Contemporary Conservation Issues, NR 435.01, Exam 2 Notes

Scarcity may be a social construct

A product of affluence, expectations and customary behavior.

The appropriate scale for understanding water scarcity is at the local or regional level, notably within a river basin or sub-basin, rather than at the national or global level...

In many countries, especially the larger ones, there are both water-scarce and water abundant areas, such as in Brazil, China and Mexico. Such areas are often far away from each other with few opportunities for interbasin water transfers. Several other countries are naturally very arid within their own territory (e.g. Egypt, Niger, Mauritania, Turkmenistan) but their annual renewable freshwater resources are boosted by large perennial rivers flowing from much wetter areas upstream (the Nile, the Niger, the Senegal and the Amu Darya rivers, respectively).

Millennium Development Goals (MDG)

Eight goals with measurable targets and clear deadlines for improving the lives of the world's poorest people.

Potable

Fit or suitable for drinking.

Adding to the pressures on agricultural use is the increased awareness of the instrumental value of water in maintaining environmental services and ecosystem resilience

Increasing the efficiency of water use and enhancing agricultural water productivity at all levels of the production chains are becoming priorities in a rapidly growing number of countries. A systematic approach to agricultural water productivity requires actions at all levels, from crops to irrigation schemes, and up to national and international economic systems, including the trade in agricultural products. It calls for an informed discussion on the scope for improved water productivity in order to ameliorate intersectoral competition for water resources and optimize social and economic outcomes. To keep pace with the growing demand for food and taking into consideration an increase in water productivity, it is estimated that 14 percent more freshwater will need to be withdrawn for agricultural purposes by 2030 in order to obtain the necessary 55 percent increase in food production.

If today's policies remain in place, the IEA calculates that water consumed for energy production would increase from 66 billion cubic meters (bcm) today to 135 bcm annually by 2035

More than half of that drain would be from coal-fired power plants and 30 percent attributable to biofuel production, in IEA's view. The agency estimates oil and natural gas production together would account for 10 percent of global energy-related water demand in 2035

The same water consumption issues are at play in nuclear plants, which similarly generate steam to drive electric turbines. But there are far fewer nuclear power plants

Nuclear energy generates just 13 percent of global electricity demand today, and if current trends hold, its share will fall to about 10 percent by 2035. Coal, on the other hand, is the "backbone fuel for electricity generation," IEA says, fueling 41 percent of power in a world where electricity demand is on track to grow 90 percent by 2035. Nuclear plants account for just 5 percent of world water consumption for energy today, a share that is on track to fall to 3 percent, IEA forecasts.

Desalination

Refers to any of several processes that remove the excess salt and other minerals from water in order to obtain fresh water suitable fro animal consumption or irrigation, and if almost all of the salt is removed, for human consumption, sometimes producing table salt as a by-product.

Eutrophication

The process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (as phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life usually resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen.

Steam-driven coal plants always have required large amounts of water, but the industry move to more advanced technologies actually results in greater water consumption, IEA notes. These advanced plants have some environmental advantages:

They discharge much less heated water into rivers and other bodies of water, so aquatic ecosystems are protected. But they lose much more water to evaporation in the cooling process.

Fracking and other unconventional techniques for producing oil and natural gas also will shape the future of energy

Though in IEA's view, their impact on water consumption will be less than that of biofuels and coal power. Water consumption for natural gas production would increase 86 percent to 2.85 billion cubic meters by 2035, when the world will produce 61 percent more natural gas than it does today, IEA projects. Similarly, water consumption for oil production would slightly outpace oil production itself, growing 36 percent in a world producing 25 percent more oil than today, under IEA's current policies scenario.

Water and health are intimately linked

Water conveys pathogens to people, and provides the habitat for vectors and intermediate hosts of pathogens. Shortages of water and, above all, inadequate sanitation limit the ability of a family to cope with these threats. Worst of all, using poor quality water that is unsafe only exacerbates matters by causing further illness and infection. Diseases associated with water affect the poor in a disproportionate way, and this burden of ill health maintains the vicious cycle of poverty and sickness.

IEA stresses that its water calculations are based on the entire production process (from "source to carrier")

Water demand at frack sites is just one part of a large picture. As with the biofuel industry, the oil and gas industry is working to cut its water footprint, IEA says. "Greater use of water recycling has helped the industry adapt to severe drought in Texas" in the Eagle Ford shale play, said Matthew Frank, IEA energy analyst, in an email.

