted with its teaching, and discouraged scientific progress. -Both mostly opposed Copernicus for a long time, until 1630 when the scientific revolution was already going on. -Catholic church originally less hostile than Protestant and Jewish leaders, so Italian scientist did a lot up until Galileo, declining science in Italy, but not in France. -Netherlands and Denmark became "pro science" be cause they did not have a strong religious authority to impose religion. -Due to English civil war over religion, it was difficult to impose religious unity on anything, including science. So, Bacon had many followers during the commonwealth. -Bacon advocated the experimental approach because it was open-minded, and independent of preconceived religious and philosophical ideas.

Pietism

-Protestant revival that began in Germany in the late 17th century -wanted to keep believers close to God even with the growth of state power and bureaucracy -(1)Enthusiasm, very warm and emotional -(2)priesthood of all believers, spur for popular literacy -(3)practical power of Christian rebirth in everyday affairs. Reborn Christians had to lead good moral lives and could have any background -impacted John Wesley who started Methodism

English Civil War

-Rebellion in Ireland where the people were exploited by the English. Without an army, Charles could not put down Irish rebellion or come to terms with scots. -Charles recruited an army in the north of England, and Parliament formed the New Model Army to fight. The New Model army won in the Battles of Naseby and Langport. -Oliver Cromwell executed the king, a member of Parliament and a Puritan.

salons

-Regular social gatherings held by talented and rich Parisian women in their homes, where philosophies and tier followers met to discuss literature, science and philosophy. -witty, uncensiored observations. -Hostesses are salonniers. Hostesses brought together people from all different occupations. -Membership at solons was restricted to well-born, well-connects, and exceptionally talented. -created a realm free from religious dogma and cultural censorship.

Social hierarchies

-Renaissance heightened the gulf between learned minority and the uneducated majority for many centuries. -Race became a popular idea that meant pretty much anything for a group of people basically -black slaves became very desirable and were sometimes painted in portraits of wealthy people. -blacks became about 10% of the cities of Lisbon and Evora. -sought after because of the medieval interest in the exotic, curiosities. They often competed for jobs with englishmen. -Isabella of Este wasn't mean but didn't treat them like humans. They were for entertainment and to serve and be made fun of. -thought that European contact, even as slaves, could only help them. -the "third order" is those who work instead of fighting and praying.This included very wealthy merchants too though. -however like the merchants that gained political power with economic power, the hierarchy of wealth was more changeable than the hierarchy of orders. -considerations of honor: nobility's special weapons and battle tactics were favored to be more honorable like executioners or brothel managers were less honorable. -merchants were allowed to wear fur and jewels, prostitutes wore yellow bands to remind costumers of the flames of hell

Restoration of 1660

-Restored Charles II, son of Charles I, to the throne instead of Cromwell's son. -(1) didn't resolve what to do with the dissenters with the Anglican church. -(2) what was the relationship between the king and parliament?

France gaining power also in colonial trade

-Rich in natural resources, population three or four times that of England, allied with Spain, France was building a powerful fleet and a worldwide system of monopolized colonial trade. -France and Britain had wars to decide who would be the leading maritime power. The first was the War of Spanish succession (the union of France and Spain would unite and destroy the British colonies in North America.)

David Hume

-Scottish and argued religious skepticism -Thought the human mind was just a bunch of impressions, originating in sense experience and our habits of joining experiences together. -Our reason can't tell us anything about questions that cannot be verified from sense experience in the form of controlled experiments or math. -Rationalistic inquiry ironically ended up undermining Enlightenment's faith in the power of reason.

Sexual Revolution and drugs

-Sex: more discussion, more premarital, homosexuality is tolerated more, experimentation, birth control pill, 32% had sex before age 17 in 1953&1954. -Drugs: break free from conventional morals, Timothy Leary gets high, rock music (beatles, stones, casual sex and drugs), counter culture cities (San Francisco, Paris, West Berlin, Carnaby Street)

Environmental Movement

-Silent Spring by Rachel Carson about pesticides, when everyone wakes up and birds are dead -Rhine River was industrial sewer -Southwestern German forests dying form acid rain from smokestacks -Brittany in northwest France had oil spills from tanker ships. -Nuclear power plants made toxic waste -Two goals: (1)lessen effects of unbridled industrial development on natural environment (2) linked local environmental issues to poverty, inequality, and violence globally. -used mass media and politicians -students took over the University of Copenhagen, locking the conferenced doors, spraying the professors with polluted lake water, and held up an oil covered duck. -greenpeace -green party

OPEC

-Six-Day war between Israel and Arab neighbors created anti-Western Arab feelings. -OPEC is Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. -saw the prices of crude oil declining, so they presented a united front. -When Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel and Israel won with US arms, OPEC embargoed oil to US, and oil prices quadrupled. Called oil shock. -When Islamic revolution struck Iran and oil production collapsed, the world economy had a second oil shock.

Reformation in Poland

-Some Catholic revival in Bohemia due to the Catholic Reformation, even though the nobles embraced Lutheranism -Poland-Lithuaniawere separate except they had the same king, senate, and diet (parliament) -Large polity, but thinly scattered population and very diverse. Each group spoke its own language. -Poles had anti-German feelings, but Calvin's stress of power of church elders appealed to Polish nobility. Calvinism also attractive because it originated in France not Germany. But Protestants not united in doctrine, and the Counter Reformation grew. Due to Stanislaus Hosius and Jesuits, Poland was again Roman Catholic

Decline of Absolutist Spain in 17th century

-Spanish trade with New World colonies fell 60% due to competition from local industries in the colonies, and from Dutch and English traders. -Native Indian and African slaves that worked in the South American silver mines died with disease. The mines also began to run dry, and the metal declined after 1620. -Royal spending kept exceeding income. They devalued the coin and declared bankruptcy, resulting in the collapse of credit -Spain had a tiny middle class. A lot of elite, and 9,000 monasteries in Castile alone. Spain expelled 300k former Muslims in 1609, reducing pool of skilled workers and merchants. -Textile industry had a lot of inflation, and raised the production costs very high. -Spanish aristocrats increased rents on estates. Too high rents and heavy taxes drove peasants form the land, causing decreased agricultural productivity, and Spain ignored new scientific agriculture methods.

Ulrich Zwingli

-Swiss humanist, priest, and admirer of Erasmus -announced he would not preach the church's prescribed teachings, but would rely on Erasmus' New Testament. -Convinced that Christian life should be oriented around Scriptures, which were the pure words of God, and the only source of religious truth. -attacked indulgences, the Mass, monasticism, and clerical celibacy. -supported by Zurich's authorities because they did not like the clerical privileges. -DIFFERENT THAN LUTHER because he believed that Christ was present in spirit among the faithful, but not in the bread and wine. -worked closely with city council of Zurich and appointed pastors who they trusted believed the ideas, and required them to swear and oath of loyalty to the council, and oversaw their teachings.

Religious wars in Switzerland and Germany

-Switzerland was made of 13 autonomous cantons. Some stayed Catholic and some became protestant, and in 1520s they went to war. Zwingli was killed on battlefield -both sides agreed that each canton could determine its religion. They all gave up foreign alliances and remained neutral.

Russian overthrow of Mongol Empire

-The Mongols forced the Slavic princes payments of goods, money and slaves. Ivan the Great was good at serving the mongols and was called a "great prince." Ivan the Great become powerful enough he stopped paying the Mongol khans. The Muscovite state (Ivan's Moscow) forced the other princes to pay to him instead of the Mongol empire. boyars helped them gain power. -Moscow princes saw themselves and heirs of emperors and Orthodox Christianity due to the fall of Constantinople in 1453.

Thirty Years' War

-The Peace of Augsburg was deteriorating -Lutheran princes formed the Protestant Union and Catholics formed the Catholic League. -Four phases: (Bohemian) Catholics won, (Danish) Catholics won even against king Christian IV of Denmark, (Swedish) Gustavus Adolphus won important battles then died, (French) Cardinal Richelieu of France declared war on Spain to prevent more Habsburg power. -Edict of Restitution made

British

-The Seven Year's war doubled the British national debt so they taxed the colonists more who declared independence and wrote the Declaration of Independence that was influential.

Increased study of the body in 16th and 17th

-The ancient Greek Galen, thought the body had four humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Illness was due to an imbalance of humors, which is why doctors prescribed bloodletting. -Swiss Paracelsus supported the experimental method and chemicals and drugs, so he thought that illness was a chemical imbalance, not humoral. -Flemish Andreas Vesalius dissected humans. Published "On the Structure of the Human Body." 200 precise drawings revolutionized anatomy. -English William Harvey used experimental approach to see that blood was circulated through veins and arteries, and that the heart worked like a pump. -Irish Robert Boyle whose experiments helped to discover basic elements of nature, which he thought was composed of infinitely small atoms. The first to create a vacuum, disproving Descartes. Made Boyle's Law.

National Assembly

-The first revolutionary legislature, made up primarily of representatives of the third estate and a few from the nobility and clergy. -Swore the Oath of the Tennis Court, that said it would not disband until they had written a new constitution. -so the king urged reforms, and then ordered the estates to meet together. -the king called an army and dismissed liberal ministers like the finance minister, so it looked like the king would use violence to establish control. -people were afraid that the dismissal of the finance minister would put them at the mercy of aristocratic landowners and grain speculators. -eventually made "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" that men were born and remain free and equal in rights, liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, innocent until guilty, free speech, equality before the law, representative government.

enclosure

-The movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of poor peasants who relied on common fields for farming and pasture. -innovating agriculturalists needed to enclose and consolidate the scattered holdings, enclosing the common pasture, 'the common'. -these traditional rights that were being eliminated was very important to the poor peasants because they needed the common to graze livestock, and marshlands and forest to find foraged goods in times of famine. -sometimes the people against enclosure were supported by the nobles who did not want to pay a lot of money to fence in the land. -by enclosing the land and eliminating traditional village rights, we now have (1) a market-oriented state agriculture. (2) landless rural proletariat. The time minority of wealthy landowners had most land and were profit hunters, leasing at competitive prices to middle-sized farmers who relied on landless laborers for their workforce, who worked very long hours, though fewer laborers are needed so there was a lot of unemployment

consumer revolution

-The wide ranging growth in consumption and new attitudes towards consumer goods that emerged in the cities of northwestern Europe in the second half of the 18the century. -as a result, people derived their self-identity as much from their consuming practices as from their working lives and place in the production process. -new notions of individuality emerged: shop girls could buy unique jackets, ribbons, or parasols. -inspired new marketing campaigns, opened fancy boutiques with large windows, and advertised the patronage of royal princes and princesses. -These royals seized the reigns of fashions from courtiers who used to control it, and set new styles. -entrepreneurs made fashionable clothing more desirable, -all the women in the entering the textile and needle industries made fashion even cheaper -colonial economies also lowered the cost such as cotton and vegetable dyes, and with more enslaved Africans. -at the end of the 18th century, men denounced bright colors and voluptuous fabrics and began to wear and early version of today's dark suit.

