CRIM 102 Exam 2

Causes of Social Disorganization

*** 1. Residential Instability 2. Racial/Ethnic Heterogeneity 3. Poverty

Focal Concerns Theory (Miller)

**Argued that the lower-class have a distinct and observable culture with defining focal concerns**: 1. Trouble - refers to getting into and staying out of trouble 2. Toughness - overemphasis on masculinity, endurance, and strength 3. Smartness - taking advantage of others ("hustling" or "street smarts" 4. Excitement - constant search for thrills and stimulation 5. Fate - individuals are not in control of their future 6. Autonomy - resentment and rejection of authority and rules

How focal concern works

**Focal concerns in lower-class cultures make conformity to criminal behavior as natural as acceptance of conventional behaviors are for the middle-class** - focal concerns are situated in depressed inner cities, where conventional morals, values, and attitudes are rarely seen at all. - Juveniles accepting most of these focal concerns will live a life pattern that ultimately leads to the automatic violation of legal norms

Zone II

**crime was the highest in this zone, so they argued that social disorganization was highest in this area as well calling it the "zone in transition"** - Shaw and McKay were students of Park and Burgess and set out to understand why crime seemed to be concentrated where industry was the - they pinpointed each reported crime on a map and discovered that crime and criminals seemed to be clustered together in the city core and become less dense the closer one got to the edge - pattern was also persistent over time

Cultural Theories

**cultural transmission theories focus on the ideas that form values and beliefs that differ from conventional ideas** - value systems that conflict with conventional standards largely define subcultures - deviant subcultures can predispose people to commit crime while at the same time providing a rationalization for being criminal - sometimes, subcultural group members can even see their behavior as normal and noncriminal

Collective Efficacy Theory

**the level of trust between neighbors and action in maintaining order in public spaces of a community** - Sampson, Raudenbusch, and Earls (1997) - the higher the collective efficacy of a neighborhood, the more social capital and less likely for criminal activity to go unnoticed or unpunished - communities with higher levels of collective efficacy maintain a higher stake in the community, therefore they are more willing to act or intervene if they observe criminal or antisocial behavior. **it is the willingness to act that is essential** - neighborhoods with higher levels of home-ownership are much more likely to exhibit high collective efficacy.

How Terror Groups Financed

*Without funding terrorism could not survive* - how do these organizations raise the money they need to operate on an international scale? - surprisingly, a great deal of funding came from donations to charities, many of them based in Saudi Arabia - while the Saudi government has taken steps to disrupt terrorist financing, charities continue to play a role in the sponsorship of terrorist groups - OBL owned and operated a string of retail honey shops throughout the Middle East and Pakistan - Sometimes they even get involved in commonlaw crimes such as drug dealing and kidnapping, even selling nuclear materials or artifacts. - these can become so profitable, they may change the original focus of the group

Social Learning Theory

- **DA theory says that criminal behavior is learned, but doesn't explain HOW** - by the 1960's advances into psychology of criminal conduct had advanced, and with that came greater understanding into the reward/punishment stimuli that control behavior. -**SLT advances DA theory by explaining, in detail, how criminal behavior is learned, reinforced, or even changed** - currently is one of the leading theories of crime

Demise of subcultural perspectives

- 1960's: lots of interrelated social movements that did two main things: 1. changed the mainstream "middle-class" value system 2. Gave more legitimacy to the "counterculture" - other theories that opposed cultural perspectives became popoular - labeling theory (focused more on the CJS system and dominant culture) - Social Control Theory (opposing perspective on why people commit crime)

Belgian Researchers

- Certain areas of France had higher levels of crime than other areas - they also argued that social factors like poverty and education levels correlated to these trends

Cultural Resistance

- Cohen argued that there is a psychological benefit to being part of a delinquent subculture if the individual feels rejected or unable to be part of the dominant culture -**Rejecting societal standards and norms becomes a defining part of the subculture, often referred to as "cultural resistance"** - Cohen argued lower-class youths resisted by devaluing success in the classroom, deferred gratification, long-term planning, and the cultivation of etiquette mandatory for survival in the business and social arenas - this same observation can found in many of today's modern gangs

Middle-Class Measuring Rod

- Cohen argued that these lower-class males **become ill prepared to compete in a world gauged by a "middle-class measuring rod" of success** - the deficiencies of lower-class youth are continually pointed out by their middle-class counterparts, especially at school. - instead of wallow in self-pity, these lower-class males essentially band together creating their own subculture in which rejection of middle-class values is a core component.

