Creating Earth Study Guide
When did the Big Bang happen
13.8 billion years ago
Which process takes place in the core of the sun?
Nuclear Fusion
At what rate do tectonic plates move?
2 to 5 centimeters per year (1 to 2 inches per year)
Who first proposed this theory?
Alfred Wegener
Describe dark matter and dark energy.
Dark Matter: makes up 27% of the universe. We are unsure of what it is, but we know it is not in the form of stars and planets. Dark Energy: makes up 68% of the universe. It is a property of space.
What forms did matter take after matter and energy separated? List the forms of matter in order of formation.
Electrons and quarks (quarks later link up to form protons and neutrons)
Planetary Nebula
High Mass Stars burn through CNO and turn into supernovas,
What elements were present before the formation of stars?
Hydrogen and Helium
Threshold 3: New Chemical Elements
Ingredients - Aging and dying of stars of hydrogen and helium Goldilocks Conditions - Incredibly high temperatures & pressures. New Complexity - 92 elements with unique properties that can combine in millions of ways to create new compounds.
Threshold 2: Stars Light Up
Ingredients - Hydrogen and Helium Goldilocks Conditions - Gravity - Tiny variations in density - Temperatures > 10 million degrees Celsius New Complexity - Stars - Galaxies - Galaxy clusters - Superclusters
Star
Nuclear Fusion (hydrogen fused into helium) occurs, releases photons and heat. Ignition (self-sustainable way of Fusion) occurs after a while.
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion brings together nuclei of smaller/ lighter elements to form heavier elements with the release of energy.
What is the process that causes fusion?
Nuclear fusion can only occur in high temperatures and pressure conditions, such as the sun
Common points of Nuclear fusion and fission
Nuclear reactions that produce energy
Which is more dense, oceanic or continental crust?
Oceanic Crust due to it being under continental crust
Which is more dense, new or old crust?
Old Crust due to it being cooler than new crust.
How did elements become concentrated in planets like Earth?
Our solar system formed from a cloud of gas and dust. The cloud was made of hydrogen and helium, and small amounts of remaining naturally occurring elements. Elements which made up a planet would separate if the planet was warm enough. Iron falls to the center of a planet and forms a core, silicate material stays in the middle, ice stays near the top.
Define oxidation and reduction. Give an example of an oxidation/reduction reaction.
Reduction occurs in a chemical reaction where 1 element gains an electron, and the other loses. Ex. Iron oxide loses oxygen to form iron, and carbon monoxide gains oxygen from the carbon monoxide. Oxidation occurs when one atom or compound steals electrons from another atom or compound. Ex. rusting. When rusting happens, oxygen steals electrons from iron.
What force has to be overcome to fuse protons together?
Repulsion of charges, gravity needed to be stronger in order for fusion to occur.
Asthenosphere
Right under the lithosphere.
What types of planets have the ideal conditions for life to emerge?
Rocky planets rich in chemical diversity.
How/where are naturally-occurring elements that are heavier than iron formed? Why are these elements not formed in stars?
Supernova
Why isn't Earth getting larger or smaller?
This is because wherever the Earth is expanding, another places on the Earth is getting smaller by the same amount of the expansion. This is through some plates moving back into the mantle to counteract the amount of expansion.
Volcanoes and earthquakes only occur near plate boundaries.
This statement is true.
New crust is formed at
diverging plate boundaries.
double-displacment reaction
the positive ion of one compound replaces the positive ion of the other to form two new compounds
Electrolysis
1) Electrolysis involves using an electric current to make a chemical reaction happen. 2)When ionic compounds are molten or dissolved in water, the ions move freely. 3)When electricity is passed through the liquid, the compound may be broken down into different substances Metals Extracted: Aluminum
Heating the Ore
1) iron ore is mixed with limestone + coke 2) The coke + iron ore mixture is put into a blast furnace, making the coke burn easily 3) As coke burns, chemical changes in the mixture make carbon dioxide gas and molten iron 4) The iron sinks to the bottom. Impurities left in the ore combine with limestone to make SLAG 5) slag and molten iron being poured into furnaces through taps. Metals Extracted: Can be used only on the most unreactive metals ie. gold, silver
Why are rocky planets more suitable for life?
