Counseling Research Final Exam
Limitations of case study research
•Difficult to provide rigor •Few texts provide valid and reliable protocols •Historically done to promote a personal agenda •May not be seen as valuable as other research designs •Is often exploratory •Experimental designs provide the who and what •Case studies provide the how and why •Generalizability •Not intended to generalize to a larger population •Used for hypothetico-deductive reasoning, a method of falsification •Used to discover exceptions
trained, skills, IRB (Prepare and Collect the Data)
•Ensure that investigators are ____ and have requisite _____. •Gain formal approval through ____.
explanations, evidence (Evaluate and Analyze the Data)
•Explore rival _____ which provide contradictory _____ to your assumptions and/or previous data.
Flexibility, collection (Prepare and Collect the Data)
•Maintain _____ •Develop a data _____ protocol.
Type 4 - Multiple case embedded (EMBEDDED DESIGNS)
•Multiple units within multiple cases is examined •Others used as comparison
relevant, propositions (Evaluate and Analyze the Data)
•Start with data most _____ to the research that answers your research question and _____.
description, book (Evaluate and Analyze the Data)
•Use a case _____ to create a structure of the study (appears like _____ chapters).
approach, objective, experience (Evaluate and Analyze the Data)
•Use a mixed methods ____. Use quantitative data to discover patterns in the ____ information, followed by qualitative data to provide focused discoveries/rich _____.
Intrinsic Case Study Research
Context- oriented case studies: focus on the unique case rather than the issue
properties, delineate (Categories)
Categories also have _____ and dimensions that help further _____ richness of the particular category.
labeling, categorized (Coding)
Coding involves ____ fragments of the data in such a way that each piece of data is ____ and summarized.
Type 1 - Single case holistic (HOLISTIC DESIGNS)
A single unit within a single case is examined Self used as comparison Simplest and most flexible of all
themes, language, unspoken (concepts)
A variety of ____ may be imbedded in the specific ____ respondents' use, how they describe their experiences, as well as what remains ____. These are concepts the researcher may cluster into categories.
Strauss (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists)
Constructivist (data first then theory or quantitative research). Believed you didn't need a theory to start collecting data.
Collective Case Study Research
Context- oriented case studies: a comparison between multiple cases to identify similarities and differences. Looks for themes that connect participant experiences.
Instrumental Case Study Research
Context- oriented case studies: emphasis on specific issue rather than the case. Can help to build and refine theory. Looks for themes that connect participant experiences.
broadening, different (Theory's Role in Research)
Abstraction of a theory allows a _____ of its applicability within different _____.
awareness, conditions, consequences (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists #8)
An ____ of the interrelationships among ____ (structure), action (process), and ____.
Glaser (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists)
Believed data was needed to create a theory but came from a positivist background (theory first then data or quantitative research)
data, nuances, properties (Coding)
Breaking down the ____ in this way helps the researcher begin to see ____ within the data and the complex relationships between concepts, _____ and dimensions.
Field Notes
Brief descriptions of what occurs during data gathering. Initial impressions about what emerges from the data.
How, Why
Case Study research Answers _____ or _____ a phenomenon exists.
multiple, observation, interviews
Case Study research Relies on _____ sources of data (e.g., _____ of behavior, _____, documents, surveys).
observe, manipulate
Case Study research is Used to ____ participants rather than ____ or control their behavior
Holistic, explore, theories, behavior
Case Study research is a ____approach to research used to _____ events, construct ____, develop models, create treatments, and understand the _____ of individuals
Glaser and Strauss (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists)
Developed Grounded Theory
record, field, diagramming
Grounded theory researchers ____ data in the form of writing ____ notes, memos, and _____.
Report the Findings
Know the target audience •Write the chapters, sections, draft as the experiment/study is progressing, Determine format and structure: •Single case narrative •Multiple case narrative •Question and answer format •Cross case Have others do a final review of the report.
specific, study, establishes
Propositions help identify what ____ details you might ____ to answer the questions and ____ a focus.
Descriptive Case Study Research
Purpose- oriented case studies: description of an issue within its current context. Used to provide rich detail.
Explanatory Case Study Research
Purpose- oriented case studies: explanation of an issue in more detail within its' natural context; help to clarify causational links. Answers how and why a phenomenon is occurring.