The view of forests as a consumer of water influences the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) which includes strategies for

Water pricing, but fails to consider the contribution of forests to the water cycle. The same goes for the increasingly popular "Water Footprint," a tool developed to communicate the water usage of a product or process.

The quality of growth and, in particular, the extent to which it creates new opportunities for the poor also matter. Improved water management can be a catalyst for such growth

Water provides vital inputs into many productive activities and creates opportunities for local entrepreneurs in supplying technologies, constructing facilities and providing services. Local investments generate high returns and, importantly, they retain benefits in the local economy and generate significant multiplier effects. Improved water management can also be a catalyst for growth at national and regional level, where major water infrastructure investments can transform development prospects. It is essential that such investments are accompanied by effective impact assessments and proper safeguards (taking into account all the costs and benefits generated). Where this is the case, and where major infrastructure investment is accompanied by incentives that trigger private enterprise and livelihood opportunities, then water investments can play a key role in poverty reduction.

Groundwater

Water that collects or flows beneath the Earth's surface, filling the porous spaces in soil, sediment, and rocks.

Precipitation

Water that returns to the earth as rain, hail, sleet, or snow.

Securing our food is not negotiable

We all need safe and good-quality food in order to live a healthy life. However, the way food is produced and the type of diet people adopt can have significant impacts on the total volume of water used in agriculture. Moreover, agricultural practices across the world have a substantial impact on the world's freshwater resources - the adoption of a clean and productive agriculture can have a positive impact on the quantity and quality of the water it uses.

Major health gains can be achieved at household level through personal protection

Whether through oral rehydration salts or the use of chlorination tablets for drinking-water. Farmers can choose options that reduce health risks and their exposure to illness without detriment to their production. Communities can mobilize to work towards improved drinking water facilities. They can learn about drinking-water contamination risks in their homes, and about the treatment and safe storage of drinking-water from the unreliable sources upon which so many depend. Governments can take action to bring their health sectors and water managers together in successful partnerships.

Coal power producers could cut water consumption through use of "dry cooling" systems

Which have minimal water requirements, according to IEA. But the agency notes that such plants cost three or four times more than wet cooling plants. Also, dry cooling plants generate electricity less efficiently

"Irrigation consumes a lot of water," says Averyt. Evaporation is the culprit, and there is great concern over losses in this area, even though the water in theory returns to Earth as precipitation

"Just because evaporation happens here, does not mean it will rain here," says Averyt. Because irrigation is needed most in arid areas, the watering of crops exacerbates the uneven spread of global water supply.

"The volumes of water used in shale gas production receive a lot of attention (as they are indeed large), but often without comparison to other industrial users,"

"Other sources of energy can require even greater volumes of water on a per-unit-energy basis, such as some biofuels. The water requirements for thermal power plants dwarf those of oil, gas, and coal production in our projections." That said, IEA does see localized stresses to production of fossil fuels due to water scarcity and competition—in North Dakota, in Iraq, in the Canadian oil sands. "These vulnerabilities and impacts are manageable in most cases, but better technology will need to be deployed and energy and water policies better integrated," the IEA report says.

Now a major international issue, climate change is expected to account for...

About 20% of the global increase in water scarcity.

Effluent

An outflowing of water or gas from a natural body of water, or from a manmade structure. Wastewater-treated or untreated-that flows out of a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall. Usually refers to wastes discharged into surface waters.

Aquifer

An underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well.

A mature debate is now emerging about sharing the benefits of water rather than focusing on agreeing national quotas of bulk water

Analysts have shown that, under the prevailing internationalist setting of the past decades, water has been a source of cooperation between nations rather than a source of conflict. There is an expectation that such cooperation will continue, and indeed that there will be greater recognition of its importance to maximizing the benefits from water within development.

Scarcity often has its roots in water shortage...

And it is in the arid and semi-arid regions affected by droughts and wide climate variability, combined with high population growth and economic development, that the problems of water scarcity are most acute.

Actions to cope with water scarcity are needed at various levels:

At international level, countries need to seek increased cooperation in dealing with transboundary water management issues, within the IWRM framework, focusing on negotiations and dialogue and on the quest to optimize the overall societal benefits of water. At national level, policies and governance need adapting in order to better account for increased scarcity and address competing uses in a fair and equitable way. The institutional integration of water policies and increased stakeholder involvement in decision-making processes are paramount to this process, and the development of effective conflict-resolution mechanisms will become increasingly important. At local level, better management practices are needed in all fields, leading to increased productivity and sustainability in water use and to improved sectoral integration in the management of water resources.

