Criminology Mid-Term
_____ determinism is the belief that much of human behavior results from forces outside the individual's control. A.Soft B.Positivist C. Classical D.Hard
B. Positivist
The first state to pass a "three strikes" law was A. California. B. Illinois. C. Florida. D. New York.
A. California
Crime is a social construction
true
Rational choice theories have been criticized for failing to consider the role of social factors in the causation of crime. True False
true
Under the development of the Classical School, crime came to be explained as a spiritual shortcoming. True False
false
***Biosocial criminologists explain gender differences in criminal involvement by arguing that there is something about gender itself that is responsible for the observed differences. T/F
***True
**Wilson and Herrnstein claimed that individuals commit more crimes as they get older T/F
**False
Which of the following probably will not result in disengagement? A) A child watches a violent television show every day after school B) A child is caught vandalizing her teacher's car and blames it on her teacher's unfair attitude towards him in class C) A child who is being bullied by a classmate reports the classmate's behavior to the school principal D) A child beats up a classmate and is praised by his father for his aggressive behavior
A) A child watches a violent television show every day after school
Atavism implies the notion that criminals A) Are born as criminals. B) Learn to be criminals from their parents. C) Learn to be criminals from influential peers. D) Become criminals out of personal choice.
A) Are born as criminals.
Which of the following crimes was not one of the original seven UCR Part I offenses? A) Arson B) Robbery C) Burglary D) Aggravated assault
A) Arson
________ adaptation occurs when crime leads to stress reduction as a result of internal changes in value systems and beliefs. A) Alloplastic B) Alphaplastic C) Antiplastic D) Autoplastic
A) Autoplastic
______ theory involves the study of human perceptions and decision making. A) Cognitive information-processing B) Psychoanalytic C) Social cognition D) Behavior
A) Cognitive information-processing
Which of the following is not a characteristic of a psychotic individual? A) Compulsive and obsessive behavior B) Marked inefficiency in getting along with others and caring for oneself C) A grossly distorted conception of reality D) Inappropriate moods and mood swings
A) Compulsive and obsessive behavior
The purpose of the Human Genome Project was to determine the complete sequence of A) DNA. B) RNA. C) XYY. D) MAOA.
A) DNA.
A shoplifter who claims she is not really a criminal because "no one really got hurtʺ and ʺthe shop can afford itʺ is employing the ________ technique of neutralization. A) Denying injury B) Denying responsibility C) Denying the victim D) Condemning the condemners
A) Denying injury
Social structure theories see ________ as a fundamental cause of crime. A) Economic and social disenfranchisement B) A lack of self-control C) The strength of the social bond D) The nature of existing power relationships between social groups
A) Economic and social disenfranchisement
The ________ movement in the 1880s-1900s was opposed by most members within the criminology field. A) Eugenics B) Biological C) Psychological D) Trait theory
A) Eugenics
A central concern with almost all early biological theories focus on the concept of A) Free-will. B) Traits. C) Characteristics. D) None of the above
A) Free-will
Chromosomes are bundles of A) Genes. B) Traits. C) DNA. D) All of the above.
A) Genes.
The concentric zone research conducted by Park and Burgess identified Zone ________ as being in transition. A) II B) III C) IV D) V
A) II
The ________ is a largely unconscious region of the mind. A) Id B) Ego C) Superego D) Thanatos
A) Id
Why is criminal history not considered a criminogenic need? A) It is a static element not amenable to change. B) It is not associated with rates of recidivism. C) It is not a risk factor for continuing criminality. D) None of the above — criminal history is a criminogenic need.
A) It is a static element not amenable to change.
Which of the following is a critique of Freudian theory? A) Its lack of scientific support B) Its failure to consider social and environmental factors that produce crime C) It ignores the role of cognition in human behavior D) It lacks comprehensive explanatory power
A) Its lack of scientific support
If human behavior has a substantial heritable component, which of the following results would you expect from a study of twins? A) MZ twins would display more similarity in behavioral characteristics than DZ twins. B) DZ twins would display more similarity in behavioral characteristics than MZ twins. C) Non-twin siblings would display more similarity in behavioral characteristics than twins. D) Twins separated at birth would display more similarity in behavioral characteristics than those raised together
A) MZ twins would display more similarity in behavioral characteristics than DZ twins
The central defining characteristic of a psychopath is A) Poverty of affect. B) A poorly developed superego. C) Neuroticism. D) Lack of self-control
A) Poverty of affect.
The concept of ________ involves an individual openly rejecting what he wants but cannot achieve. A) Reaction formation B) Middle class measuring rod C) Relative deprivation D) Conduct norms
A) Reaction formation
Which type of psychopath is also known as a sociopath? A) Secondary psychopath B) Distempered psychopath C) Charismatic psychopath D) Primary psychopath
A) Secondary psychopath
Researchers discovered aggressive behavior in men may be influenced by high testosterone levels combined with low brain levels of the neurotransmitter A) Serotonin. B) Endorphins. C) Dopamine. D) Virodhamine.
A) Serotonin.
Relative deprivation theory was proposed by A) Steven F. Messner and Richard Rosenfeld. B) Robert K. Merton. C) Robert Agnew. D) Emile Durkheim.