Cohen and the Subculture of the Gange

- Cohen observed delinquent boys in the 1950's (think Grease) - argued that this subculture of delinquency and crime was due to these boys not being able to maintain "middle-class" status - as a result, boys would become rebellious and create their own subculture where being "bad" was cool. - the relationship of Sandy (good middle-class conventional girl) and Danny (bad boy of the delinquent "gang" subculture) **provide a nice juxtaposition for the dominant culture and subculture at the time

Social Learning and Social Structure Theory

- SLSS is just like social learning theory but on a macro level - Akers proposes that changes in the **social structure, culture, and locations of individuals and groups in the social system account for differences in the crime rates of different neighborhoods or cities** - these changes (or variations) impact crime through their influence on differences among individuals on the four key social learning concepts we discussed. - so basically just add one more piece to social learning theory Social Structure Factors (Macro level changes) --> Social Learning Factors (Micro level changes) --> Behavior

Differential Association Theory

- Sutherland (1940's) was influenced by Shaw and McKay and their work on how the environment (or other people) influenced people to commit crime. - emphasized socialization: refers to a process of human interaction on both one-to-one and group levels wherein **behavior is: 1. learned from others 2. reflects society's cultural and subcultural values**

Subculture of Violence (the resurgence of culture theories)

- Wolfgang and Ferracuti - Looked at the American South - Found that "groups with the highest rates of homicide have in the most intense degree a subculture of violence" - "Subculture of violence": could be as small as a gang, as big as a region of the country - argued that the south placed a higher value on autonomy, reputation, glorification of military skills, high levels of gun ownership, and history of Southern pride - History of vigilante justice, informal social control, and HONOR

RAT Three Main Factors

- all three factors MUST be present for a direct predatory crime to occur: 1. *Motivated Offender* 2. *Suitable Target* 3.*Lack of Capable Guardianship*

Motivated Offender

- argues all people are "normal" so as long as the advantages of crime are higher than the costs, the individual is motivated to commit crime - same ideas as Rational Choice/Deterrence Theory

Delinquency and Opportunity Theory (Cloward and Ohlin)

- built off of Cohen's theory on gang subcultures by adding an opportunity component - argued that "limited and blocked economic aspirations lead to frustration and negative self-esteem" and that "these frustrations move youth to form gangs that vary in type" - opportunity dictates which type of gang/delinquent subculture a youth will enter into

Lack of Capable Guardianship

- capable/effective guardianship refers to anything that makes the target more risky (less suitable) - ex: walk with groups at night, passwords, cameras, ink locks on clothing, speed traps, etc.

Code of the Street

- created by Elijah Anderson in the 1999 book by the same name - Main Concept: Residents in poor inner-city neighborhoods are often exposed to two conflicting orientations **1. street: norms that are often consciously opposed to mainstream society, valuing toughness, manliness, and violence** - traced to concentrated disadvantage and the sense of alienation from mainstream society - lack of jobs that pay a living wage, persistent poverty, family disruption, social isolation - alienation from city agencies (police) - alienation from social buffers (middle-class blacks, present fathers, good schools) - alienation from the licit economy (lack of jobs with benefits, no internships, etc) - **Decent: "middle-class/mainstream" values, counteracting the negative influences of the ares**

The rise of subculture perspectives

- emerged as the dominant perspective on crime in the 1950's - middle class values defined social norms and dominated social institutions - freedom of expression didn't become normal until the 1960's - for the first time, youth had: - cars (which equal freedom) - a popular culture build on rebellion (rock and roll) - greater emphasis on part-time jobs (more time and money)

*Cult-Terrorism*

- group with a leader that demands followers prove their loyalty through violence or intimidation - leader is typically charismatic who may be viewed as having godlike powers or even being the reincarnation of an important religious figure. - followers may go through doomsday drills and maintain a siege mentality, fearing attacks from the government. common that they stockpile weapons and build defensive barricades

Suitable Target

- have to look at it from the offender's perspective - White Collar offender's target --> stealing stock information - Blue Collar Offender's Target --> old ladies purse