Afforestation and reforestation on the other hand could be used as an invaluable climate change adaptation tool to

Bring increasing moisture to regions where rainfall is on the decline

Experts worry that water demand for fuel will sap water needed for food crops as world population is increasing.

But irrigation rates vary widely by region, and even in the same region, farming practices can vary significantly from one year to the next, depending on rainfall. That means there's a great deal of uncertainty in any estimates of biofuel water-intensity, including IEA's. For example, for corn ethanol (favored product of the world's number one biofuel producer, the United States), IEA estimates of water consumption can range from four gallons to 560 gallons of water for every gallon of corn ethanol produced. At the low end, that's about on par with some of the gasoline on the market, production of which consumes from one-quarter gallon to four gallons water per gallon of fuel. But at the high end, biofuels are significantly thirstier than the petroleum products they'd be replacing.

Many factors are influencing water supplies from forests

Changing climate, wildfires, insect outbreaks, timber harvest, roads, and even urban sprawl

This close relationship between MDGs and water is often not understood

Consequently, water management actions are poorly represented in the poverty reduction strategies of developing countries. Water can contribute both directly and indirectly by creating the conditions where the different goals and targets are more likely to be attained. Studies by the World Health Organization have shown that the benefits of investing in water far outweigh the costs of making the improvements - by as much as 60 times (and never less than 3) in the major regions of the developing world.

In the energy realm, IEA sees coal-powered electricity as

Driving the greatest demand for water now and in the future. Coal power is increasing in every region of the world except the United States, and may surpass oil as the world's main source of energy by 2017.

Pathways for reducing poverty and vulnerability in rural areas

Ensure secure access to water for productive use for poor women and men through clarifying water rights. Target livelihood gains directly through small-scale, individually managed water management technologies that provide water at lower unit costs than large-scale hydraulic infrastructure and can be easily implemented locally. Acknowledge indigenous knowledge, customary laws and informal institutions in water management. Promote multiple water-use systems - a single system for domestic use, crop production, aquaculture, agroforestry and livestock - that are effective for both reducing poverty and improving water productivity. Protect the natural resources on which the rural poor's livelihoods depend. Fisheries, in particular, represent an important source of livelihoods and nutrition in rural areas.

The eradication of poverty and hunger in rural areas is linked closely to

Fair and equitable access of the most vulnerable people to basic livelihood assets (including land and water) for domestic and productive uses. Because increased demand usually threatens the sustainability of the environment in situations of scarity, water scarcity management is also crucial to achieving the goals of environmental sustainability.

There will be four main drivers of increasing water scarcity during the coming decades.

First, as already mentioned, there is the inexorable growth in population. Second, the world is expected to become increasingly urbanized, focusing the demand for water among an ever more concentrated population. Asian cities alone are expected to grow by 1 billion people in the next 20 years. Third, per-capita consumption, the amount of domestic water that each person uses, is expected to rise as the world becomes more developed. Fourth, while these factors will increase the demand for water, freshwater resources will change as a result of climate change. While the magnitude of this change is still subject to uncertainty and will vary from one region to another, it is recognized that semi-arid regions will probably see an increase in the variability of precipitations, leading to more frequent periods of drought.

For poor people, water scarcity is not only about droughts or rivers running dry

For the poor, scarcity is about how institutions function and how transparency and equity are guaranteed in decisions affecting their lives. It is about choices on infrastructure development and the way they are managed. In many places throughout the world, organizations struggle to distribute resources equitably.

Preserving and managing forests may help sustain water supplies and water quality from the nation's headwaters in the future, but

Forest management is unlikely to increase water supplies.

"Because forests can release slightly more water for a decade or so following timber harvest, there have been suggestions that

Forests could be managed to increase water supplies in some areas," Jones said. "But we've learned that such increases don't last very long, and often don't provide water when you need it most.

Many rural households produce their own food, and in their particular case, it is essential that the 800-1 000 m3 of water per person they need to secure their annual food production is available locally on their fields

However, investments in household food security are rare and largely insufficient. Consequently, many million rural dwellers have to rely on rainfed agriculture, with all of the vagaries and vulnerabilities that accompany the unpredictability of that rain. It is this dependence on local rain for food production that make the impacts of drought so widespread and so long-lasting.