Johannes Kepler

-Tycho Brahe's student -A mathematician who believed that the universe was built on mystical mathematical relationships and a musical harmony of heavenly bodies. -Refuted epicycles, and made three new laws of planetary motion. -(1)elliptical orbits (2)planets don't move at a uniform speed in their orbits: the are faster when closer to the sun (3)The time a planet takes to make its full orbit is related to its distance from the sun. -Wrote "The New Astronomy" which put forward a completely new theory of the cosmos. -While Copernicus speculated, Kepler proved mathematically that the sun was the center. -He united natural philosophy with mathematics -Demolished Aristotle and Ptolemy's systems, and came close to the universal law of gravitation. -Finished his teacher's Rudolphine tables. -pioneered study of optics: explained the role of refraction, made an improved telescope -Helped form the basis for integral calculus and advances in geometry. -He believed in horoscopes though, and talked about cosmic harmonies, and a fictional account of a trip to the moon.

Paris Accord

-US and Soviet Union agreed to scale down armed forces -all existing borders in Europe were legal and valid -ended WW2 and Cold War

New Religious orders

-Ursuline nuns educated women to dechristianize society by training mothers and wives. -Jesuits. Ignatius Loyola wrote "Spiritual Exercises"

Utopia

-Written by Sir Thomas More, a Christian humanist -(contributed to reformation. so did savonarola, ficino, ) -a perfect island where all children had a good education and adults divided days between labor or business and intellectual activities. No hunger or poverty due to a kind government. Profits from business and property are held in common because private property promoted inequality and greed. He wrote it in Latin, but was translated into the vernacular.

Student revolts and 1968

-Youth revolted against Vietnam war, nuclear arms race, world peace, social conventions, death of MLK -Anti war demonstrations at Democratic National Convention in Chicago -Mexico city police killed people for protesting for political reform -Students in Tokyo protest the Vietnam war -Warsaw students march against censorship -Prague youths want to reform communism at home -Violent clashes with police wen students took over the University of Paris. Called May Events -10 million worker on strike, protestors occupied factories. When government promised workplace reforms and pay raises, the strikers returned to work. Charles de Gaulle re-elected showing that many supported conservatives. May events also.

18th century population explosion

-a lot of poverty and less food and too many people and a price revolution and declining living standards in 1500s. -in 17th century, more stuff in balance, or maybe 1% increase. Probably more increase in Russia with a lot of frontier to be settled, but less than that in condensed France. (-some bad things for population are famine, crop failures, and disease. Also war, like 30 years war, which in Germanic states the population declined by 1/3-2/3 because soldiers passed disease and told scary food which destroyed crops and farmlands). -18th century growth: FEWER DEATHS. -mysterious disappearance of bubonic plague: more quarantine and good luck -inoculation against smallpox -improvements in water supply and sewage promoted by absolutist monarchies and decreased typhoid and typhus. -draining of swamps decreased large insect population which spread disease like flies and mosquitos. -advances in transportation (canals and road building) lessened the impacts of of crop failure. Emergency supplies brought in. Less destructive wars had less sickness. New food like South American potato was introduced. All the crises were less devastating. -more population caused imbalance of people and jobs, and also increasing agricultural advances they needed less rural workers

Characteristics of rulers in Absolutist and Constitutional

-absolutist government had all power under their control, but English and Dutch rulers had to respect laws passed by representative groups. -both types of government wanted to expand and protect their borders, raise new taxes, increase central control, and score new colonies in the New and Old Worlds. -it was hard for both to convey orders from central government to provinces, and rulers did not have much information about their land, so it was hard to tax and police the population -Nobles, church, assemblies, town councils, and guilds had special legal privileges -some kingdoms people spoke a different language than the ruler so many did not want to follow orders. -absolutist and constitutional govts. both had new levels of control: more taxes, more armed forces, better bureaucracies, and easier to have obedient subjects

Reform movements in Poland 1970s

-agricultural land was private and Catholic church thrived -little economic improvement -economic nosedive after the first oil shock -Pope John Paul elected pope -1980 16k workers at Lenin Shipyards in Gdansk wanted free-trade unions, freedom of speech, release of political prisoners and economic reform. The Government accepted the demands. -Lenins Shipyards strike led by Lech Wales. Organized the trade union called Solidarity -national union, and cultural and intellectual freedom blossomed in poland. -did not challenge directly the communist monopoly on political power. -settle for minor government concessions and dropped plans for a massive general strike. -criticized for moderate leadership, and Solidarity lost cohesion, and was eventually outlawed -Poles continued to act free.

Cultural Thaw 1960s

-allowed Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Boris Pasternak to publish their fiction. -Bitterfeld Movement: conference of writers, officials, and workers could be more critical of life in the East Block as long as they did not directly oppose communism: Christa Wolf's "Divided Heaven"

postindustrial society

-also called information age -Society that relies on high-tech and service oriented jobs for economic growth rather than on heavy industry and manufacturing jobs. -increase in computing and biotechnology, medicine, banking, and finance. -steel, mining, car manufacturing, and shipbuilding favorites closed, creating rust-belts. Common examples were in the Ruhr districts, and in Detroit, Michigan.

Ivan the Terrible

-also known as Ivan IV. Crowned himself. Added vast territories. When his wife Anastasia Romanov died, he had a campaign of persecution to crush power of boyars. Killed them and all their family. -Created a new service nobility whose loyalty was guaranteed by the dependence on the state for noble titles and estates. Took from boyars to give to this new nobility. -Ivan tried to bind urban traders and artisans to their towns and jobs so that he could tax them more heavily.

Health in the 18th century

-apothecaries sold herbs and drugs in larger towns in cities. Sold a lot of laxatives -medicine joined the consumer culture. Lots of advertisement of miraculous cures. -men physicians had a long training, and came from prosperous families, and normally treated people from similar backgrounds. Still did a lot of purging, bloodletting, and believed in humors. -surgeons began to study anatomy. more cauterization, but no painkillers. -midwives were normally women, but men began to monopolize with the invention of forceps. -Madame du Coudray wrote "Manual on the Art of Childbirth." -Lady Mary Whortley Montagu spread the news of smallpox inoculation, but 1 in 50 died -Edward Jenner used the Baconian science, carefully collecting data, and found that milkmaids who had gotten the mild, noncontagious cowpox could did not get smallpox. With more successful vaccinations, it pretty much disappeared throughout the world.

Growth in army size in 17th century

-armies in peacetime and wartime -rise in standards of army in by new techniques in training and deploying -French army goes from 125k to 340k -a ton of noble officers died in battle, and they had to pay a lot to have that position and had to supply food, uniforms, horses weapons. The widow gets all the debt -British built largest navy in the world

Catholic piety

-baroque art was still emotionally exhilarating -more people in formal worship -more involved in community life -Processions were also folklore and tradition, an escape from work, and a form of recreation

spread of elementary schools

-began in 16th century with colleges run by Jesuits in catholic areas. -some schools taught 6-12 year olds literacy, religion and math for the boys and needlework for the girls. -Presbyterian Scotland carefully studied the scriptures so made an effective network of parish schools. -many Protestant denominations made "charity schools" for poor children -in 1717 Prussia made compulsory elementary schools for boys and girls -Maria Theresa forced five hours of school five days a week for all ages 6-12.

deism

-belief in God but not in organized religion -popular among Enlightened and educated people

Trade in Asia and Pacific

-between 1500 and 1600 Portuguese was the biggest in the Indian ocean, eliminating Venice as Europe's chief supplier of spices and luxury goods. -Dutch East India Company had taken over Portuguese spice trade with Batavia (Jakarta) as its center of operations. They expelled the portuguese form east indian islands. -East Indian peoples were independent under Portuguese, the dutch reduced them to dependents. -In the 18th century, Dutch began to lose money because they did not meet changing consumption patterns. Spices became less important in the European diet. -Competition from English East India Company that hurt Dutch trade. British could not have a great foothold in Indian ocean because of the Dutch, so they turned to India, where they intervened in local affairs and made alliances or waged wars with Indian princes. Their greatest rival for India was France, but Britain got it all after the Treaty of Paris -A lot of cowry shells were traded in the Indian ocean and Europeans got them and used them to buy slaves in West Africa.

Isaac Newton

-born in the year of Galileo's death -worked in alchemy too, trying to find the elixir of life and to change base metals into gold and silver. Very religious. -law of universal gravitation and centripetal force and acceleration. -Principia Mathematica set down Newton's three laws of motion.

New foods in 18th century

-bread was the staff of life. The brown rye bread was for eh common people. peasants believed in the just price. -the rural poor ate a lot of vegetables, especially peas and beans, cabbages, carrots, wild greens. -cheese and butter was not eaten but sold in the markets for taxes -most laws broken were hunting laws broken by ordinary people -greater v variety of vegetables in towns because of a growth of market gardening. -American corn, squash, tomatoes, and potatoes. -tropical fruits, oranges, lemons. -A TON MORE TEA AND SUGAR IN THE 18TH CENTURY -tea and sugar used to be super expensive but they weren't as much anymore because of the expansion of colonial slave labor in the new world. -more coffee, tobacco, and chocolate. -colonial products were more popular because people wanted to emulate the luxurious styles of the elite.

Social Democrats in 1950-1970s

-building on welfare, increased state spending on public services -committed to capitalist free markets and democratic electoral politics. -welfare helped reduce inequalities -spend more on healthcare, education, old-age insurance, public housing -Christian Democrats mostly supported this too

The Courtier (1528)

-by Baldassare Castiglione -train the young man into a gentleman -broad background in academics and spiritual also -could write a sonnet, wrestle, sing, play instruments, ride well, do math, and speak and write eloquently. -also talked about perfect court lady who was also well educated and played instruments, painted, danced, were beautiful, delicate, affable, and modest. -translated into every European language -how to manual for people seeking t o rise in the social world

"Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences"

-by Martin Luther -indulgences undermined the seriousness of the sacrament of penance -competed with the preaching of the Gospel -downplayed the importance of charity in Christian life. -This document was sent to Archbishop Albert of Mainz, and supposedly nailed to the door of the church at Wittenberg Castle. -written in Latin; printed in Latin and vernacular -had a scholarly debate with Johann Eck where he refused to take back his ideas and called for reform. -In a series of pamphlets he moved further away from Catholic theology.

Navigation Act

-by Oliver Cromwell and is a mercantilist policy -Requires English goods to be transported on English ships. -added to the development of an English merchant marine. -welcomed immigration of Jews.

Leviathan

-by Thomas Hobbes -if left to themselves, humans would compete violently for power and wealth. Everyone should be placed under h the absolute rule of a monarch who would maintain peace and order. Imagined the monarch as the head of a body, so that the people the arms, could not rise up against the king. Denied the right of subjects to rebellion.

skepticism

-can we ever know anything? -some others asked if religious truth could ever be know with absolute certainty. -Pierre Bayle wrote "Historical and Critical Dictionary", demonstrating that human beliefs have been varied and often wrong, so nothing can ever be known beyond a doubt. Most common book in private libraries in 18th cent France.

Vietnam War

-citizens believed it was linked to imperialism, but more a result of the Cold War and containment -Korean War ended in a stalemate to contain communism -Vietnam: President D.D.E. refused to sign Geneva Accords that divided the country into two zones: socialist north and anti-communist south. When south Vietnam didn't have free elections, Eisenhower sent military aid. Kennedy sent 16k "military advisers." LBJ sent 500k troops. They bombed North Vietnam, but did not invade or blockade. Americans got sick of the drawn out war. -college students hated draft -Vietcong Tet Offensive showed t hat the war was not almost over. -President Nixon withdrew troops, stopped draft, and made a peace agreeing allowing the americans to withdraw. -When North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam, the USA did nothing and the country was unified in a communist dictatorship.