Routine Activities Theory

- interested in how human interaction and environment affects crime - the foundation of RAT argues that humans follow a unique **rhythm, tempo, and timing** to all things in life. - in other words, there are specific routine activities that a majority of humans do the same - RAT theory looks for what rhythm tempo and timing that crime seems to occur

Social Change Over Time

- it is important to note that as society changes, our routine activities also change - this will ultimately reflect in the ebb and flow of criminal opportunities over time

Prosperity and Property Crime

- it seems counter intuitive but significant increases to prosperity in a society by the middle class can lead to higher levels of property crime - Cohen and Felson (1979) argued that during the 1940s to 1970s not only were Americans leaving their homes and entering the workforce, but they were also able to purchase expensive electronic goods and automobiles. - this theory suggests that is has less to do with motivated offenders and more to do with lack of guardianship and suitable targets

Poverty

- lack of resources needed to organize a community - weakens tax base, which weakens resources and creates an inability to deal with local problems

Why is it called Routine Activities?

- many times the behavior of offenders is not often distinguishable from that of nonoffenders -**before a crime, nothing particularly special, illegal, or even suspicious about normal routines of offenders can alert someone to prevent it from happening** - instead, in order to prevent crime, we must alter one, tow, or all three of the characteristics of routine activities theory

Critiques of RAT

- motivation is ubiquitous (doesn't change), so who cares? - studies have shown that greater leisure time leads to crime, regardless of the target or guardianship (idle hands make the devil's work) - RAT is a "victim-blaming" theory - the theory does suggest that victims can facilitate or provoke their own victimization through their daily routines

How terror groups are organized

- newer organizations tend to be formed as networks: loosely organized groups located in different parts of a city, state, or country (or worldwide) - share a common theme but diverse leadership and command structure - networked groups can pull factions together for larger scale operations, such as an attack on a military HQ, or conversely, they can readily splinter off into smaller groups to avoid detection when a counterterrorism operation is under way

Racial/Ethnic Heterogeneity

- normally diversity is a good thing - but in early 1900's different races and ethnicities didn't trust each other or respect each other. they also all spoke different languages making it nearly impossible to help - this led to low levels of ties between neighbors and animosity toward each other

**the hear of the code is respect**

- respect cannot be achieved through educational or occupational pursuits, so it comes from being treated "right" - respect is hard-won but easily lost so must be constantly guarded - ** the code provides the framework for getting respect** - that framework emphasizes physicality, toughness, violence, and sexual prowess - seemingly small insults are treated as disrespect - must portray that you are capable of violence if the situation requires it - facial and verbal expressions, gait - have the clothes, jewelry, grooming that portrays you are respected (thus drug dealing "rational")

Origin of Social Disorganization Theory (SDT)

- rooted in the idea of Park and Burgess's Concentric Zone Theory - examined the implications of social forces such as, industrialization, urbanization, and immigration had for the social life in Chicago communities. -**Proposed that cities grew in concentric circles that expanded their area by the invasion and succession of the next outer zone resulting in the relocation of individuals and groups** - the city of Chicago grew from 4,000 to 2 million from 1830-1910 with huge industrialization and immigration influxes during this time

Development of SDT

- some people thought this theory was wrong because many it's not that a community is "disorganized", rather it's a that a community is organized differently - Edwin Sutherland (1947) created Differential Social Organization - DSO = some communities are "differently organized" creating a subculture that is conducive to criminal behavior - This means that this **Pro-criminal culture** is the cause of crime, not entirely the community or lack thereof - more recently, research has focused on how neighborhood's social ties to each other help regulate criminal activity

Zone in Transition

- the area of the city that takes in those that can't afford anything else while letting go of those that have enough money to leave. - areas of highest crime, most unsanitary, highest disease, most unattractive housing, etc. - nobody wants to live in these conditions, but the community can't (won't) do anything to improve it and the residents can't afford anything else. - this led to Shaw and McKay looking at the main factors in the Zone in Transition to understand what is driving crime in Chicago (and other big cities)

Residential Instability

- when people are constantly moving in and out of a neighborhood what happens? - anonymity helps criminals conceal identity - not having trust in neighbors prevents people from watching your property - not being invested in your home can lead to not trying to improve your neighborhood or taking ownership in your community