Many actions are necessary to attain the MDGs that tackle poverty in ways that are entirely unconnected with water

However, water can play a key role as part of strategies for achieving most of the MDGs, including hunger reduction, universal education, empowerment of women, improved health and combating disease, environmental sustainability, and advancing a global partnership for development

The IEA report includes a sobering analysis of the water impact of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology

If the world turns to CCS as a way to cut greenhouse gas emissions from coal plants, IEA's analysis echoes that of outside researchers who have warned that water consumption will be just as great or worse than in the coal plants of today. "A lowcarbon solution is not necessarily a low-water solution," says Kristen Averyt, associate director. However, based on current government policies, IEA forecasts that CCS would account for only 1.3 percent of the world's coal-fired generation in 2035

Factors that bring up water issues

Imbalances between availability and demand, the degradation of groundwater and surface water quality, intersectoral competition, and interregional and international conflicts.

The strategic role of groundwater

In arid and semi-arid regions, where water scarcity is almost endemic, groundwater has played a major role in meeting domestic and irrigation demands. In many regions, massive use of groundwater has been practiced for some time for irrigation. Groundwater mining and the lack of adequate planning, legal frameworks and governance have opened a new debate on the sustainability of the intensive use of groundwater resources.

It is probably in rural areas that water scarcity affects people most

In large parts of the developing world, irrigation remains the backbone of rural economies. However, smallholder farmers make up the majority of the world's rural poor, and they often occupy marginal land and depend mainly on rainfall for production. They are highly sensitive to many changes - droughts, floods, but also shifts in market prices. However, rainwater is rarely integrated into water management strategies, which usually focus exclusively on surface water and groundwater. Countries need to integrate rainwater fully into their strategies to cope with water scarcity.

Several factors drive the progression towards water scarcity and overallocation of water

In many cases caused by a supply-driven approach to development that does not take sufficient account of the limits of the water systems. As water becomes scarce, logics based on increased supply or a lack of understanding of the interrelations between the different sectors depending on water resources lead to increased shortages and conflicts between users. In most cases, the overriding political nature of water decisions takes precedence over the hydrological feasibility of projects, while their social consequences, in terms of deprivation of specific user groups are not well evaluated. In many places, the institutional and legal tools needed to adapt and manage water scarcity are not available, leaving the way open to abuse and inequitable access to the resource

In its own right, improved access to water and sanitation is an established MDG target

In recent years, a very strong case has been made that improved access to water, sanitation and health will contribute across all of the MDGs, including targets in education and health. On World Water Day, UN-Water wishes to raise the profile of the wider contribution that must be made by water - beyond domestic water and sanitation alone - across all of the MDGs. Judicious management of increasingly scarce resources is needed if benefits in economic growth, hunger reduction, lifting households out of extreme poverty, and ensuring environmental sustainability, among others, are to be achieved. Failure to take action on water will be to the detriment of MDG attainment

Symptoms of water scarcity

Include severe environmental degradation (including water desiccation and pollution), declining groundwater levels, and increasing problems of water allocation where some groups win at the expense of others.

Most countries in the Near East and North Africa suffer from acute water scarcity, as do countries such as Mexico, Pakistan, South Africa, and large parts of China and India...

Irrigated agriculture represents the bulk of the demand for water in these countries. It is also usually the first sector affected by water shortage and increased scarcity, resulting in a reduced capacity to maintain per-capita food production while meeting water needs for domestic, industrial and environmental purposes. In order to sustain their needs, these countries need to focus on the efficient use of all water sources (groundwater, surface water and rainfall) and on water allocation strategies that maximize the economic and social returns to limited water resources, and at the same time enhance the water productivity of all sectors. In this endeavour, there needs to be a special focus on issues relating to equity in access to water and on the social impacts of water allocation policies.

It's not entirely clear how much biofuel falls at the higher end of the range. In the United States, only about 18 to 22 percent of U.S. corn production came from

Irrigated fields, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture. And the remaining water in ethanol production in the United States—the amount consumed in the milling, distilling, and refining processes—has been cut in half over the past decade through recycling and other techniques, both industry sources and government researchers say. (One industry survey now puts the figure at 2.7 gallons water per gallon of ethanol.) A number of technologies are being tested to further cut water use.

As the world population continues to increase, more people will require more water for the cultivation of food, fibre and industrial crops and for livestock and fish.

It is estimated that food and feed crop demand will nearly double in the coming 50 years. The two main factors driving how much more food we will need are population growth and dietary change. With rising incomes and continuing urbanization, food habits change towards richer and more varied diets - not only towards increasing consumption of staple cereals, but also leading to a shift in consumption patterns among cereal crops and away from cereals towards livestock and fish products and high-value crops that consume more water.