1. They contain a diversity of elements: which are the need for organic life. Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus. 2. They contain the perfect amount of Energy: too much, everyone will blast, too little, elements cant combine 3. They contain the presence of liquids(water):In liquids, it is easier for atoms to move around, and hitch up in complex forms.
Cost of Extraction of Metals
1.Electrolysis Most powerful means of extraction. Most expensive. Requires lots of electricity. 2. Reduction with carbon (carbon monoxide) Cheaper to operate than electrolysis. Labor intensive. Expensive to startup as large industrial equipment is used. 3. Heating of the ore Cheap Can only be used on the most unreactive metals (Mercury, gold, silver etc.)
What temperature is necessary to fuse hydrogen into helium?
100 million degrees.
alpha decay equation
222/88 Ra ---> 4/2 He + 218/86 R
What temperature is necessary to fuse silicon into iron?
3 billion degrees.
Define Pangaea.
300 million years ago, Earth didn't contain seven continents, instead, it has one large supercontinent called Pangea.
Explain the process of accretion and how is it related to planet formation?
4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula. Gravity caused the material to collapse in the center, as it began to spin, forming the sun in the center of the nebula. Accretion clumped matter to later create planets.
Define the displacement reaction.
A chemical reaction where a more reactive element (metal) displaces a less reactive element (nonmetal) from its compound (metal oxide)
Lithosphere
A combination of upper mantle and crust, consists of tectonic plates.
Cosmic Background Radiation
A cosmology of how our universe early on was a hot place before the Big Bang, which as it expands through out space and time, the gas within should cool down. The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is thought to be leftover radiation from the Big Bang.
single-displacement reaction
A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal.
Anion
A negatively charged ion.
Cation
A positively charged ion.
How is the formation of planets related to stars?
A spinning disk is known as a proplyd that resulted in a gravitational collapse in a cloud of matter which was probably triggered by a supernova somewhere in the milky way. 99 percent of the material in the proplyd went into the formation of the sun and the final 1% was used to form all the planets in the solar system.
Supernova remnant
A supernova remnant is the structure resulting from the explosion of a star in a supernova. The supernova remnant is bounded by an expanding shock wave, and consists of ejected material expanding from the explosion, and the interstellar material it sweeps up and shocks along the way.
Accretion
Accretion refers to accumulating or building up, and planetary accretion refers to building up a planet or planetary formation. Planetary accretion occurs as gravitational attraction draws objects together in space. These objects may be dust, gas, plasma (ionized "gas"), debris from comets, etc. Larger accumulations may lead to star formation.
Ion
An ion is a charged atom or molecule. When 2 atoms with an unequal number of electrons and protons attract to one another The attraction of atoms or molecules that have gained or lost one or more valence electrons, giving them a positive or negative charge.
Define radioactivity
An unstable nucleus emits particles and energy in a process known as radioactive decay. The term radioactivity refers to the process of emitting particles.
Supernova play an important role in the Big History narrative of increasing complexity because they...
Are hot enough to forge elements heavier than iron
Life cycle of a star
Average Star: Red Giant - Planetary Nebula - White Dwarf Massive Star: Red Supergiant - Supernova - Neutron Star/ Black Hole ALL STARTS WITH STELLAR NEBUL:A
Goldilocks Conditions
Complex things are found when the conditions are just right, just the right ingredients and just the right energy flows.
New Complexity
Complexity is a continuum from simple to complex. The qualities of more complex things are: diverse ingredients, precise arrangement, emergent properties, and fragility.
Ingredients
Components that are put together to form something new and more complex
Describe each plate boundary
Convergent Plates: A boundary that is moving towards each other. Divergent Plates: A boundary that is moving away from each other. Transform Plates: A boundary that is sliding past each other.
Describe the events/land formations at each plate boundary
Convergent Plates: Nazca Plate and South American Plate Divergent Plates: Nazca Plate and Pacific Plate Transform Plates: San Andreas.
White Dwarf
Cools, then becomes a black dwarf and disappears, unless it is a supernova and explodes, leaving supernova remnant.
Redshift
Describes how light wavelengths increase. As objects in space (such as stars and galaxies) move further away from us, their generated light shifts towards the red end of the spectrum.
Describe beta decay. What is released? What happens to the atomic mass and atomic number?