Internalization

-**culture theories take learning one step further by arguing that once values, beliefs, and behaviors are learned, they are next internalized** - this subscription to a unique set of values, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences creates a sense of group identification and conformity - subscribing to the unconventional is rewarded by the group while being punished/ostracized by the larger society

**Culture of Honor**

-**theory that argues violence is most common in places where the high value placed on honor has been least diffused by the hustle and bustle of modern life** - self-reliance attitudes, laws, and values would be strongest in these areas as well - Strong beliefs on citizens use of force in self-defense - As these areas evolve over the years, the most traditional would likely strive to "solidify the core" as a reaction to outside pressures to change their way of life.

Traditional Social Disorganization Model

-Low Socioeconomic Status (High Poverty)+ - High Ethnic Heterogeneity (High Ethnic Diversity)+ - High Residential Mobility+. Social Disorganization Crime+

DA Theory emphasizes two primary influences:

1. **Agents of Socialization - who does the teaching of the behavior - could be formal like a class, or informal like hanging out with others. 2. **Content of Socialization - what is the teaching that is going on? - techniques of crime like how to take a bong hit - or criminal values like to disrespect police or ignore the law

Types of Gang Subcultures

1. **Criminal Gang** - reacting to frustration from failure blame society (Strain) - need to have skills to justify profitable illegal activity (DA/Learning) - need to have skills like: self-control, loyalty, and desire to be better at crime 2. **Conflict Gang** - those that can't get into the "good" gangs end up here - lot of violent behavior, lack of role models and self-control 3. **Retreatist Gang** - largely characterized by drug use - turn to substances to escape from status frustration Main Critique: some people can be all three or none at the same time

Nine Proponents of DA Theory

1. **Criminal behavior is learned** 2. criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other people in a process of communication. 3. the principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups 4. when criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated and sometimes very simply, and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5. the specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of legal codes as favorable and unfavorable. 6. **a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law. ** 7. differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8. the process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns incorporates all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. 9. although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, because noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.

Learning Theories

1. Differential Association (Sutherland) 2. Social Learning (Akers) 3. Social Learning and Social Structure (Akers)

The Goals of Political Criminals

1. Intimidation 2. Revolution 3. Profit 4. Conviction 5. Pseudo-Conviction

Social Disorganization Theory

1. Macro Theory - focuses on the community/city/area 2. Assumes social organization leads to noncriminal society. - schools, churches, businesses, police, informal networks of friends and family and government will prevent crime when functioning normally 3. Crime in an area is not primarily due to defective people, but *happens in normal communities of normal people where larger social institutions have failed*

Contemporary Forms of Terrorism

1. Revolutionary Terrorism 2. Political Terrorism 3. Nationalist Terrorism 4. Retributive Terrorism 5. State-Sponsored Terrorism 6. Cult Terrorism

Both learning and cultural theories assume certain things:

1. crime is the result of social interaction 2. both criminal and noncriminal behaviors are thought to result from a combination of **socialization, particular circumstances, and group values**

Ways of Foreign Industrial Espionage

1. targeting U.S. firms for technology that would strengthen their own defenses. 2. posting personnel at U.S. military bases to steal classified information 3. Employing commercial firms in the U.S. in a cover to steal technology 4. Recruiting students, professors, scientists, and researchers to engage in technology collection 5. Making direct requests for classified, sensitive, or export-controlled information 6. Forming ventures with U.S. firms in the hope of placing them in proximity to sensitive technologies

Defining Terrorism

11,000 attacks occur in 83 countries Latin - terrere which means to frighten *Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.