In the last century, the world population has tripled

It is expected to rise from the present 6.5 billion to 8.9 billion by 2050, before levelling off. Water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of population increase in the last century, and, although there is no global water scarcity as such, an increasing number of regions are chronically short of water. By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under conditions of water stress. The situation will be exacerbated as rapidly growing urban areas place heavy pressure on local water resources.

Globally, 1.1 billion people lack access to improved water supply, and 2.6 billion are without improved sanitation

Most of these live in rural areas, but the number of urban dwellers without adequate water and sanitation services is increasing rapidly. The majority of those without adequate sanitation services live in Asia, but sub-Saharan Africa has the highest proportion of people without water

Lin said that the system is currently under threat from poor land management practices that fail to consider how ground water is affected by land uses, such as

New building projects, underground storage and agricultural operations. Planners should consider, for example, how the ground and plants in an area can affect water run-off. In some cases, not taking the ground and underground features of an area into consideration can lead to flooding, or to the addition of impurities into drinking water supplies.

Water use also could be cut with advanced biofuels made from

Non-food, hardy plant material that doesn't require irrigation, but so-called cellulosic ethanol will not become commercially viable under current government policies, in IEA's view, until 2025.

First and foremost, water scarcity is an issue of poverty

One in five people in the developing world lacks access to sufficient clean water (a suggested minimum of 20 litres/day), while average water use in Europe and the United States of America ranges between 200 and 600 litres/day. In addition, the poor pay more.

The Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture reveals

One in three people today face water shortages (CA, 2007). Around 1.2 billion people, or almost one-fifth of the world's population, live in areas of physical scarcity, and 500 million people are approaching this situation. Another 1.6 billion people, or almost one quarter of the world's population, face economic water shortage (where countries lack the necessary infrastructure to take water from rivers and aquifers).

The anti-poverty effects of irrigation can be assessed at two levels:

Production, related to the national or regional economy; and livelihoods, related to the household and its well-being. The former has been the method traditionally used to assess irrigation impacts; conversely, a livelihood based approach to irrigation places adequate and secure livelihood aims before increased production.

As most of the world's poor live in rural areas, one of the most effective ways of reducing hunger and poverty is to...

Raise their productive capacity through agricultural development

Investments to reduce vulnerability to water-related risks and to improve agricultural productivity are compelling for environmental and equity reasons

Realizing the potential of existing rainfed areas reduces the need for water withdrawals from rivers and groundwater for new large-scale irrigation development. On the other hand, improving rainfed production also requires infrastructure, but often smaller and more distributed. Realizing this potential requires risk-mitigation measures. Water harvesting techniques are useful for bridging short dry spells, but longer dry spells may lead to crop failure. With the right incentives and measures to mitigate risks for individual farmers, improving rainfed agriculture holds considerable potential to increase food production and reduce poverty, while ensuring the maintaining of ecosystem services.

The study, by David Ellison, Martyn Futter and Kevin Bishop at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), shows that reducing forest area

Reduces regional and continental rainfall. This needs to be recognized to obtain a fair picture of the forest role in the hydrologic cycle.

The surest way to reduce the water required for electricity generation, IEA's figures indicate, would be to move to alternative fuels

Renewable energy provides the greatest opportunity: Wind and solar photovoltaic power have such minimal water needs they account for less than one percent of water consumption for energy now and in the future, by IEA's calculations. Natural gas power plants also use less water than coal plants. While providing 23 percent of today's electricity, gas plants account for just 2 percent of today's energy water consumption, shares that essentially would hold steady through 2035 under current policies.

Addressing water scarcity requires what approaches?

Requires an intersectoral and multidisciplinary approach to managing water resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Integration across sectors is needed. This integration needs to take into account development, supply, use and demand, and to place the emphasis on people, their livelihood and the ecosystems that sustain them

This new view of forests is evolving

Scientists say, as both urban and agricultural demands for water continue to increase, and the role of clean water from forests becomes better understood as an "ecosystem service" of great value

The ground plays an important role in maintaining a clean environment by

Serving as a natural water filtration and purification system, said Henry Lin, professor of hydropedology and soil hydrology. Understanding the components that make up this integral part of the ecosystem can lead to better groundwater management and smarter environmental policy Lin, who reports on his research Feb. 17 at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Boston, said that Earth's outer layer -- from the top vegetation canopy to the strata of soils and layers of underground material -- helps soak up and purify water by extracting excess nutrients, heavy metals and other impurities. The ground can also act as a storage container for freshwater

Scarcity could be a consequence of altered supply patterns...