Protestant ideas about Marriage and Sexuality

-clerical celibacy was unnatural -Luther married a former nun, Katharina von Bora -Zwinli married a widow, Ana Reinhart -both quickly had children -new social role: pastor's wives; trying not to be considered priest's concubine -living demonstrations of husbands beliefs about the ideal of marriage to celibacy. Models of wifely obedience and Christian charity. -denied that marriage was a sacrament, but it was ordained by God as a remedy for lust, and offered companionship. -spiritual equality of men and women, and hierarchy of husbandly authority and cheerful, willing, wifely obedience. -men encouraged to be kind to wives, but use force if necessary. Used metaphor about breaking a horse -marriage is a contract promising support, companionship, and sharing of goods. -marriages without support endangered their own souls and surrounding community -allowed divorce and remarriage, but as a last resort. only .02-.06 per 1000 people divorced.

Economic Crisis in the 70s

-collapse of international monetary system, which had been based off of the American dollar. The dollar was devalued because the US spent billions of dollars on foreign aid and wars, decreasing the value. It also decreased because Nixon stopped the exchange of US currency for gold. -The postwar boom had been fueled by Middle Eastern oil, permitting Big Science and other energy-intensive industries. See OPEC card. -After the oil embargo, the revolution energy prices caused the worst economic decline since 1930s. Unemployment rose, living standards declined, inflation soared.

End of communism in Hungary

-communist leader Janos Kadar had permitted liberalization the planned economy after the 1956 uprising in exchange for political obedience. -Hungarian Communist party agreed to hold free elections. -to strengthen support at home, Hungarians opened border to East Germans. vacationers poured into Hungary and then resettled in West Germany. This border opening led directly to destruction of Berlin wall

Destruction of Soviet Union

-communists kept being defeated in local elections -Gorbachev asked Soviet citizens to ratify a new constitution formally abolishing the communist monopoly of political power and expanded the power of the Congress of People's deputies. -most deputies elected him president of the Soviet union -renamed Russian Federation

Protestant Ideas about Women's roles

-condemned prostitution -brothels closed in protestant cities -harsh punishments for prostitution -many catholic cities often shut brothels as well but a lot of Italian cities just preferred more regulations instead -selling sex came more immoral called "whoredom", premarital sex, and adultery were immoral -smaller illegal brothels were established or women moved right outside city walls. -convents provided women of the upper class the opportunity for literary, artistic, medical, or administrative talents if they could not or would not marry -many nuns placed in convent even without sense of calling by parents. -reformation closed monasteries and convents -marriage became only acceptable occupation for upper class protestant women -most nuns left convents -unmarried men and women were suspicious to society

premarital sex in 17th and 18th century

-condoms made from sheep intestines were used more -not that many illegitimate children born, because although they were conceived before marriage, they were forced to marry in community controls. Pregnancy set the date for the marriage.

Margaret Cavendish, Anne Conway, Mary Astell

-contributed to debates about Descartes' mind-body dualism -Descartes said he valued princess Elizabeth of Bohemia's statements because she valued the voice of reason more that Aristotle focused men doctors.

smaller Italian city states(15,16)

-controlled by larger ones who sent spies, paid informers, and diplomacy for control -Siena, Mantua, Ferrara, Modena -competed for territory

anticlericalism (16th century)

-court records, bishops visitations, popular songs, printed images shows anticlericalism -opposition to clergy: clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical pluralism, absenteeismm. -immorality: drunkards, not celibate, gambled, too fancy -ignorance: mumbled words of the mass without understanding anything -absenteeism and pluralism: held many offices at once but didn't visit them or do the spiritual responsibilities. They just hired a poor priest and paid him very little. -too many clerical privileges. They did not have to defend the city or pay taxes, even though they owned up to 1/3 of urban property.

New mixed races

-creole was term for spanish people born in America. They followed European ways of life. -Colonial attempts to classify races really influenced the Enlightenment thought on racial differences. -In Spanish and French Caribbean, and Brazil, many masters acknowledged and freed their mixed-race children, making sizeable populations of free people of color. -when people of color were prosperous, the whites made new laws forcing non whites from marrying whites and had to wear specific clothes. -In British colonies, they did not acknowledge children.

German Peasants' war of 1525

-crop failures in 1523-1524 -nobles seized village common lands, imposing new rents, requiring additional services, taking the best horses or cows whenever their own died. -peasants made demands they believed conformed with Scripture and Luther's ideas. -first sided with peasants blaming the lords, but when the peasants openly rebellion, Luther changed sides -Luther said that they needed freedom from Roman church, not all secular powers. -he said that Scripture had nothing to do with earthly justice or material gain. Zwingli agreed. -"Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants." "smite, slay, stab,secretly openly. ... Nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel" -Nobility ferociously crushed them. 75k peasants killed. -strengthened the authority of lay rulers. -reformation lost some popular appeal. -peasant's economic conditions moderately improved -closed fields, meadows, and forests were returned to common use.

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

-designed to save an increasingly unpopular Marxist regime. -Americans feared the Persian gulf would be next. -Jimmy Carter tried to have economic sanctions agains Soviet Union, but only Great Britain supported it.

printing press

-developed in Germany in 1440s -Johann Gutenberg especially made type (the stamps) -paper is more readily available because the Chinese technique was brought to Europe through Muslim Spain. -increase of literacy and primary schools created a greater market for reading materials. -between 8 million-20 million books produced in Europe. -more easily discussed books -governments and churches printed laws, declarations of war, battle accounts, propaganda. Also censored books and lists of banned books, arresting the printers and destroying the presses. Not effective thought because the book were just published with fake title pages and authors and places of publication -stimulated the literacy of laypeople -religious subjects, reference for lawyers doctors and students, historical romances, biographies, and how-to manuals. -added images to increase sale from history to pornography -bridged the gap between written and oral cultures. -helped circulate the ideas about the debate about women

End of communism in Czechoslovakia

-died quickly -Velvet Revolution due to popular demonstrations by students, intellectuals,and Vaclav Havel -forced communists to share power with non communist leaders -elected Havel president

indulgences

-document issued by the Catholic church lessening penance or time in purgatory. -pope had just authorized a sale of a special St. Peter's indulgence to finance his building plans in Rome. -Albert of Mainz, the local archbishop of Wittenberg, was very enthusiastic because he received a share of the profits to pay of a debt that he had because he purchased a papal dispensation allowing him to become the bishop of many other territories also. His indulgence sale was run by a friar named Johann Tetzel who advertised it with slogans and everything.

English advancements in agriculture

-drainage and water control: English drained fens (extensive marshes) in wet England. -Dutch Engineer Cornelius Vermuyden drained in Yorkshire and Cambridgeshire. Reclaimed 40k acres in Cambridge alone. -Jethro Tull, and early enlightenment dude, found better methods through empirical research. wanted to use horses instead of slower oxen for plowing. sowing seed with drilling equipment rather than by hand, which would distribute seed evenly and at a good depth. selective breeding for ordinary livestock in addition to fast horses for races. -English farmers were producing 300% more food, even though only 14% more people working land. -part of growth increased due to enclosures.

Parisian Women March on Versailles

-economic crisis worsened after the fall of the Bastille. -women could no longer look to the church which had been stripped of its tithes for aid -marched 12 miles from Paris to Versailles armed. -They killed some bodyguards and almost Marie Antoinette "cut off her head, tear out her heart, fry her liver, and that won't be the end of it" -the king calmed them by agreeing to live closer to the people in Paris.

Boris Yeltsin

-embraced democratic movements -elected leader of Russian Soviet republic -decided that Russia would declare independence from Soviet Union. -hardliners kidnapped Gorbachev and hiss family -Yeltsin denounced rebels from a tank, and declared rebirth of Russia. Gorbachev rescued.

Absolutism in Austria

-endless wars of 17th century allowed monarchs to build large armies, increase taxation, and suppress representative institutions. -Habsburgs decided to stop imperial dominance to try to consolidate holdings. -Habsburg victory over Bohemia in 30 years war. Ferdinand II reduced the power of Protestant representative assembly in Bohemia. Under Habsburgs, surfs worsened: three days of unpaid labor was normal. -Ferdinand III centralized German-speaking provinces -permanent standing army -Habsburgs pushed Ottomand from most of Hungary and Transylvania. Hungarian nobles tried to revolt to resist absolute rule, finally under Prince Francis Rakoczy -Habsburgs consolidated by loyalty of monarchy in Habsburg lands, even in Hungary. Also German language and Catholic faith united.

Genevan Consistory

-established by Calvin -run by laymen and pastors -regulated citizens' conduct. -absence from sermons, criticism of minister, card playing, family quarrels, heaving drinking were all investigated and punished by the consistory. -sometimes allowed torture to extract confessions -76 people banished and 58 executed. -a lot of religious refugees went there.

Life of the rural textile workers.

-family business: everyone from 7 to 80 who had sight and hand motion would work. -Men operated loom, women and children prepared threads and mounted and wound thread. -the wives of agricultural workers often did spinning work called "spinsters" to make extra thread. -Merchants accused workers of stealing raw materials ad weavers said that merchants sent underweight bales, so disputes of weights and quality of finished work. Mens wages were about 4 times the amount of women -cottage workers were difficult to supervise. When anything was behind schedule, merchants lowered wages because they said they had no incentive to work. They accused workers, especially female spinners, of laziness, drunkenness, and immorality. -Merchants became the police for workers, and public whipping was punishment for small pilfering of wool. This was like 'gleaning' the little excess wool that was also taken that couldn't be used. With progress came less safeguards for the poor.

Seven Year's War with Franco_British

-fighting began in North America. French was allied with Native Americans, and that was a war to conquest Canada. French were winning until William Pitt and a combined naval and land force sieged Quebec and defeated France, so Britain was main power. -Treaty of Paris

Spanish Armada

-fleet sent by Philip II of spin in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism and the English Fleet (and weather) defeated it. -English ships were smaller, faster, more maneuverable and had greater firing power. -storms, bad food and water, inadequate supplies, and English firs ships caused the fleet to scatter. -Spain rebuilt navy and the quality of fleet was much better. -Philip II could not reimpose Catholicism on England by force -Caused English nationalism: David vs Goliath attitude

Habsburg-Valois war

-fought in Italy -suffered from sack of Rome in 1527 by Charles V. ende withTreaty of Cateau-Cambresis. -Spain won. France acknowledged Spanish dominance in Italy -forced French to increase taxes, borrow money, sell public offices, and make the Concordant of Bologna

12/13th century Florence

-founded by Julius Caesar for army veterans -favorable location on Arno river and main road northward from Rome -became a commercial hub, bought and sold a lot of goods: grain, cloth, wool, weapons, armor, spices, glass, wine. -loaned and invested money, controlled papal banking -Florentine merchant families dominated European banking on both sides of Alps, major European and African cities. -money went to urban industries also -80,000 people; twice population of London -profits contributed to city's economic vitality and allowed banking families to control Florence's culture and politics. -so strong that even severe crises could not destroy city -English King Edward III cancelled his debt to the Florentine bankers, bankrupting some, but mostly stayed stable -At least half of the population died during the black death, and labor unrest after was a disturbance, but still stable -Florentine merchant and historian Benedetto Dei boasted of Florence to a Venetian friend saying how rich and splendid and populous it was. -more money, more material pleasures, more comfortable life, more leisure time to patronize arts

Nobles reactions to 17th Century riots over bread and taxes

-hard to overcome popular revolt -dont want to create martyrs and inflame situation -too expensive to send in a military occupation of the city. -To suspend riots, sometimes royal edicts were suspended, prisoners released, and discussions initiated -Over time, there was more of a military response and less discussion.

babies in 18th century

-high infant mortality -new Enlightenment ideals encouraged parental nurturing. Led to new elementary schools -women died in childbirth -woman breathed babies which also was a form of birth control and made healthier babies. -aristocratic women normally hired wet nurses. -abortions were illegal, dangerous, and rare. -infanticide was smothering children, but it was punishable by death.