Exploratory Case Study Research
Purpose- oriented case studies: exploration of an issue in depth within an actual context. Used to gather evidence when there is little to no research in an area.
examine, validate, explore
Research questions ____ new ideas for therapy, ____ current evidence-based practices, or ____ specific issues in more depth.
Establish Research Question and Propositions
Steps for designing and conducting case study research: Step 1 then ID the cases.
Identify the Case(s)
Steps for designing and conducting case study research: Step 2 then prep and collect data.
Prepare and Collect the Data
Steps for designing and conducting case study research: Step 3 then eval and analyze data.
Evaluate and Analyze the Data
Steps for designing and conducting case study research: Step 4 then report the findings.
Report the Findings
Steps for designing and conducting case study research: Step 5, last step.
complexity, action(Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists #3)
The ____ and variability of phenomena and human ____.
relevance, data, discipline (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists #2)
The ____ of theory, grounded in ____, to the development of a ____ and as a basis for social action (special to quantitative research).
understanding, redefined, interaction (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists #6)
The ____ that meaning is defined and ____ through ____.
realization, meaning (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists #5)
The ____ that persons act on the basis of ____.
belief, active, situations (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists #4)
The ____ that persons are actors who take an ____ role in responding to problematic ____.
Properties
are characteristics of the category that give it substance, richness, and meaning. These characteristics expand contextual understanding of a category and flesh out concepts. (Characteristic)
field, goin on(Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists #1)
The need to get into the _____ to discover what is really ____ ___.
provides, accounts, power (Theory's Role in Research)
Theory _____ the basis for action, _____ for consistency and variation within particular phenomena, and has explanatory and predictive _____.
Deductively (Theory's Role in Research)
Theory is used ____ to test hypotheses or research questions generated from the theory. (Theory comes first; use experiments to test theory, quantitative)
Inductively (Theory's Role in Research)
Theory is used _____ by starting with a general area of interest, gathering data, asking questions, forming categories from the data, describing processes, and developing a theory or comparing what is discovered with existing theories.
Grounded Theory (Qualitative Research)
Ultimate Goal: A new theory. Systematic, Inductive method for conducting qualitative research aim toward theory development. •A variety of data collection methods are the first step, instead of in quant where theory is first step. •Post data collection, key points are marked or coded by reviewing the data to find -->themes, -->concepts,--> categories, --->theory.
saturated
When a category becomes _____, new data fails to stimulate additional theoretical insights nor adds anything substantive to the emerging theory.
Identify the Case(s) in Research
Will the case provide data that can help to answer the research question(s)? Will you have access to the case to collect enough data? Verify that organizational restrictions, ongoing legal issues, medical concerns, etc. won't make your sample inaccessible. Is the case appropriate for the study so that relevant data can be collected? Will your case represent a unique or common situation? Will you use a single case or multiple case design? Will you use a holistic or embedded approach with your design?
Case Study research
___ ___ ___: Became popular in social sciences in the 1960's by Glaser and Strauss
Sensitivity, nature (Beliefs & Values of Grounded Theorists #7)
_____ to the evolving and unfolding _____ of events.
Sorting
a method used to organize analytical notes, memos, and diagrams into a logical sequence that stimulates the developing theory and organization of the written results of the study.
Explanatory power (Theory's Role in Research)
ability to describe a phenomenon and its process so the reader can draw conclusions and apply the theory in a variety of circumstances.
Predictive power (Theory's Role in Research)
ability to initiate action and predict causal relationships within key components and processes.
Freewriting
allows researchers to write in short bursts of time without the constraints of conventional form and parallels free association encouraging writing down whatever bursts into researchers' consciousness.
Open coding
allows the researcher to mine the data for all possible analytic ideas and theoretical avenues that have the potential to develop.
Qualitative Research
•Constructivist Paradigm - reality is socially constructed •The observer influences and impacts the object of the study •Context is ever-changing •All phenomena are complex •Emotions are critical
Categories
are general groupings of related concepts that help identify themes that emerge from the data.
Concepts
are ideas that emerge from the phenomena being studied in raw (unanalyzed) form.