Stemming from climate change for example.

What can do much to alleviate water scarcity and secure environmental sustainability?

Targeted investments in all sectors, combined with a package of institutional measures that promote enhanced efficiency while guaranteeing in access to water.

Indeed, in Postel's view, the silver lining in the alarming data is

That it provides further support for action to seek alternatives and to reduce energy use altogether. "There is still enormous untapped potential to improve energy efficiency, which would reduce water stress and climate disruption at the same time," she says. "The win-win of the water-energy nexus is that saving energy saves water."

Not everyone agrees with the IEA's projections. The biofuel industry argues that

The Paris-based agency is both overestimating current water use in the ethanol industry, and ignoring the improvements that it is making to reduce water use. But government agencies and academic researchers in recent years also have compiled data that point to increasingly water-intensive energy production. Such a trend is alarming, given the United Nations' projection that by 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in regions with severe water scarcity, and that two-thirds of the world's population could be living under water-stressed conditions.

Irrigation is a direct source of livelihood for hundreds of millions of the rural poor in developing countries because of the food, income options and indirect benefits it generates

There are high political aspirations that agricultural development, in particular across sub-Saharan Africa, will lift many out of poverty, a few as producers of marketable products, others as wage labourers, and others in small enterprises away from the farm

Assessing and communicating the values associated with different water-related goods and services is the basis on which stakeholders have to seek a well-informed decision

This explains the growing focus on water valuation as a means to support water resources management. Water valuation means expressing the value of water-related goods and services for sharing and allocation decisions. It covers use and non-use values, extractive and in situ use values, and consumptive and non-consumptive use values. The notion of scarcity is central, and this can refer to aspects of water quantity and quality, and have both temporal and spatial dimensions.

As water becomes scarce, a main question today is how to best support stakeholders in managing their water demands in a context of increasing competition and interdependence

This question is especially significant for agriculture as it is the largest water user globally and faces increasing difficulty in: (i) securing a sufficient share of water resources to meet the needs of a growing world population; and (ii) managing the impacts of its activities on the resource base. Supporting stakeholders in managing their water resources means supporting them to make choices and to reach a common understanding on the necessary arrangements for sharing and allocating waterrelated goods and services

Crop production, the process of converting carbon and water into the biomass needed to sustain our daily energy requirements, is by far the largest water-consuming sector...

To produce enough food to satisfy a person's daily diet requires about 2 000-3 000 litres of water. In contrast, about 2-3 litres are required for drinking purposes, and 20-300 litres for domestic needs.

Modern forest practices have helped

To protect streams and riparian zones, but more needs to be learned about the implications of such practices as thinning or partial cuts -- development of "best management" practices could help balance timber harvest with sustainable water flow and quality. And global warming, which affects timing and amount of snowmelt runoff, wildfires, and insect and disease outbreaks, is a huge variable.

Water and poverty in sub-Saharan Africa

Water development is linked closely to poverty reduction, especially in low-income countries where the economy is highly dependent on agriculture. For many African countries, bereft of alternative economic opportunities in rural areas, agriculture is viewed as the principal avenue for social development. Expectations are high that agriculture can deliver national economic growth and at the same time lift millions of households out of poverty. Along with other factors such as markets, prices, inputs and security of land tenure, water is very important to meeting these aspirations.

The ways in which we need and use water

Water for drinking and for general household use, comparatively small in terms of volume, needs to be available in the home or, at the very least, close by. The inexorable growth of cities, concentrating large numbers of people in small areas, exacerbates this challenge locally. The water that supports ecosystems, fish, animals and invertebrates must, of course, be left to follow its natural pathways through the world's landscapes. The water that produces much of the world's energy, by hydropower generation or in cooling carbon-fired power stations, has to be available at the point of energy generation, with such decisions often dictated by factors other than water. The same is true of much of the water used in industry. However, most significant is the water that produces our food. The basic metabolism of each of our bodies - heart beats, respiration and maintaining body temperature - requires about 1 800-2 300 kcal every day. Every calorie of the food that releases the metabolic energy within us consumes about 1 litre of water in its production.

As farmers in particular face the challenge of accessing an increasingly scarce resource, groundwater levels are falling further each year, causing more rivers to dry up

Water is a major determinant of the health and productivity of ecosystems, placed in jeopardy in many parts of the world by reductions in water flows and water quality standards. Increasing water extraction has threatened the integrity of natural ecosystems, leading to the loss of significant biological diversity and undermining the ecosystem productivity on which so many poor people depend. Half of the world's wetlands disappeared during the twentieth century, many rivers no longer reach the sea, and fish species are endangered.