Consumer society in 1960s

-higher wages: people could afford goods and gadgets -vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, washing machines. -supermarkets changed the way food was produced, purchased, and prepared. Threatened to destroy local businesses. -mass travel and tourism: month long paid vacation, beaches, ski resorts, packaged tours, cheap airfares, bargain hotels -leisure time: watching news, entertainment, American imports -does it created conformity in food, clothes, programs? Americanizing European culture.

Peter the Great

-improve the army, tsarist expansion -18 month tour of western European capitals. impressed with Dutch and English. -Allied with Denmark and Poland to take over Sweden to get access to t he Baltic Sea and opportunities for expansion. Charles XII of Sweden beat Denmark then beat Russia, and Peter fled to Moscow. Called the Great Northern War. -wanted to increase state power, strengthen his arms: Required all nobles to serve in army or in civil administration for life. -Peter created schools and universities to train technicians and experts to make the modern government and army. Made a 5 year education away from home plan for noblemen. -Made a military-civilian bureaucracy with 14 ranks, making everyone start from the bottom and work their way up. Sought talented foreigners. Made a regular standing army. Made special regiments of Cossacks and foreign ministers. -Taxes increased threefold to finance army. Serfs arbitrarily assigned to work in growing number of mines and factories that supplied military. -Gave St. Petersburg modern planning. Drafted 25k to 40k men during the summer with out pay to labor in St. Petersburg. -imposed unigenture-only one son could inherit, cutting off daughters and other sons.

Prostitution in the 18th century

-in the 16th and 17th centuries, brothels were condemned and shut down. -prostitution flourished in the 18th century. -women turned to prostitution when they were unemployed. They had ties to their own community of laboring poor, though if they were caught by the police, they were imprisoned or banished. -sometimes they had to have awkward STD inspections, or sometimes had sugar daddies.

three-year rotations

-introduced in the Middle ages, so they would have a year of fallow mixed with a year of wheat or rye mixed with a year of oats or beans. -importnat because cash crops could be grown we of three years instead of one in two

End of communism in Romania

-ironfisted communist leader Nicolae Ceausescu combined Stalinist brutality with independence from moscow -ordered security forces to slaughter thousands, causing an armed uprising. Ceausescu defeated and family executed

Collapse of Communism in Poland

-labor unrest, strikes, inflation, and Solidarity's refusal to cooperate with government brought Poland to brink of economic collapse. -government legalized Solidarity. -large number of Solidarity elected to Polish parliament in free elections, even without access to media. Won most contested seats. Crossed off communist candidates so they did not win a majority. -Lech Walesa repudiated violence and allied with two minor pro-communist parties. -Tadeusz Mazowiecki was sworn in a s Poland's new non-communist prime minister, the editor of Solidarity's newspaper -Eliminated secret police, got rid of Jaruzelski -applied shock therapy economics

Peace of Westphalia

-large scale religious conflicts over -recognized the independent authority of over 300 German princes, confirming limited emperor's authority -Augsburg agreement is permanent, adding Calvinism to Lutheranism and Catholicism as allowed religions.

Protectorate

The english military dictatorship established by Oliver Cromwell following the execution of Charles I. -the constitution here was the Instrument of Government in 1653, that gave executive power to Cromwell and the council of state. -Cromwell dismissed Parliament. Forbade sports, kept theaters closed, and censored the press to be a Puritan. -Gave all Christians except Catholics the right to practice their faith. -Banned Catholicism in Ireland, executed priests, and took land. 1/3 of Irish Catholics killed.

Haskalah

-led by Moses Mendelssohn to advocate fro freedom and civil rights for European Jews. In an era of reason, tolerance, and universality, they thought restriction due to religion was not cool. -rabbinic controls in Jewish communities, and more interactions with Christians had been happening during the time of the Haskalah. -Later repealed due to public outrage, British parliament allowed naturalization of Jews. -Frederick II refused to free Jews just like serfs. -Catherine the Great made Pale of Settlement, a piece of land where most Jews were required to live. -Joseph II made measures to integrate Jews into society more, including eligibility for military service, admission to higher education, artisanal trades, get rid of requirements for special clothing or emblems. -France was the first country in the French Revolution to remove all restrictions on Jews.

Louis XIV

-longest reign in European history (72 years) -Believed God established kings on earth and were answerable to him alone. Believed divinely anointed and partly divine, but had to obey God's laws, and rule fro the good of the people. Called the "Sun king" -ruled through councils of state, often taking a personal role. Selected councilors from recently ennobled or upper middle class so that they know that he "had no intention of sharing power with them." -never called a meeting of the Estates General, so the nobility never could unite expression or action. -he did not have a first minister to avoid having inordinate power like Richelieu. -insisted that religious unity was necessary. Continued Richelieu's Protestant repression. -Revoked Treaty of Nantes, baptized Huguenots, closed schools, ordered destruction of Huguenot churches, and the exile of Huguenot pastors who would not renounce their faith. Some of his most loyal and skilled subjects left.

Henry IV and absolutism

-lowered taxes -charged royal officials an annual fee to guarantee the right to pass their right to rule to their heirs. -built new roads and canals -When he was killed Cardinal Richelieu became the first minister.

John Calvin

-made Genevan Consistory: a Christian society ruled by God through civil magistrate and reformed ministries. -ideal Protestant community. -wrote "The Institutes of the Christian Religion" -believed in absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and total weakness of humanity. Humans are as insignificant as grains of sand. -no free will of humans. You can't work to achieve salvation. God has already decided who would be saved and damned. -mastery of Scriptures, and very eloquent -became most compelling force in international protestantism -inspired Presbyterianism -hard work was pleasing to god, and so everyone was very active.

traditional village rights for farmers

-maintained open meadows for hay and natural pasture -pastured animals on wheat or rye stable -gleaning of grain: poor women could go through field picking up single grains that had fallen -common woodlands for firewood, building, and food. -state and landlords made heavy taxes and high rents -in the western Europe, serfs were not tied to their land, and were free generally. Peasants could own land and pass it onto their children. -owning only part of the land they worked on (the lord sometimes owned half) the poor peasants also worked a variety of jobs.

Homosexuality in 18th century

-male homosexuality called "sodomy" or "buggery", and punished by death. -less enforced in Russia and Scandinavia, and more in Spain -common knowledge that King James I had male lovers in addition to their wives, and so did King William (prev. of Orange) -others called "mollies" were only men not bi. They acted more feminine and behaved differently than other men. -A lesbian in the Swedish army was sentenced to a lenient one-month imprisonment.

attitudes toward babies in 18th century

-many mothers tried to be indifferent because so many died. -Susannah Wesley (mother of Methodist founder John Wesley) taught her children to "fear the rod and cry softly" -Enlightenment called for greater tenderness, and imaginative teaching methods. -called for loose and comfortable clothing. -Jean-Jacques Rousseau Worte "Emile or On Education" where he advocated breast feeding, natural dress, boys have fresh air, exercise, practical craft schools, and girls can learn future domestic responsibilities.

Marriage patterns in 17th and 18th centuries

-married about age 25-27 -did not marry until they had an independent household and support themselves and their children. 10-20% never married. They had to make savings to start a small business and get a home. They also sometimes needed legal permission to marry. -Greater degree of equality between husband and wife because they were both older.

Pilgrimage of Grace

-massive rebellion against Henry's new moves -largest in English history -pilgrims accepted a truce, but leaders were executed.

Martin Luther

-member of Augustinian friars, and then ordained a priest -became a professor at University of Wittenberg -still very anxious about sin, and was never relieved -"faith alone, grace alone, Scripture alone" -pope had just authorized a sale of a special St. Peter's indulgence to finance his building plans in rome. -had a scholarly debate with Johann Eck where he refused to take back his ideas and called for reform. In a series of pamphlets he moved further away from Catholic theology. -authorized the publication of his works -Lived in Saxony, and worked closely with local political authorities, considering them as completely justified in asserting control over the church in their territories. -instructed Christians to obey secular rulers who he thought were divinely ordained to keep order.

Methodists

-members of a Protestant revival movement started by John Wesley, called this because they were very methodical in their devotion -began as a Holy Club at Oxford -Thought that the Anglican church gave high-paying jobs to the favorites -church and states did not respond to the needs of the people where the church construction was abandoned when the population grew, and there was a shortage of pews -Thought everyone can have a heartfelt conversion -rejected Calvin's idea of predestination -seek salvation, a messa ge of joy, hope and freewill -believed in preaching to all people

agricultural revolution

-mid 17th to mid 19th centuries where there was a lot of agricultural progress and the fallow was gradually eliminated. -some people rotated on a ten year schedule in French Flanders. Many new patterns of organization. -new crops made better food for animals, so farmers could build up herds, which meant more meat and better diets, and more fertilizer, so more grain.

Democratization in Soviet Union under Gorbachev

-minority of critical independents was elected to the Congress of People's Deputies. Some of Gorbachev's proposals were debated and rejected. Caused new demands for greater autonomy for national independence by non-russian minorities in Baltic region and Caucasus.

witch trials

-misogynists -tortured for confessions -persecuting witches was a way to demonstrate piety and concern for order

Literacy growth

-more literacy. caused growth in reading. -began to read religious chapbooks, stories, popular literature, continued to read the bible, funny stories, fairy tales, medieval romances, almanacs, calendars, ancient folklore and wisdom. barely any read enlightenment ideas like thomas paine.

Dutch leadership in agricultural advancement

-most densely populated places, to they needed to feed themselves and provide employment: need ed the maximum yields from the land. -draining of marshes and swamps -growth of towns and cities encouraged by commerce and overseas trade: Amsterdam went from 30k to 200k in their golden 17th century. -with more urban population, there were more markets, and each region could have a specialty. -inspired the English's farming reforms

Margaret Thatcher

-neoliberal, trying to scale back the role of government -cut spending on health care, education, public housing, taxes, and they privatized government-run enterprises -creating a new class of property owners and eroding the base of the Labour party -heavy industries like steel, coal mining, and textiles closed, and unemployment rose to 12% -gap between rich and poor widened, and led to discontent and crime, and violent riots. -rallied support over British victory over Argentina in Falklands War. -curbed labor unions, bargain prices of shares -coal miners went on strike for a year and Tahtcher beat them. Blamed herfor unemployment -Then IRA (Irish Republican Army) members starved themselves in jail and she handled it badly.