Question and answer format (Format of the Report)
asks and answers the questions for each case in the study (providing the transcript); reader can make their own conclusions (can be done in single case or multiple case)
Symbolic Interactionalism
assumes people are dynamic, resourceful, and reflective, and construct themselves, their roles, and society through interaction. Reality emerges through interaction.
Theory Building (Structure of the Report, Flexible Format Options)
build logic for creating a theory
Pattern matching (Analyze the Data)
compares observed and predicted patterns to determine where they overlap
Explanation building (Analyze the Data)
complex pattern matching; explains causal relationships
"Suspense" (Structure of the Report, Flexible Format Options)
conclusions presented first with the processes to follow
Line by line coding
consists of naming each line of the dialogue to detect important processes within the data and is where most grounded theorists begin their initial analyses.
Dimensions
constitute the range along which the properties of a category vary. (Continuum)
Theory-building questions in Research
create or validate theoretical models.
Experiential or narrative questions in Research
explore client experiences
Pragmatic questions in Research
explore procedures and guidelines used and/or techniques applied.
Theoretical sampling
focuses attention on samples representative of less than optimally (poorly) developed categories.
Clustering
has researchers write down an idea and then branch out associations from the idea as a way of visually brainstorming and connecting categories (roughed sketch of a diagram).
Focused (or selective) coding
helps develop categories by grouping codes into larger segments based on emerging themes. Done 2nd in the coding process. Uses data to drive development/focus. Used to narrow the data down to one or two important categories.
Word by word coding
hunches, established meaning and preconceived notions to analyze the rich data
Cross case (Format of the Report)
includes only compiled cross data; single case information often excluded or minimized
Diagramming
is memoing in visual form and depicts conceptual maps that help develop and delineate the emerging process. Inherently dense conceptually and can capture an entire process at a glance.
Coding
is the process of making sense of the data by succinctly describing what the data are telling the researcher.
Cross-case synthesis (Analyze the Data)
looks to identify patterns across cases and often across independent studies (i.e., meta-analysis)
Logic models (Analyze the Data)
measures a complex chains of events to make sense of patterns and causal relationships
Unsequenced (Structure of the Report, Flexible Format Options)
no particular order as long as all parts are included
Reflexivity (Theory's Role in Research)
occurs when researchers scrutinize the research process, decisions and interpretations, and the extent to which their "interests, positions, and assumptions influenced inquiry".
Comparative (Structure of the Report, Common Format Options)
repeat the same case study with differing perspectives
Chronological (Structure of the Report, Common Format Options)
report the events of the case in sequential order
Participant interviews
richest type of data. Focus groups are also often used.
Memos
similar to field notes, but happens during the coding process and comprises the "products of analysis" that help direct the researcher to what is "analytical and conceptual rather than descriptive".
Multiple case narrative (Format of the Report)
single description of each case study and a final section of cross-case findings (Joseph, Kartik, Leo)
Single case narrative (Format of the Report)
single description of the case study (Joseph)
theoretical saturation
the collection and analysis of data until no new categories of theories are identified
Outcome questions in Research
the extent to which a tx was effective or a client's behavior changed.
Time-series analysis (Analyze the Data)
tracks changes over time and compares observed patterns to predicted patterns
Linear Analytic (Structure of the Report, Common Format Options)
typically used in journal article writing; linear sequence of topics (e.g. literature review, methodology, findings)
Incident by incident
used for data in which dialogue is minimal and action is more present.
Theoretical sensitivity (Characteristics of Grounded Theorists)
values, beliefs, perspectives, and experiences all influence and are influenced by the research process and analysis of the data. As counselors gain practical experience, they develop sensitivity to what is effective with their clients, which guides their interventions.
Type 3 - Multiple case holistic (HOLISTIC DESIGNS)
•A single unit within each case is examined •Others used as comparison •Simplest multiple-case design
Type 2 - Single case embedded (EMBEDDED DESIGNS)
•A single unit within multiple cases is examined •Others used as comparison
store, documents (Prepare and Collect the Data)
•Collect and ____ the data •Direct observation, _____, archival records, etc.
pilot, single (Prepare and Collect the Data)
•Conduct a ____ study first. •Begin with a simple ____ case
validity, reliability (Prepare and Collect the Data)
•Construct _____, Internal Validity, External Validity, •_____ (Literal and Theoretical Replication)