How criminal behavior is learned

Akers argues that there are four major categories of how behavior is learned: **1. Differential Association - process by which a person is exposed to normative definitions favorable or unfavorable to criminal behavior - the greater the frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of the association, the greater the affect on the behavior. **2. Differential Reinforcement - the balance of anticipated or actual rewards or punishments that follow or are consequence of behavior - the more rewards, the greater the change of continuing. the more punishments, the less likely chance **3. Definitions - one's own attitudes or meaning that are attached to a given behavior. Rationalizations count here too. **4. Imitation - the engagement of behavior after the observation of similar behavior in others (only occurs initially)

Zealots

In some instances, a conquered people used force and violence to maintain their right to worship in their own faith *Hebrew warrior groups, were active during the Roman occupation of Palestine during the first century* many of these men carried out assassinations on Roman soldiers and sympathizers in broad daylight to send a message to the roman authorities One of Jesus' twelve apostles was named "Simon the Zealot"

Revolutionary

Latin revolutio, "a revolving" and revolvere, "turn, roll back" Generally seen as a civil war fought between nationalists and a sovereign power that holds control of the land, or between the existing government and local groups over issues of ideology and power. Some revolutions rely on armed force, terror activities, and violence, but others can be nonviolent, depending on large urban protests and threats

Examples of Election Fraud: Registration Fraud

Political operatives may try to shape the outcome of an election by busing ineligible voters or using dead peoples' social security numbers

Guerilla War

Spanish for "little war" terrorists have an urban focus and are often untrained and work in small bands, often targeting unarmed civilians. *are armed military bands, typically located in rural areas, that attack military, police, and government officials in an effort to destabilize the existing government.

Characteristics of more suitable targets

VIVA Value - the more value to the offender the more suitable Inertia - size and bulk of a target Visibility - the target's awareness by an offender Accessibility - cash vs. locked car/phone

Terrorism

a type of political crime in which the act must carry with it the intent to disrupt and change the government and must not be merely a common-law crime committed for greed or egotism

Treason

an act of disloyalty to one's nation or state. Although the word traitor is a generic term, there have been fewer than 40 prosecutions for treason in the entire history of the U.S. and most have resulted in acquittal

Examples of Election Fraud: Disruption

bomb threats or sabotage of polling places

Examples of Election Fraud: Vote Buying

buying absentee ballots from people in need of cash or offering rewards to other voters

Pseudo-Conviction

conceal their true motivation behind a mask of conviction. They may start a revolution to recruit members but have an alternate motive (like profit or power)

Insurgency

different than both guerilla warfare and terrorism. *The goal is to: confront the existing government for control of all or a portion of its territory, or force political concessions in sharing political power by competing with the opposition government for popular support. organized into covert groups who engage in an organized campaign of extreme violence, which may falsely appear to be random and indiscriminate, such as causing the death of innocents, but has a distinct political agenda

*Political Terrorism*

directed at people or groups who oppose the terrorists' political ideology or whom the terrorists define as "outsiders" who must be destroyed. Political terrorists may not want to replace the existing government but to shape it so that is accepts the terrorists' views

Examples of Election Fraud: Misinformation

flyers are sent out to voters with the opposing party containing misleading information

Waterboarding

involves immobilizing a person on his/her back, with the head inclined downward, and pouring water over the face and into the breathing passages. Torture or interrogation technique?

International Terrorism

involving citizens or the territory of more than on country

Espionage

more commonly called "spying" is the practice of obtaining information about a government, organization, or society that is considered secret or confidential without the permission of the holder of the information. it involves obtaining the information illegally by covertly entering the area where the information is stored, secretly photographing forbidden areas, or subverting through threat or payoff people who know the information Also can be industrial in nature Shanshan Du Joined GM in 2000 and was secretly giving her husband files to try and sell a private hybrid tech company in china the plan was foiled by federal agents before he could peddle the information worth an estimated $40million

*Left-Wing Political Groups*

more popular in the turmoil of the 1960s, challenging the existing power structure Ex: Black Panther Party, Students for Democratic Society, the Weathermen Multiple corporation and federal bombings in the 1960s by the Weathermen

Terror Cells

most groups subdivide their affiliates into terror cells for both organizational and security purposes. To enhance security, each cell may be functionally independent so that each member has little knowledge of other cells, their members, locations, and so on. However, individual cell members provide emotional support to one another and maintain loyalty and dedication Since only a cell leader knows how to communicate with other cells and/or a central command, capture of one cell won't compromise other group members

Torture

most notorious of all state political crimes some experts argue that torture can sometimes be justified in what they call the *ticking bomb scenario*: suppose the government found out that a captured terrorist knew the whereabouts of a dangerous explosive that was set to go off and kill thousands. Do we torture one person if it saved thousands?