Rise of modern science in Scientific Revolution

-new expanding international scientific community: linked together by common interests, shared v values, and journals -science became competitive based off of personal discoveries -governments intervened to support and sometimes direct research -new scientific communities closely tied to the state -National academies of science in London, Paris, Berlin, and later across Europe. -a new critical attitude toward established authority to inspire thinkers to question what they knew, in science and in other areas. -inequalities between sexes worsened: nature viewed as female with a veil of secrecy that needed to be stripped and penetrated -new academies that furnished professional credentials did not accept females. -Marie Curie, First person to win two Nobel prizes, rejected by the French Academy of Science in 1911. -New techniques of navigation facilitated overseas trade, helping to enrich states and merchant companies. -Science still had relatively few practical economic applications, so the scientific revolution of the 17th century was still mostly an intellectual revolution, impacting how people thought and believed.

misery index

-number combining rates of inflation and unemployment. -greater increase in WESTERN Europe, where it was just called "the crisis" and enormous unemployment levels. -19 million out of work. -lost jobs, bankruptcies, homelessness, mental breakdowns, mass suffering and degradation. -were spending a lot on social programs, but refused to increase taxes, so there were huge deficits and debts.

Baroque

-odd shaped, imperfect pearl -Rome and Catholic church and Jesuits encouraged intensely emotional, exuberant art. -appeal to the senses, touch the souls, kindle the faith, proclaim the power of God, drama, motion, active frescoes -Peter Paul Reubens is Flemish and studied Michelangelo. Devout Catholic. Fleshy, sensual nudes, roman goddesses. -Johan Sebastian Bach: organist and choirmaster in Lutheran churches in Germany. combined the baroque spirit of invention, tension, and emotion, striving toward the infinite.

Holy Office

-official Catholic agency to combat international heresy -"Index of Prohibited books" -Pope Paul II changed cardinals, abbots, and bishops into models of piety, instead of Renaissance popes who concentrated on building churches and making powerful families. He supported education of the clergy, the end of simony (selling church offices) and stricter control of clerical life.

peasant or pagan beliefs in the enlightenment

-peasant beliefs did not have much change in religious beliefs due to the enlightenment. -Lutheran villagers buried a live bull at a crossroads to ward off an epidemic of hoof and mouth disease. -combined strong Christian faith with time honored superstitions -Criticized by the Enlightenment rationalism, and wanted to "purify" popular spirituality -screaming bonfires during lent where people jumped over to protect themselves from illness and grow the crops. -the intellectual disdain caused a decrease in hunt and persecution for witches.

New homes/styles of living in 18th century

-people began to erect inner barriers in the home, to create more rooms -greater variety of cutlery for serving meals, instead of a common serving pot and spoon now each had new silverware -more books and prints decorated the walls -made more transparent glass so light could enter the gloomy windows. -rooms were warmer, better lit, more comfortable, more personalized. GROWTH OF SOCIETIES BASED ON THE CONSUMPTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES OBTAINED THROUGH THE MARKET IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS FORM THROUGH THE MARKET IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS FORM THEIR IDENTITIES AND SELF WORTH THROUGH THE GOODS THEY CONSUME

Religion as a result of the Enlightenment

-people have still been committed Christians -Protestant princes and monarchs headed the official church, and then they regulated their territorial churches strictly. -Catholics had devout rulers that controlled the Catholicism in the country -Well educated Jesuits had high positions and educated the nobility in their colleges. -Maria Theresa restricted entry into "unproductive orders" -Joseph II abolished contemplative orders and orders and only allowed active service orders, and allowed edicts of religious tolerance

Rene Descartes

-perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra -discovery of analytic geometry -thought matter was made of "corpuscles" and that the total quantity of motion in the universe was constant. He thought vacuums were impossible. -Believed that when the senses were proven to be wrong, he believed that it was necessary to doubt them and use deductive reasoning to make new scientific laws -reduced all substances to "mind" and "matter" (physical to spiritual) -made Cartesian dualism. see next card. -Flaw: he believed it was possible to deduce the whole science of medicine from the first principles, thereby demonstrating the inadequacy of rigid rationalism.

Italian balance of power (15,16)

-political loyalty center on local city, preventing development of one unified state. -Five powers: Venice, Milan, Florence, Papal States, Kingdom of Naples. -Venice was an international power with its enormous trade empire. Called a republic but actually run by merchant-aristocrats. -Milan called republic but condottieri-turned-signori of Sforza family ruled and harshly dominated. -Florence called republic but banking family Medici helped power for centuries. Lorenzo and Cosimo ruled behind the scenes, but the descendants ruled Florence and country as the Grand Dukes of Tuscany. Medici produced 3 popes. -beginnings of diplomacy: whenever one Italian state got too powerful, theaters would join together to address threat. When Florence and Naples wanted to take Milan, they called on French king Charles VIII to invade. -permanent embassies in capitals where political relations and economic ties needed continual monitoring.

Luther's beliefs

-popes and church could err, so the secular leaders should reform if nobody else does. -no distinction between clergy and laypeople -clerical celibacy is unnatural -pope ordered that Luther's books be burned, Luther publicly burned the letter, and was excommunicated -public controversy about church wealth, power, and basic structure. Everyone is upset with the church. -salvation is by faith alone, and has nothing to do with good works. -God, not people, initiates salvation (1)-the Bible is the only source of church authority, not in the traditional teaching. (2)-only Baptism and the Eucharist have spiritual support as sacraments. (3)-spiritual priesthood of all believers. (4)-highest form of Christian life is not necessarily the religious life, and everyone has an individual calling. -Christ is really present in the consecrated bread and wine, but this is a result of God's mystery, not the actions of a priest.

détente

-progressive relaxation of cold war tensions

Francis Bacon

-propagandist for experimental method, rejecting Aristotelian and medieval styles of speculative reasoning. -knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research. -he should collect a multitude of specimens and compare and analyze instead of speculating. This method had already been used by Brahe and Galileo -Fault: his obsession with practical results show the limitations of anti theoretical empiricism. -Bacon advocated the experimental approach because it was open-minded, and independent of preconceived religious and philosophical ideas.

Peace of Augsburg

-recognized Lutheranism to bring peace to the holy empire. -each territory was permitted to decide whether it would be Catholic or Lutheran. -Most of the north and central became Lutheran, and the south stayed Catholic. No freedom within the territories. They had to convert or leave, although rulers did not always let them leave and there were a lot of religious refugees. -Charles V abdicates and moves into a monastery -Give SPAIN, NETHERLANDS to SON PHILIP -Gives IMPERIAL POWER to BROTHER FERDINAND.

Council of Trent

-reform Catholic church and reconcile with Protestants -equal validity to Scriptures and traditional authority. -reaffirmed seven sacraments, required bishops to live in diocese,pressed pluralism, simony, and selling of indulgences. Forced to give up concubines, greater authority to bishops, establish seminaries, had to have legitimate calling to priesthood. -required public marriage values with a priest and witnesses. Ended private marriages, and curtailing denials and conflicts.

Reformation and German Politics

-reform more easily squelched by strong central governments of France and Spain.

Prague Spring and Alexander Dubcek

-reformers in the Czechoslovak communist party gained a majority and voted out the Stalinist leader in favor of Alexander Dubcek, whose government launched dramatic reforms -Alexander Dubcek was a dedicated communist but he believed they could reconcile legitimate socialism with personal freedom and internal party democracy. -called for "socialism with a human face", relaxing state censorship, replaced rigid bureaucratic planning with local decision making by trade unions, manager, and consumers. Very popular program. -Frightened hard line communists that thought Czechoslovakia would become neutral or even western. -East Bloc started campaign of intimidation agains Czechoslovak reformers. 500k Russian and Eastern troops occupied Czechoslovakia, who did not attempt to resist. Leaders were arrested and the program was abandoned. -inspired Brezhnev Doctrine

millet system

-religious communities with self government under religious leaders. -Each millet collected taxes for their state, regulated group behavior, maintained law courts, schools, houses of worship, and hospitals.

anti-nuclear peace movement

-roots in anti-vietnamprotests -appalled by the soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, USA and NATO agreed to station limited-range nuclear missiles in Britain, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands. -huge demonstrations -'Reagan's peace is our deaths" against missile deployment.

Charles II and Louis XIV agreement

-secretly that Louis would give Charles 200k pounds annually so that Charles would relax the laws against Catholics, gradually re-Catholicize England, and convert to Catholicism himself. When this was found out, a lot of anti-Catholic feeling went around.

Religion during Mary Tudor's reign

-sharp move back to Catholicism -rescinded Reformation legislation -married to cousin Philip II of Spain was unpopular in England. -executing hundreds of Protestants made her more unpopular. -1000 protestants fled to Europe. Elizabeth came to power

industrious revolution

-shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption; this reduced economic self-sufficiency but increased ability to purchase consumer goods. -reduced leisure time, more work, and women did more wage work instead of at home. -the spread of cottage industry is manifestation of industrious revolution. -women: menial, boring jobs for very low wages, but a greater role in household decisions. Could buy a little with their wages. Women's use of surplus income helped spur the growth of textile industries that they worked so hard in.

Not so Really Existing Socialism

-shortages of basic goods, poor quality, lack of choice -informal networks to get hard-to-get goods. -secret police only persecuted open challengers, but not private dissenters -women rarely made it in the upper ranks of business or politics. Had to do full time jobs and domestic life. -high tech industries failed to take off in Eastern Europe because of the western embargo on technology imports -best opportunities for party members -tight controls on travel -prosperity in west was obvious on tv

women in guilds.

-some guilds in Paris were accessible to women: all female seamstress guild. -new vocational training for poor girls. -male masters began to hire more female workers -in 1777, government opened all guilds to women before guilds were abolished in 1789 French Revolution.

Joseph II

-son of Maria Theresa of Austria. -abolished serfdom, said peasants could pay landlords in cash rather than labor. rEjected b y all because serfs didn't have cash. -His brother Leopold II reinstituted serfdom to establish order. -combined old fashioned state building with culture and critical thinking of enlightenment. Expanding role of state in society, perfected bureaucratic machines, but they failed to make humane policies (for the most part) like abolishing serfdom -made measures to integrate Jews into society more, including eligibility for military service, admission to higher education, artisanal trades, get rid of requirements for special clothing or emblems.

village leisure activities

-still mostly oral tradition with talking, singing, telling stories, craftwork, keep warm. -The tavern was the center of the village. -cities had pleasure gardens, theaters, lending libraries. -urban fairs had foods, acrobats, freak shows, conjuring acts. LEISURE ACTIVITIES WERE ANOTHER FORM OF CONSUMPTION MARKED BY GROWING COMMERCIALIZATION. more bloodsports -elites began to see religious festivals, carnival, drinking, and blood sports as superstition, sin, disorder, and vulgarity

Reformation in Ireland

-strong loyalty to Catholic church -The Irish parliament was only English landlords and people from the English controlled Dublin (the Pale) approved laws severing Ireland from Rome. -Church of Ireland made like english one. -Irish protests were strongly repressed by English. -Catholic church property confiscated and sold, and profits went to England -Roman Church driven underground

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola

-student of Marsilio Ficino -hierarchy of beings from God to spiritual beings to material beings. With humanity in between spiritual and material beings. Wrote "On the Dignity of Man," stressing that he had great dignity because he was made in the image of God. Believed in choice to rise to the realm of angels or descend to the realm of animals.