During beta-minus decay: A neutron in an atom's nucleus turns into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino. The electron and antineutrino fly away from the nucleus. Since an atom gains a proton during beta-minus decay, it changes from one element to another. For example, an atom of carbon (with 6 protons) becomes an atom of nitrogen (with 7 protons). During beta-plus decay: A proton in an atom's nucleus turns into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino. The positron and neutrino fly away from the nucleus. Since an atom loses a proton during beta-plus decay, it changes from one element to another. For example, an atom of carbon (with 6 protons) becomes an atom of boron (with 5 protons). -Occurs when the neutron -to- proton ratio is too great in the nucleus
Describe how Earth's layers formed.
During the stages of early earth, it was so hot that it was melting. So the different elements that made up the Earth melted, resulted in the heavier items sinking into the middle while the lighter items staying at the top. This resulted in the different layers we see today.
Which layer of Earth is responsible for its magnetic field?
Earth's Outer core Differences in temperature, pressure, and composition within the outer core cause convection currents in the molten metal. Cool, dense matter sinks, and warm, less dense matter rises. This flow of liquid iron generates electric currents, which in turn produce magnetic fields.
State the theory of plate tectonics.
Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. These plates hold the structure of continents and ocean together are constantly moving. Their movement supports the fact that continents are not fixed, but move over time. Also, how and why earthquakes and geologic events/ similarities occur in different parts of the world.
Why does fission occur?
Fission occurs because of the repulsion created by a large number of positively charged protons contained in a heavy nucleus.
Why does fusion occur?
Fusion is an important process that creates energy to power the sun and stars and makes life on earth possible.
Difference between Nuclear fusion and Nuclear Fission
Fusion: High temperatures are not required to start a reaction. It is a chain reaction Bombardment of nucleus with neutrons occurs Fission: Requires high temperatures of 4,000,00 degrees celsius to start the reaction. Is not a chain reaction Heating light nuclei at very high temperatures. Bombardment of the nucleus does not occur.
How do geologists and historians measure time?
Geologists measure time on a very long, or geologic, time scale. It tends to be broken down into periods of millions or billions of years, and focuses on events of the earth. Historian's use a shorter time scale that focuses on human events and tends to be measured in thousands, hundreds or smaller units of time.
What force was necessary to bring matter together to form stars?
Gravity creates stars and planets by pulling together the material from which they are made. Gravity not only pulls on mass but also on light.
Protostar
Gravity pulls matter (dust and ionized gases) from previous supernovas. Condenses into the center of the Nebula, then explodes and we are left with the hot core in the center.
What two forces must be balanced to keep a star from collapsing or expanding?
Gravity, and the outward pressure of energy (photons)
What fundamental forces were created after matter and energy separated?
Gravity, electromagnetic force, protons, and neutrons
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not widely accepted in his lifetime because
He could not identify the cause of continental drift.
What elements did the Big Bang create?
Hydrogen (75%) Helium (25%) Lithium (traces of) Beryllium (traces of) Boron Dark matter
What would have happened if gravity were too strong or too weak?
If gravity were to increase, all of existence could have collapsed into itself. If gravity was too weak, stars wouldn't have been created.
Threshold 4: Earth & The Solar System
Ingredients - New chemical elements Clouds of chemically rich matter Formation of new stars Goldilocks Conditions - Gravity, accretion & random collisions New Complexity - Planets Planetesimals comets/ asteroids Star systems
Threshold 1: The Big Bang
Ingredients and Goldilocks Conditions - We can only speculate the ingredients and Goldilocks Conditions. New Complexity The Universe - Time and space Different forms of energy (including gravity and electromagnetism). Different forms of matter (including quarks and electrons)
Compare and contrast inner and outer planets
Inner planets: Rocky Composed of central metallic cores, mostly made of iron, and a surrounding mantle. Outer Planets Gas giants Composed of large amounts of gas surrounded by small amounts of ice and rock.
Outer Core
Iron Alloy, liquid, allows convection currents to transfer heat to the surface, creates Earth's magnetic field.
Inner Core
Iron and Nickel, extremely dense, very high pressure.
What is the heaviest element that can be formed in stars?
Iron.
What does the Big Bang Theory explain?
It states that our universe didn't always exist. The early universe was hot and dense, as time passed by, the universe expanded, cooled, and become less dense. It explains how our universe formed with time.