There is scope for an accelerated increase in water productivity

Water productivity in agriculture has increased steadily in recent decades, largely owing to increasing crop yields, and the potential exists for further increase. However, the pace of such increase will vary according to the type of policies and investments put in place, with substantial variations in the impact on the environment and livelihoods of rural populations.

Surface waters

Water that is above the substrate or soil surface such as streams, bays, lakes, rivers, seas, oceans, etc.

Water scarcity is also linked closely to the five key areas for action identified by the UN Secretary General on the occasion of the WSSD

Water, energy, health, agriculture and biodiversity. Last, it also has an impact on all the issues identified in the WSSD Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, and, in particular, on: poverty eradication; changing unsustainable consumption and production patterns; and protecting and managing the natural resources base of economic and social development.

The study also cited the value of

Watershed councils and citizen groups in getting more people involved in water, stream and land management issues at a local level, increasing the opportunities for all views to be considered, and conflicts avoided.

Many countries are falling behind in their progress towards the specific MDG on water and, in particular, sanitation.

While there are a few locations around the world where difficulties in access can be attributed to the physical scarcity of water, the overwhelming challenge is one of water governance.

Overdraft

The pumping of water from a groundwater basin or aquifer in excess of the supply flowing into the basin; results in a depletion or "mining" of the groundwater in the basin.

The science of how forest management affects water quantity and quality, Jones said, has produced a solid foundation of principles

Forests cover about one-third of the nation's land area, and although they have roles in timber production, habitat, recreation and wilderness, their most important output may be water. Forests provide natural filtration and storage systems that process nearly two-thirds of the water supply in the U.S. Demand for water continues to rise due to population growth, while forest acreage is declining and remaining forest lands are threatened by climate change, disease epidemics, fire and global climate change. Forest vegetation and soils, if healthy and intact, can benefit human water supplies by controlling water yield, peak flows, low flows, sediment levels, water chemistry and quality. Increases in water yield after forest harvesting are transitory; they decrease over time as forests re-grow, and in the meantime water quality may be reduced. Impervious surfaces such as roads and road drainage systems increase overland flow, deliver water directly to stream channels, and can increase surface erosion. Forest chemicals, including those used to fight fire, can adversely affect aquatic ecosystems, especially if they are applied directly to water bodies or wet soil. One of the biggest threats to forests, and the water that derives from them, is the permanent conversion of forested land to residential, industrial and commercial uses. The report also outlined a number of research needs for the future, especially to improve specific predictions about the implications of forest harvests, disturbances by fire, insects and disease, climate change, land development, and shifts in forest species composition.

Scarcity is also a question of water quality

Freshwater bodies have a limited capacity to process the pollutant charges of the effluents from expanding urban, industrial and agricultural uses. Water quality degradation can be a major cause of water scarcity.

In most countries, the agriculture sector is the predominant consumer of water...

Historically, large-scale water development projects have played a major role in poverty alleviation by providing food security, protection from flooding and drought, and expanded opportunities for employment. Irrigated agriculture has played a major role in the development of rural economies, supporting economic growth and poverty reduction. However, at the same time, poor communities have tended to suffer the greatest health burden from inadequate water supplies, and, as a result of poor health, have been unable to escape from the cycle of poverty and disease. Thus, growing scarcity and competition for water stand as major threats to future advances in poverty alleviation, especially in rural areas. In semi-arid regions, increasing numbers of the rural poor are coming to see entitlement and access to water for food production, livestock and domestic purposes as more critical than access to primary health care and education.

In a context of rapid change, a number of questions arise:

How are the many competing interests involved in water being balanced? On what basis are decisions to be made in favour of certain developments at the expense of others? What are the scope and conditions for increasing water productivity in different sectors? Which tools should be used to enable more efficient and equitable development and allocation of water? How can the best use be made of the water available? Which measures should be put in place to protect water resources and increase water supply? Which institutional and legal set-ups are most appropriate for ensuring adequate coordination? What kind of information is needed, and how is wide public ownership of water related problems to be ensured?

Agriculture accounts for more than 70 percent of the world's total water use

Its share drops to about 40 percent in countries that import food and have a developed and diverse economy, but rises to over 95 percent in many of the countries where agriculture is the primary economic activity.