Madame du Chatelet

-studied physics, mathematics, published scientific articles and translations. -Translated Newtons's "Principia" into French. Excluded from Royal Academy of Sciences because she was a woman. -Believed women's unequal role in science was due to unequal education.

Cardinal Richelieu

-system of intendants: commissioners for each of France's 32 district where were appointed by the monarch. -These commissioners recruited army men, supervised tax collection, administrated local law, monitored local nobility, and regulated economic activity. -Repressed Protestantism. In La Rochelle, the king Louis XIII sieged the city, and made government suppressed. The Protestants could still worship, but the Catholic liturgy was restored. This is one step in the removal of Protestantism. -supported Habsburg enemies to destroy Habsburg grip on territories around France. Promised to help Gustavus Adolphus in the Swedish phase of the war.

Tensions contributing to the French Revolution

-tensions between first estate and wealthy members of third estate (bourgeoise). The nobility was closing ranks against middle class aspirations. This is an opinion that some scholars have. -others scholars believe that the bourgeoisie and nobility were both highly fragmented and had lots of rivalries. The sword nobility was made up of people who had descended from old noble families, and the robe nobility that had acquired noble titles through service in the royal administration and judiciary. In the bourgeoisie, there was a difference in wealthy financiers and local lawyers that were rivals. -Louis XIV's War of Austrian Succession put France into big debt, so the finance minister put a 5% income tax on everyone no matter of estate. The nobles and clergy especially whined. -After the 7 years war, they passed emergency taxes, but those were so widely protested that they withdrew the taxes. -Louis XV appointed Rene de Maupeou, and who abolished the existing parliaments and exiled many members to the provinces. He began to tax the privileged groups again. Public opinion sided with the old parlements and people called him a despot. -Louis XV also unpopular because he chose Madame du Pompadour to be his mistress, who had a ton of influence where she patronized Voltaire, and promoted literature and rococo. She also helped ally France with Austria that resulted in the Seven Year's War. -People weren't happy with him and his mistress so they desacralized the monarchy -50% of France's annual budget went to interest payments on the debt, so less than 20% was spent on functions of the state like transportation and administration. -king was too weak to declare partial bankruptcy, and couldn't create inflation by printing money -France had no central bank, no paper currency, no means of generating credit, so the had to raise taxes, so the finance minister convinced Louis XVI to call the assembly of Notables, who insisted that they call the Estates General.

desacralization

-the king was stripped of the sacred area of God's anointed on earth. -lurid and pornographic images of the court circulated.

Women at Versailles

-the king's wife, mistresses, and many female relatives recommended individuals for honors, advocated policy decisions, brokered alliances between noble factions. -noblewomen brought their family connections to marriage to form powerful social networks. -Madame de Maintenon, Louis XIV's mistress and secret second wife, had influence. "Many people have been ruined by her."

illegitimacy explosion

-the sharp increase in out of wedlock births between 1750 and 1850 caused by low wages and the breaking down of community controls -In Bordeaux, 36% of babies were born out of wedlock. -the loosening of social controls gave more opportunities. -Men often promised to marry them and then lied, but most women wanted the men to marry them. Men normally got off with just a scolding. -increase in prices form food, homes. Wages did not grow fast enough so men were more uncertain if they should take on a child.

debate about women

-thinking about women's place in society -misogynist are critics of women who say they are devious, domineering, and demanding. -some authors praised women for loyalty, bravery, and morality -Christine de Pizan defended women but explored the reasons for a woman's secondary status. -the printing press circulated this issue more -questioned if women should be rulers -Queen Elizabeth I was considered very masculine because of her physical bravery, stamina, wisdom, and duty -Even if they worked for wages, they earned 2/3 the amount of men

Seven Years' War

-to conquer Prussia and divide up its territory with Austria, France, and Russia. -Frederick saved with Peter III, who inherited Russian throne and called of attack on Frederick, who he admired. -began to consider how humane policies might strengthen the state.

Ottoman Empire

-to prevent the elite families into which they married from acquiring influence over the government, sultans procreated only with concubines. Allowed each concubine to only produce one male heir. Each son could govern a province of the empire with his mother. -Sultan Suleiman married his concubine Hurrem. Marriages between sultans daughters and high-ranking officials and high-ranking servants created new members of eh imperial household.

Maria Theresa

-traditional power was more important to her than Enlightenment teachings. -old-fashioned absolutist. Her son, Joseph II was more radical. -After losing Silesia, she wanted to be more efficient. -(1)limiting the papacy's political influence in her land (2)strengthen central bureaucracy, smoothing out provincial differences, and revamping the tax system. (3) Improving agricultural people's lives, reducing the power of the lords over serfs and partially free peasant tenants

proletarianization

-transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners. -village poor found change hard and unjust. -by enclosing the land and eliminating traditional village rights, we now have (1) a market-oriented state agriculture. (2) landless rural proletariat. The time minority of wealthy landowners had most land and were profit hunters, leasing at competitive prices to middle-sized farmers who relied on landless laborers for their workforce, who worked very long hours, though fewer laborers are needed so there was a lot of unemployment

Growth of the European Economic Community

-used to be know as the Common Market -kept getting new members such as Denmark, Iceland, Britain, Greece, Portugal, Spain.

Before Luther:

-villagers had saint processions, merchants and guilds made pilgrimages to great shrines and churches, paid for altars in local churches, give money to churches in their will, gave money and time -Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism damaged prestige -artistic patronage -papal tax collection were attacked

Radical ideas of New Left

-violence and terrorism -Italian Red Brigades murdered former prime minister Aldo Moro -West German Red Army Faction robbed banks, bombed buildings, kidnapped and killed politicians

Dutch Republic

-wanted a republic instead of a monarch -regents: oligarchies of wealthy businessmen handled domestic affairs -all issues referred back to the local Estates which were run by the regents. -Each of the seven provinces could veto any proposed legislation. Holland usually dominated. -commercial prosperity -moral bases of thrift, frugality, religious toleration, Jews had more or less acceptance. -shipping business: from herring fishing into shipbuilding: boasted lowest shipping rats and largest merchant marine -highest standard of living in all of Europe. Salaries were high in all classes. very few food riots.

Mikhail Gorbachev

-wanted to revitalize the Soviet system with fundamental reforms, to improve conditions for ordinary citizens. -knew improvement needed better relations with the west -Gorbachev attacked corruption and incompetence in bureaucracy and consolidated his power. Condemned alcoholism and had ambitious reform policies like perestroika, glasnost, democratization(free elections), withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistsan, repudiated Brezhnev Doctrine.

open field system

-what European farmers used to use: they divided several large fields into long, narrow strips. They were not enclosed and the whole village followed the pattern and traditions. -80% of people (except for Holland) were agrarian. -Soil exhaustion: nitrogen was depleted, and there needed to lie fallow for a time. -every 8 or 9 years there was a devastating harvest, with inadequate food that made people susceptible to illness. people ate bark or grass and there was a lot of influenza and smallpox

Family Demographics in 70s

-women married later, nuclear family is smaller and more mobile, greater divorce, population declines; baby boom is over.

3 Reasons for increased gender equality

1) changes in patterns of motherhood and paid work created new conditions and demands 2) feminist intellectuals criticized powerfully, which caused women to think about changing the status quo. 3) learning about Civil rights movement in USA, women recognized the need to band together to influence politics and secure reforms

New Christians

14th century term for Jews and Muslims who accepted Christianity, including those whose families had converted centuries earlier.

Colloquy of Marburg

1529 gathering trying to unite Protestants, but they could not agree on stuff like communion, even though they agreed on almost everything else.

Diet of Speyer

1529 protest by reforming German princes. -protested decisions of Catholic majority -created the word Protestant

Triennial Act

1641 Commons act that made the king summon Parliament every three years. The commons impeached Archbishops Laud and threatened to abolish bishops. Charles agreed.

David Hume

18th century philosopher that declared that he would prefer England to be peaceful and under an absolute monarch than in constant civil war as a republic.

Final Act of the Helsinki Conference

1975-USA, Canada, Soviet Union, all Europeans agreeing that boundaries can not be changed by force. Guaranteed human rights and political freedom for citizens.

neoliberalism

1980s philosophy of conservatives who argued for decreased government spending on social services and privatization of state-run industries. -Milton Friedman argued to cut housing, education, health insurance, limit business subsidies. -privatization of state industries to private owners to tighten government spending and greater workplace efficiency.

Great Fear

The fear of the noble reprisals agains the peasant uprisings in the French countryside -peasants had been ransacking manor houses and burning documents. The great fear of the landlords fanned the flames of rebellion. -some lords did not respond with violence though. The duke of Aiguillon urged tax equality and the elimination of feudal dues. -it worked! peasant serfdom, exclusive hunting rights, fees for justice, the right to make peasants work on the roads and tithes to the church were all abolished.

economic liberalism

A belief in free trade and competition based on Adam Smith's argument that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all, rich and poor.

Edict of Nantes

A document by French King Henry IV giving right to worship to Calvinists, helping restore peace in France.

carnival

The few days of revelry in Catholic countries that were before Lent where there was drinking, dancing, masquerading, and rowdy spectacles that disturbed order. The religious celebration had popular recreation before.

constitutionalism

A form of government in which power is limited by law and balanced between the authority and power of the government on the one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subjects or citizens on the other hand; could include constitutional monarchies or republics.

republicanism

A form of government in which there is no monarch and power rests in the hands of the people as exercised through elected representatives. England tried republicanism but decided to have a constitutional monarchy.

constitutional monarchy/ the new French constitution. also found in national assembly card

A form of government which the king is still the head of state even though the elected bodies control taxes and new laws. -French national assembly making constitutional monarchy. Louis XVI agreed to accept. -women could now divorce, inherit property, get financial support for illegitimate children from fathers, but still could not vote. -Also the National assembly replaced the patchwork historical provinces with 83 departments about the same size. Guilds were prohibited and you can trade with anyone in France. SPIRIT OF ENLIGHTENMENT -freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews. Nationalized church property, abolished monasteries,new paper currency, divided up new available land.

debt peonage

A form of serfdom that allowed a planter or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual debt bondage by periodically advancing food, shelter, and a little money.

philosophes

A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow creatures in the Age of Enlightenment. -French was the international language of the educated classes. France was the wealthiest and most populous country in Europe. -Not as strongly restrained to criticize church and state. -French philosophies made it their goal to reach a larger audience of elites, who joined in the "republic of letters"- an imaginary transnational relax of the well-educated. -Circulated their most radical works as manuscripts, so their public works could not be banned. -To appeal to the public and avoid censors, they made novels, plays, histories, philosophies, dictionaries, encyclopedias all filled with satire and double meanings, like "Persian Letters." -Gained strength from numbers, dedication, and organization. -Greatest intellectual achievement was a group effort, the Encyclopedia. See that card.

Law of inertia

A law made by Galileo that states that motion (not rest) is the natural state of an object, and that the object will stay in motion unless it is stopped by an outside force. Galileo found this with an experiment with rolling balls showing that uniform force (gravity) caused uniform acceleration.

community controls

A pattern of cooperation and common action in a traditional village that sought to uphold the economic, social, and moral stability of the closely knit community. Premarital sex was pretty seriously considered beforehand because the could not go against the community controls afterwards easily. -They also publicly humiliated the bad people, like forcing them to sit on a donkey backwards, holding up the donkey's tail. Or the community threw rotten vegetables and insulting midnight serenades.