LOOK AT PLANET FORMATION ORDER
LOOK AT PLANET FORMATION ORDER
List and describe the evidence for the theory of plate tectonics
Laurasia and Gondwana are formed Africa separated from Antarctica South America separates from Africa The Himalaya ae formed as India collided with Asia. Similar flora and fauna in South America and Africa
Why are rocky planets like Earth more chemically complex than the gassy giants of our solar system?
Lighter elements like hydrogen and helium were driven away by the Sun's heat, leaving a high concentration of heavier elements in the inner orbits
Mantle
Magnesium and Iron, plastic solid that can stretch and flow, allows convection currents to move tectonic plates.
Ore
Minerals that have a high concentration in rocks and can be extracted for use.
Which process takes place in Earth's core?
Nuclear Fission
Crust
Outermost layer, least dense, divided into oceanic and continental.
Describe three ways that planets are more complex than stars?
Planets are more complex than stars because... Planets contain many more chemical and elements than stars. Accretion Planets are able to sustain life
What causes the tectonic plates to move?
Plate tectonic move when the heat in the Earth's core causes molten rock in the mantle layer to move. It moves in a pattern called a convection cell; formed, when warm material rises, cools and sinks down. As the cooled material sinks down, it is warmed and rises again. **Convection Currents** in the mantle
Differentiation
Process by which materials gather together through melting and migrating based on their densities, ex. Layers of the earth, layers of the sun. Both involve gravity as the driving force AND lead to greater complexity.
Put the following terms in order from least to most complex: clusters, superclusters, stars, galaxy
Stars - galaxies - clusters - superclusters
Explain the process of element formation in stars.
Stars create new elements in their cores by squeezing elements together in a process called nuclear fusion. Stars fuse hydrogen atoms into helium, then helium atoms fuse into beryllium, and so on until fusion in the star's core has created every element up to iron.
Describe the conditions on early Earth.
Surface was molten lava No oxygen Asteroids and meteorites crashed into Earth Extreme radiation Very hot Due to the supernova explosion which occurred prior to the creation of our solar system, and emitted large amounts of radioactive material, which were very hot.
Which is more responsible for earth's ocean tides?
The Moon
Universe Expansion
The increasing distance between 2 parts of the universe over time. The universe does not need to expand into anything, nor needs space to expand.
Where was the matter that formed planets found?
The natural attraction of gravity caused dust to start whirling around a central lump. The lump collected matter until it grew so large that its own gravity crashed into the middle, creating nuclear fire. Our Sun was born. The remaining dust and clouds clumped together and eventually formed planets.
Describe alpha decay. What is released? What happens to the atomic mass and atomic number?
The nucleus is unstable because it has too many protons. The nucleus releases an alpha particle and energy. An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons for a mass number of 4, which is actually a helium nucleus. Since an atom loses two protons during alpha decay, it changes from one element to another.
red giant
The star expands and glows red as it cools, eventually blasting away it's outer layers.
Where was the matter that formed plantes found?
They were found in clouds with chemically rich matter.
Threshold
Threshold moments are moments when more complex things seem to appear, things with new, emergent properties.
What does the reactivity series tell us?
We can use the series to predict whether a metal displacement reaction will occur.
How are stars similar to people?
We contain the same elements as stars; Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen atoms. We are made from the remnants of various supernovas.
Reduction with Carbon
What is Reduction with Carbon? The extraction of iron is a reductive process. Reduction reactions involve the removal of oxygen. Oxygen is removed from the iron oxide by using carbon monoxide. 1) Burning lime @800 degrees - Lime decomposes, removes impurities/produces slag, which binds to impurities - Impurities form from ore falling as precipitated called "slag". 2) Production of Carbon Monoxide - CO2 reduced by coke to form CO 3) Reduction of Iron - Iron oxide reduced by CO -Molted iron sinks to the bottom and can be collected (called "pig iron" = 95% pure). Metals Extracted: zinc, iron, tin, lead, and copper.
Nuclear Fission
a nuclear fission is when a heavy nuclei are broken down into smaller/lighter nuclei with the release of energy.
Scientific theories are based on
a preponderance of scientific data and observations.
Blueshift occurs when light is emitted from a source that is
moving toward an observer