Conviction

motivated by truly believing that the crimes will benefit a group of society and are willing to violate the law and risk punishment to achieve what they see as social improvement

*State-Sponsored Terrorism*

occurs when a repressive government regime forces its citizens into obedience, oppresses minorities, and stifles political dissent. - death squads and use of military troops to destroy opposition are forms of political terrorism - countries known for encouraging violent control of dissents include Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Peru, Iraq, Sudan, Syria, Libya, etc.

Revolution

plotting to overthrow the existing government and replace it with one more similar to their views.

*Nationalist Terrorism*

promotes the interests of a minority ethnic or religious group that believes it has been persecuted under majority rule and wishes to carve out its own independent homeland Spain = Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) Middle East = Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)...more recently Hamas Lebanon = Hezbollah Russia = Chechen Rebels Ireland = Irish Republican Army (IRA)

Place over People

research has found patterns suggesting that *the environment in which individuals reside can have a profound impact on whether they engage in criminal behavior or not*

Examples of Election Fraud: Intimidation

scaring voters away from the polls through threats or intimidation

Profit

selling state secrets for personal enrichment or trafficking in stolen arms and ammunitions

State Political Crime

some political crimes are committed by people who oppose the state, whereas others are perpetrated by the state themselves against the people they are supposed to serve. critical criminologists are the most likely to argue that political crimes arise from the efforts of the state to maintain their power and uphold their own advantages. According to critical criminologists, the state will do everything to protect the property rights of the wealthy while opposing the interest of the poor.

*Right-Wing Political Groups*

tend to be heavily armed groups organized around themes like white supremacy, anti-abortion, militant tax resistance, and religious revisionism. ex: Aryan Republican Army, Aryan Nation, Posse Comitatus, and KKK 168 killed in OKC in 1995

Political Crime

term used to signify illegal acts that are designed to undermine an existing government and threaten its survival. These crimes can include both violent and nonviolent acts and range in seriousness from dissent, treason, and espionage to terrorism and assassination.

Religious Roots

the first terrorist activities were committed by members of minority religious groups who engaged in violence to *1. gain the right to practice their own form of religions 2. Establish the supremacy of their own religion over others 3. Meet the requirements of the blood-thirsty gods they worshiped*

Election Fraud

the illegal interference with the process of an election. These acts tend to involve affecting vote counts to bring about a desired election outcome, whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidate, or both

Learning theories emphasize:

the process in which criminal behavior is **Observed, learned, and carried out**

Cultural theories emphasize

the same but focus more on group values (which are shaped from one generation to the next by learning) that encourage and condone crime

*Revolutionary Terrorism*

these terrorists use violence to frighten those in power and their supporters in order to replace the existing government with a regime that holds acceptable political or religious views. Kidnapping, assassination, and bombing are designed to draw repressive responses from governments One example of this, *Jemaah Islamiyah*, an Indonesian terrorist organization aligned with al-Qaeda, is believed to be intent on driving away foreign tourists and ruining the nation's economy so they can usurp the government and set up a pan-Islamic nation in Indonesia

Intimidation

threatening an opponent who does not share the same political orientation or views

Foreign Industrial Espionage

when foreign agents try to steal information from biotechnology, aerospace, telecommunications, computer software, transportation, advanced materials, energy research, defense, and semiconductor companies. can undercut the U.S. military advantage as well as the U.S. economy

Political Roots

when rulers had absolute power, *terrorist acts were viewed as one of the only means of gaining political rights* Queen Elizabeth I empowered her naval leaders like John Hawkins and Francis Drake, to attack the Spanish fleet and take prizes. These men would have otherwise been considered pirates but had English government approval. American privateers attacked the British during the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 and were considered heroes for their actions against the English Navy

*Retributive Terrorism*

would rather impose their social and religious code on others - violence is a method of influence, persuasion, or intimidation - unconventional military tactics are used like secrecy and surprise - Four main groups: 1. Al-Qaeda/ISIS 2. Groups that have adopted Al-Qaeda/ISIS worldview and concept of mass-casualty terrorist attacks 3. Violent Islamist and non-Islamist terrorist and insurgent groups without known links to Al-Qaeda (Hezbollah and Hamas) 4. Combination of terrorism and organized crime, including the terrorists and insurgents that use criminal organizations and connections to finance their activities.