Jansenism

A sect of Catholicism that began with Cornelius Jansen that emphasized the heavy weight of original sin and accepted the doctrine of predestination; outlawed as heresy by pope -known for piety and spiritual devotion, stern religious values

rationalism

A secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith, and everything was to be submitted to reason.

Navigation acts

A series of English laws that controlled the import of goods to Britain and British colonies. -al imported goods must be carried on British owned ships with British crews or ships of the country the good were produced in . -Gave British merchants and shipowners a monopoly on trade with British colonies -eliminated foreign competition, helping British -hoped that they would develop a shipping industry to make experienced segment who would help in the Royal Navy -economic warfare targeted at the Dutch shipping and commerce. Succeeded. British seized Dutch colony of New Amsterdam in 1664 and renamed it New York.

War of the Spanish Succession/Peace of Utrecht

A series of treaties that ended the war of Spanish succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the rise of the British empire. -The childless king Charles II died. His will gave everything to Philip of Anjou, Louis XIV's grandson. -The will violated a prior treaty that the European powers agreed to that would divide the Spanish possessions between the king of France and the Holy Roman emperor, brothers in law of Charles II. -Louis broke with the treaty, accepting the will, triggering the war of the Spanish succession. -English, Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians formed Grand Alliance against Louis. -Peace of Utrecht allowed Philip to be king os Spain on the understanding that the French and Spanish crowns would never be united. France surrendered Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hudson Bay territory to England, which also acquired Gibraltar, Minorca, and control of the African slave trade from Spain. -Peace of Utrecht showed the balance of power, setting limits on how much one country could expand. After 35 years of war, all France had extra was Alsace and some commercial centers in the north. France on the edge of bankruptcy.

Fronde

A series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and oppressive taxation. -The magistrates in the Parlement of Paris was outraged by the king's autocratic measures. These magistrates, called robe nobles, encouraged violent protests. -The sword nobles, the traditional warrior nobility, also participated and civil order broke down. -Louis XIV fled with his mother. The rebellion died away when they came back and Louis declared his own right to rule. -with this combo of noble rebellion ad popular riots, the French wanted a strong monarch. At age 23, Louis XIV was humiliated by his flight from Paris and wanted to avoid any more rebellion.

cottage industry

A stage of industrial developments where rural workers used had tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market. -they needed more work because they had no land and less jobs, but the urban capitalists wanted to employ them.

Mercantilism

A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation's international power as based on its wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver. -To get wealthy, the country had to sell more goods abroad than it bought. -French goods should produce everything the French need. Colbert enacted new product regulations, created guilds to increase quality, and encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate. Abolished domestic tariffs and raised tariffs on foreign products.

empiricism

A theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence by observation and experimentation instead of reason and speculation.

wet-nursing

A widespread and flourishing business in the 18th century in which women were paid to breast feed other women's babies. It was similar to the putting out system. -Almost half of the babies born in Paris were placed with wet nurses, a quarter were given into the homes of parisian nannies, and a quarter were abandoned in foundling hospitals. -high infant mortality due to sharing milk with one's own baby. 35% died before a year, 20% died before ten years. -parental indifference, and also following traditional pattern, or sometimes impossible to nurse own babies.

Union of Utrecht

Alliance of seven northern provinces led by Holland that declared independence from Spain and formed United Provinces of the Netherlands. The North was Protestant and the South was Catholic. England gave money to the north. This conflict ended in a truce when Spain recognized the Union. This union caused by ferocity of Spain-sent Duke of Alva to restore order, which punished Calvinists.

natural philosophy

An early modern term from the study of the nature of the universe, its purposed, and how it functioned; it encompassed today what we would call "science" today.

Aristotle and Ptolemy's ideas about the world

Aristotle: A motionless earth was fixed at the center of the universe and was encompassed by ten separate concentric crystal spheres that revolved around it. In the first eight spheres were embedded the sun, moon, five known planets, and fixed stars. Believed that the spheres were part of a perfect "quintessence" or fifth essence, and that -did not account for the moving stars, and the backwards motion of the planets -Fitted nicely with Christian doctrines, because there was a place for God to live, and a place for Christian souls, and it placed man at the center of the universe, enforcing Christian thoughts. Ptolemy: The planets moved in small circles called epicycles that each moved in turn on a larger circle. It provided a surprisingly accurate model for predicting planetary motions. At the time: people believed that "science" and magic was pretty similar and that objects possessed "occult qualities." You could believe in occult qualities and God, because only God could infuse the universe with meaningful mystery.

Atlantic slave trade

The forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantation and in other industries; the trade reached its peak in the 18th century and ultimately involved more than 12 million africans. Got worse after 1700 and 1750 with the greater demand for sugar and cotton. -80k shipped per year, 15% died in transit -Portuguese Brazil go the largest number of enslaved Africans, about 45%. North America only had 3%. -Britain became the undisputed leader in leader in shipping slaves. They used the shore method where the african dealers brought slaves to the ships. -Africans gained access to European and colonial goods such as firearms. Used slaves from African wars. African leaders bought more arms than textiles. -British women denounced the immorality of human slavery and hated the cruel and sadistic treatment of female slaves and slave families.

Separatist movements

Basque region of northern Spain -ETA (Basque Homeland and Freedom) bombed and assassinated to try to force the government's independence -A new constitution granted the Basque region special autonomy, but not complete independence. So it kept terrorizing and killed over 400 people in 1980s. -Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) was similar to ETA. -Great Britain had retained control of six primarily Protestant counties n the north, so the IRA attacked British security forces that were occupying the district. -Bloody Sunday 1972, British soldiers shot and killed 13 demonstrators who were protesting anti-Catholic discrimination in the town of Derry. -2k people were killed in "the Troubles" before negotiations in the 1990s.

The Feminine Mystique

Betty Friedan pointed out stifling aspects of women's lives. Housewives lived in a "gilded cage" because they were not allowed to hold professional jobs or become mature adults. Betty Friedan started National Organization for Women (NOW) to press for women's rights. Attacked patriarchy, sexism, and inequalities. NOW advocates agains discrimination, equal pay for equal work, maternal leave, affordable day care. -Feminists considered the right to divorce, legalized abortion, needs of single mothers, and protection from rape and violence.

The Second Sex

Book by Simone de Beauvoir, analyzing the position of women in existential thought. Argued that women were normally trapped in limiting conditions. They needed courageous action and creativity to be come a free and non-inferior person.

condottieri

Brought in by merchant oligarchies to restore political unrest due to popolo's rebellions. They had their own mercenary armies, and often took over political power of the whole city.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

Calvin's formulation of Christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for Protestantism

iconoclasm

Calvinists took down and destroyed statues, stained-glass windows, paintings. Catholics tried to defend the images. Sacked 30 churches in Antwerp. Duke of Alva sent to pacify religious dissidents with ruthlessness and made "council of Blood." Showed that Spanish rule should be overthrown and led to union of utrecht.

Greenpeace

Canadian activist organization to protect and conserve environment. Became internationally supported in Europe and United States.

politiques

Catholic and Protestant moderates who believed that only a strong monarchy could save France from total ruin. Henry IV was a politique that issued the Edict of Nantes

janissary corps

Core of the sultan's army composed of slave conscripts from non-Muslim parts of the empire. after 1683 became a volunteer force.

Cartesian Dualism

Descartes' view that all of reality could be reduced to mind and matter.

popolo (13th century)

Disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power. They could not join the communes because merchant elites made citizenship dependent on a property qualification, years of residence within the city, and social connections. Often used armed force and violence to take over city governments. As a result, republican governments (political power theoretically resides in people and exercised by representatives) were established in Bologna, Sienna, Parma, Florence, and Genoa. The people couldn't establish civil order, so merchant oligarchies retook over by bringing in military leaders called condottieri which had their own mercenary armies and often took over political power.

Brezhnev Doctrine

Doctrine created by Leonid Brezhnev that held that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene in any socialist country wherever it saw the need. The 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia showed that only the threat of Soviet military invasion was holding the East Bloc together. It also showed that the ruling elite were very determined to avoid change and reforms.

Girolamo Savonarola

Dominican friar who interpreted the invasion of Charles VIII as a fulfillment of a prophesy. Predicted that God wold punish Italy for moral vice and corrupt leadership. Savonarola gained power as political and religious leader when Medici dynasty fell after french invasion. Called on people to destroy what would lead to sin: fancy clothes, cosmetics, pagan books, instruments, paintings, or secular poetry. Made "bonfires of the vanities." People got tired of him and was excommunicated, tortured, and burned. Medici restored. Savonarola was a reminder of Italian instability which invited foreign invasions.

perestroika

Economic restructuring and reform implemented by Soviet premier Gorbachev in 1985. -easing of government price controls on some goods, more independence for state enterprises, and setting up profit-seeking private companies

stadholder

Executive officer in each of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a position often held by the princes of Orange. Responsible for ceremonial functions and military defense. Got rid of stadholders for a while when William of Orange became the English king

patronage

Financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups, individuals, to produce specific works or specific styles. Ambitious merchants gained political power to match their economic power, and used money to buy luxury goods and be patrons. Patrons were rulers of Florence, Milan, and other northern cities. They hired architects to design private palaces and public halls, artist for paintings and sculptures, and musicians. Supported writers and philosophers and boasted patronage of learning. Elaborate rituals and ceremonies of family births, baptisms, marriages, and funerals. Cities welcomed visiting rulers with huge elaborate parades with fireworks, banners, mock battles, decorated wagons, costumes, and triumphal arches.

Giorgio Vasari

First called the era the Renaissance. First art historian. Wrote "The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects." These artists had achieved the pinnacle of excellence. The last artist in the book was Vasari. Goes on for thirty pages about his talent and achievement.

War of Austrian Succession's impact with France and Britain

Frederick the Great seized Silesia from Maria Theresa's Austria and became a war that included in anglo-french conflicts in India and North America.

Huguenots

French Catholics. Lots killed by Catholics during Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre that caused a 15 year civil war.

Reformation in France

French King Henry II died celebrating the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, his sons were dominated by their mother, Catherine de'Medici. French nobles adopted Protestantism as a religious cloak for independence. Lots of clashes and believed that each belief polluted the community. Caused violence, and preachers inspired and ceremonies triggered it.

renaissance

French word that means "rebirth" by art historian Giorgio Vasari to refer to the rebirth of classical antiquity. Economic growth laid the material basis for the Italian Renaissance. -self conscious awareness of living in a new era -interest in ancient Latin and Greek literature and philosophies -developed new notions of human nature -new plans for education -new concepts of political rule -printing press greatly spread ideas

Copernican Hypothesis

The idea that the sun, not the earth was the center of the universe. -showed that stars are still because we are moving -the universe must be huge because one rotation is a year -destroyed the idea that the earthly world was different from the heavenly one because -Calvin and Luther condemned Copernicus immediately, but Catholics were originally milder because they had not always interpreted the Bible literally. -The 'new star' that appeared in 1572, which was actually an exploding star, contradicted the idea that heavenly spheres were unchanging and perfect.