There are massive opportunities to improve the ability of poor people to lift themselves out of poverty under conditions of greater water security and sustainability

Making sure that adequate and reliable supplies of water are available for agricultural activities (including: producing the food that households grow to feed themselves and the extra they sell at markets to earn small amounts of cash; livestock; aquaculture; and horticulture) is a key to rural poverty reduction throughout the developing world. Supporting domestic water schemes that make water available for home-based livelihood activities, such as vegetable production, pottery and laundering, is effective in targeting the poor and supporting diversified livelihoods. In many countries, broadbased agricultural growth represents the best opportunity for stimulating economic growth.

Valuation is an increasingly important tool in the process of allocating scarce water resources. However, the indiscriminate use of a purely economic approach risks

Overemphasizing monetary expressions of value at the expense of environmental and social values. Valuation frameworks are needed that recognize these three dimensions and in which stakeholders play a central role. Various methods have been developed that help to express the value of water-related goods and services in quantitative, monetary units. Although potentially very useful, these methods are complicated and demanding in terms of the expertise, time and data required for their application. This hinders their widespread application, especially in developing countries. As a result, their development in the field of water valuation has been mainly academic and much more effort is needed in order to apply valuation results and processes to support water resources management and decision- making effectively

Water Scarcity

The point at which the aggregate impact of all users impinges on the supply or quality of water under prevailing institutional arrangements to the extent that the demand by all sectors, including the environment, cannot be satisfied fully.

Infiltration (of water)

The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.

After coal power, biofuels are on track to cause the largest share of water stress in the energy systems of the future, in IEA's view

The agency anticipates a 242 percent increase in water consumption for biofuel production by 2035, from 12 billion cubic meters to 41 bcm annually. The potential drain on water resources is especially striking when considered in the context of how much energy IEA expects biofuels will deliver—an amount that is relatively modest, in part because ethanol generally produces less energy per gallon than petroleum-based fuels. Biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel now account for more than half the water consumed in "primary energy production" (production of fuels, rather than production of electricity), while providing less than 3 percent of the energy that fuels cars, trucks, ships, and aircraft. IEA projects that under current government policies, biofuels' contribution will edge up to just 5 percent of the world's (greatly increased) transportation demand by 2035, but fuel processed from plant material will by then be drinking 72 percent of the water in primary energy production.

IEA projects

The amount of fresh water consumed for world energy production is on track to double within the next 25 years. And even though fracking—high-pressure hydraulic fracturing of underground rock formations for natural gas and oil—might grab headlines, IEA sees its future impact as relatively small. By far the largest strain on future water resources from the energy system, according to IEA's forecast, would be due to two lesser noted, but profound trends in the energy world: soaring coal-fired electricity, and the ramping up of biofuel production.

Hydrologic Cycle (Water cycle)

The continuous process by which water is circulated throughout the earth and the atmosphere through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and the transpiration of plants and animals.

Unlocking the potential of Africa's water for agriculture

The doubling of Africa's irrigated area is currently very high on the political agenda. Achieving this goal means that the factors that have constrained investment will need to be addressed. With less than one-third of the continent's potential under irrigation, opportunities exist across much of the continent to invest further in water for agriculture. Markets, commodity selection, ownership, land tenure, water storage for reliable supply, and international agreements on water allocations within river basins are all key factors in unlocking this potential. Many see the importance of reducing the US$18-billion food-import bill borne by the continent. Many also see the potential for boosting household incomes by creating labour opportunities. However, some recognize that, even in an optimistic scenario in which every hectare created two new jobs, the significant uplifting of 60 million households would be insufficient to make major in-roads into the extreme poverty that pervades the continent. Consequently, a dual approach is gaining ground, one in which improvements in rainfed food production for the very many vulnerable African farmers must take place alongside the seizing of viable irrigation opportunities.

A greater focus is needed on the peaceful sharing and management of water at both international and local levels.

The lack of adequate legal instruments exacerbates already difficult conditions. In the absence of clear and well-established rules, chaos tends to dominate, and power plays an excessive role, leading to inequitable allocation of water

According to the IEA, the global increase of coal power, along with the coal industry's adoption of new technologies, will drive...

The largest share of water consumption for energy use through 2035.

Evapotranspiration

The loss of water from the soil both by evaporation and by transpiration from the plants growing in the soil.

Saltwater Intrusion

The movement of saltwater into underground sources (aquifers) of freshwater, which can occur in coastal regions or inland, and the surface movement of saltwater inland from the coast.