Enlightenment

The influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress. -Methods of natural science could and should be used to examine and understand life. This is what people meant by "reason". Nothing was accepted on faith, everything was submitted to rationalism. -Scientific method was capable of discovering the laws of human society and nature: creation of social science. -Progress: thought that once people had the right method of discovering the laws of human existence, humans would create better societies and better people. -Enlightenment thinkers believed that intellectual progress was very possible, while Reformation thought about abstract concepts of sin, and Renaissance focussed on worldly matters like art and literature.

Cardinal Jules Mazarin

Hard to increase revenues to meet the cost of war and caused the Fronde. Taught Louis XIV about divine right of kings.

Francis Rakoczy

Hungarian prince trying to resist Habsburg Austrian absolutist control. Lost, but some traditional aristocracy privileges restored. So, Hungary was never fully an absolute Habsburg state.

17th Century Peasant life

In the 17th century, bread was a primary element of the diet, peasants eating brown and rick ate white. There was another little ice age, so there was less yields, decreasing the population. An important festival was killing the family pig. With less people and harsh conditions, less textiles were produced. Food prices were high, wages stagnated, and unemployment was very high. The urban poor and peasants rioted, seizing bread and demanding that it should be sold at a "just price."

Second Treatise of Civil Government

John Locke's "life, liberty, property" "natural rights" like right to rebellion.

law of universal gravitation

Law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects' amount of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. UNIFIED THE IDEAS OF KEPLER ADN GALILEO

Test Act

Legislation passed by parliament in 1673 to secure position of the Anglican church by stripping Puritans, Catholics, and other dissenters of the right to vote, preach, assemble, hold public office, and attend or teach at universities.

Augsburg Confession

Lutheran statement of faith that Charles V rejected, causing a military alliance of protestant countries. Charles V couldn't win because he was busy with: Habsburg-Valois wars(1521-1559), the Ottoman Turks had taken Hungary and besieging Vienna, religious conflict at home, and colonial expansion

courts (15th and 16th cent)

Magnificent households and places where signori and some wealthy merchant oligarchs lived, conducted business, and supported artists. In their courts, they asserted their wealth and power, building magnificent palaces in the center of the city and required all political business to be done there. Cities welcomed visiting rulers with huge elaborate parades with fireworks, banners, mock battles, decorated wagons, costumes, and triumphal arches.

Puritans

Members of a 16th and 17th century reform movement within the Church of England that advocated purifying it of its Roman Catholic elements such as bishops, elaborate ceremonials, and wedding rings. -antagonized puritans by not dismissing bishops, by having Charles I marry a Catholic princess, and supported Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud who tried to make a new prayer book and bishoprics. The presbyterians revolted

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, to spread Catholicism.

stagflation

New term to combine low growth and high inflation in 1980s that lead to a worldwide recession.

Junkers

Nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia, reluctant allies of Frederick William and consolidation of Prussian state. Persuaded junkers to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army.

Solidarity

Outlawed Polish trade union that worked for worker's rights and political reform throughout the 1980s. -Lech Walesa criticized for moderate leadership, and Solidarity lost cohesion. -Polish Communist leadership shrewdly denounced Solidarity for promoting economic collapse and provoking a possible soviet invasion. -Communist leader General Wojciech Jaruzelski proclaimed martial law and arrested Solidarity's leaders.

blood sports

Popular with 18th century people, bull fighting, cockfighting involved violence on animals.

humanism

Program of Italian study emphasizing the critical study of Latin and Greek literature to try to understand human nature. The study of Latin texts was called studia humanitates. Humanists wrote treaties on the goals of education, and thought their course of study would make future diplomats, lawyers, military leaders, businessmen, politicians, writers and artists. Opened academies that started with Latin grammar, Roman history and philosophy, Greek, Greek philosophy. Humanist schools established in Florence, Venice, and more. By 16th century, in Germany, France, and England across the Alps. Disagreed about education of women. Leon Battista Alberti, a "renaissance man", thought a wife's role was only domestic and home based on children and servants. Some women such as Isotta Nogarola and Cassandra Fedele became female humanists, although they were not accepted at academies. Lauro Quirini supported and encouraged Isotta Nogarola.

sultan

Ruler of Ottoman empire, who owned all agricultural land and was served by and army and bureaucracy of highly trained slaves.

New Left

Student movement in the West who advocated a simple society to work for all, based on updated Marxism. Attacked conformity of consumer society, attacked "culture industry," saying consumerism is unsatisfying

communes

Sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds that sought political and economic independence from local nobles. Merchant guilds that formed the communes and maintained city walls, regulated trade, collected taxes, kept civil order. -Local nobles often married into rich commercial families and started own business -marriages caused powerful oligarchy and ruled city and surrounding countryside. Rivalries between families caused unstable politics.

enlightened absolutism

Term coined by historians to describe the rule of eighteenth century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.

Really Existing Socialism

Term used by Communist leaders to describe the accomplishments of the societies, such as nationalized industries and collectivized agriculture. -rising standard of living -90% of farmers were collectivized -industry and business had been nationalized. -welfare: free medical care, guaranteed employment, inexpensive public transportation, large subsidies for rent and food. -mass organizations had huge rallies to advertise socialist state. -equal rights for women, huge numbers of women in medicine, state-supported childcare

putting-out system

The 18th century system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers who processed them and returned the finished products to the merchants. -production in many stages: merchant provides raw wool for some to make into thread, some others bleach, others dye, and another weaves. -did not need to meet guild standard so the procedures often changed. -made textiles, knives, forks, housewares, buttons, gloves, clocks all made in the countryside. -in England, by 1500, half of textiles were in country, and by 1700 more industry was rural than urban.The continental countries were more slowly.

Protestant

The name originally given to all Lutherans, but came to mean all non-Catholic western Christian groups. Includes Zwingli and others. A territory became protestant when the ruler brought in reformers to reeducate the clergy, sponsor public sermons, confiscated church property.

predestination

The teaching that god has determined the salvation of individuals based on his will and purpose, not on their merit or works. Pessimistic view, called "terrible decree." Confident that God had elected him, and gave people strength to undergo hardships.

Treaty of Paris

The treaty that ended the Seven-Years' War in Europe and the colonies and ratified the British victory on all colonial fronts. It greatly helped the British who got money from North America where they send axes and firearms and chains to slave owners, West Indian sugar island, West Africa, Latin America. Sales went from 500k to 4million pounds. Exports to Ireland and India rose. They sent clocks, coaches, buttons and saddles, china, furniture, musical instruments, scientific equipment. Mercantilism in England was very successful. The French lost a lot from British, but still had Saint-Domingue (most profitable plantation colony in the New World), Martinique, and Guadaloupe and got money from agriculture and slave trade and sugar and coffee. When France lost, Spain gained Louisiana, influence spread up California, and had a recovery in silver production

cameralism

The view that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use the its resources and authority to increase the public good. Frederick II believed in cameralism. Connected with Enlightenment due to its emphasis o rationality, progress, and utilitarianism.

Leonardo Bruni

Thought that the deline of Latin language was due to death of Cicero and decline of the Roman republic. Divided history into three eras- ancient, medieval, and modern.

estates

Three legal categories, or orders, of France's inhabitants: the clergy, nobility, and everyone else. -clergy is first estate and did not pay taxes, but own 10% of land -nobles payed barely any taxes and owned 25% of land and had exclusive rights and privileges such as "honorific privileges" so they could have precedence on public occasions and the right to wear swords. -The vast majority of third estate people were peasants, rural agricultural workers, urban artisans, and unskilled day laborers with some merchants, lawyers, and officials.

12th century northern Italian cities

Venice, Genoa, and Milan had gotten very rich due to overseas trade. They advanced shipbuilding, so ships sailed all year long at accelerated speeds with more merchandise. Rich residents of these cities (and Florence and Rome too) began to see life as an opportunity to be enjoyed instead of just a pilgrimage to the city of God.

Definition of Sovereign

a state that has monopoly over justice and use of force within boundaries. No court systems can compete with state courts, and private armies of lords could not threaten central authority. Many 17th century states were becoming more sovereign.

samizdat

books, periodicals, newspaper, and pamphlets that criticized communism more than was allowed. Outspoken dissidents were forced to emigrate. means "self published". kept critical thought alive, built contacts among dissidents, and began building the foundation for protest movements

Declaration of the Rights of Women

by Olympe de Gouges -protest slavery and injustices to women -she wanted to be equal in all public dignities, offices, employments, according to ability.

Robert Walpole

decided that the cabinet was responsible to the house of commons. Became the first prime minister.

Chapter 12

do chapter 12

chapter 15

do chapter 15

Marsilio Ficino

founded Platonic Academy under patronage of Cosimo de'Medici. Regarded Plato as a divinely inspired precursor to Christ. Translated his documents into Latin. Synthesized Christian and Platonic teachings, especially Plato's ideas of the spiritual and eternal. Ideas that the highest form of love was the spiritual desire for pure, perfect beauty-interpreted as desire for perfection of God.

boyars

highest ranking members of Russian nobility.

shock therapy

intense does of neoliberal policy designed to make a clean break with state planning and move quickly to market mechanisms and privet property. Immediate change to a Free Market Command Economy.

Francesco Petrarch

looked for classical Latin manuscripts in dusty monastic libraries. Wandered ruins of Roman empire. Thought Rome had reached a level of perfection that had not since been duplicated. Called the time since then the "dark ages." Thought the revival of classic texts would bring about new intellectual achievements. Proposed a new kind of education studying Latin and Greek authors, using them as model for who to clearly write, argue, and speak. Study of Latin texts called studia humanitates "liberal studies". Petrarch used Cicero's style, language, political ideas such as a return to republican government.

Niccolò Machiavelli

most famous civic humanist. Was a secretary while Savonarola was in power so was tortured and arrested by the Medicis. Wrote The Prince: -argued that the first object of a ruler its to preserve order and security. -Weakness leads to disorder -leaders should use whatever means necessary including brutality, lying, manipulation -but don't make the populace hate him. -dont steal or be cruel for the ruler's own pleasure. -used examples from the classical past and wrote about contemporary leaders. -Cesare Borgia mentioned. Son of Pope Alexander VI. Combined father's power and ruthlessness to build up a central state. Used good military equipment and tactics, hired da Vinci as a military engineer, murdered political enemies. Even though he fell as a ruler, Machiavelli blamed this on fortuna (fate) instead of weakness. -first modern guide to politics -considered cunning and ruthless -argued that governments should not be judged on how well they follow God's principles but by how well they provided order. -talked about the ideals of the real world -there is a role for force and cruelty

glasnost

newfound openness in the government and media. writers sold new editions of works while denunciations of Stalin and his terror became standard in plays and movies.

signori

one-man rule in Italy who handed down right to rule to his son. A lot in Milan. Oligarchic regimes had constitutions and boasted about how much more democratic they were than signoris, although there wasn't a huge difference. This is because the oligarchic regimes in Italy had a facade of Republican government but judicial, executive, and legislative functions were dominated by a small class of wealthy merchants.

Green party

political party intended to fight for environmental causes. Elected members to parliament.

virtù

the quality of being able to shape the world according to one's own will. No limits to what man can accomplish. Especially people who had risen above their background to become brilliant, powerful, or unique. Leonardo da Vinci. Bruni and other historians wrote biographies talking about how they had changed the history of the city.