A) Steven F. Messner and Richard Rosenfeld
Which of the following is not one of the three laws in Gabriel Tardeʹs theory of human behavior? A) Suggestibility is a key cause of criminal behavior. B) Individuals in close intimate contact with one another tend to imitate each other's behavior. C) Imitation moves from the top down. D) New acts and behaviors tend to reinforce or replace others
A) Suggestibility is a key cause of criminal behavior.
According to some attachment theorists, what is the single most important factor leading to conformity? A) The development of empathy B) Poverty of affect C) Disengagement D) The development of scripts
A) The development of empathy
According to general strain theory, which of these situations is not one in which strain occurs? A) The intentional presentation or threatened presentation of positively valued stimuli B) Situations in which individuals actively prevent another person from achieving positively valued goals C) The intentional removal or threatened removal of something that is positively valued D) The presentation or threatened presentation of negatively valued stimuli
A) The intentional presentation or threatened presentation of positively valued stimuli
The eugenics movement called for A) The sterilization of mentally handicapped women. B) The sterilization of convicted criminals. C) The execution of convicted criminals. D) None of the above
A) The sterilization of mentally handicapped women.
A large ________ study was begun in 1968 by European researchers Karl O. Christiansen and Sarnoff Mednick. A) Twin B) Noble C) Trait D) Scientific
A) Twin
A possible psychogenic cause of antisocial personality disorder is A) a low state of arousal. B) a malfunction of some inhibitory mechanisms. C) a separation from the mother during the first six months of life. D) None of the above.
A) a low state of arousal.
Research suggests that high dietary intake of ________ by pregnant women may be related to higher IQ levels among children. A) omega-3 fatty acids B) monosodium glutamate C) vitamin B-3 D) placebos Page Ref: 64
A) omega-3 fatty acids
Sherman's research found that about ________ percent of places in Minneapolis produced about ________ percent of all calls to the police. A) 3, 25 B) 3, 50 C) 5, 50 D) 5, 75
B) 3, 50
According to Cleckley, one characteristic of the psychopathic personality is A) An ability to learn from experience. B) An inability to feel guilt or shame. C) Delusions or hallucinations. D) A distinct life plan
B) An inability to feel guilt or shame.
_______ attachment results in feelings of uncertainty which cause the child to feel anxious, to become fearful of its environment, and to cling to potential caregivers. A) Anxious-avoidant B) Anxious-resistant C) Secure D) Insecure
B) Anxious-resistant
Which of the following was not listed by Wilson and Herrnstein as contributing to crime? A) Age B) Brain structure C) Intelligence D) Personality
B) Brain structure
_______ is based on the belief that offenders need to acquire better social skills in order to become more prosocial A) Selective incapacitation B) Cognitive behavioral intervention C) Correctional psychology D) The risk-need-responsivity model
B) Cognitive behavioral intervention
The ________ perspective is most applicable to homogeneous societies. A) Legalistic B) Consensus C) Pluralist D) Political
B) Consensus
psychology is concerned with the rehabilitation of law violators. A) Forensic B) Correctional C) Psychoanalytic D) Criminal
B) Correctional
Which of the following is not one of Franz Joseph Gall's main themes? A) The brain is the organ of the mind. B) Criminal behavior is due to atavism. C) The shape of the skull corresponds to the underlying shape of the brain. D) Particular aspects of personality are associated with specific brain locations.
B) Criminal behavior is due to atavism.
According to Lombroso, ________ were occasional criminals who were pulled into breaking the law by virtue of environmental influences. A) Born criminals B) Criminaloids C) The insane D) Criminals incited by passion
B) Criminaloids
According to Avshalom Caspi and Terrie Moffitt, what is the effect of deficient MAOA activity on children? A) Deficient MAOA activity may predispose children to adult violence. B) Deficient MAOA activity may predispose maltreated children to adult violence. C) Deficient MAOA activity may reduce the risk of adult violence among maltreated children. D) Deficient MAOA activity has no effect on children.
B) Deficient MAOA activity may predispose maltreated children to adult violence.
________ is human activity that violates social norms. A) Crime B) Deviant behavior C) Cruelty D) Adaptive behavior
B) Deviant behavior
The social pathology model was used by early social ________ theorists. A) Conflict B) Ecology C) Process D) Development
B) Ecology
______ argues that the propensity for crime commission evolved as part of the male reproductive strategy and a particular neurochemistry characteristic of males increases the probability of male criminality. A) Neuroplasticity theory B) Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory C) The gender ratio problem D) Epigenetics
B) Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory
Walter Miller identified six key values, or ________, which are considered important by members of a delinquent subculture. A) Cultural norms B) Focal concerns C) Culture conduct D) Conduct norms
B) Focal concerns
________ developed the theory of phrenology. A) Konrad Lorenz B) Franz Joseph Gall C) Johann Gaspar Spurzheim
B) Franz Joseph Gall
________ was one of the first Western writers to firmly locate the roots of personality in the brain. A) Raffael Garofalo B) Franz Joseph Gall C) Francis Galton D) Johann Gaspar Spurzheim
B) Franz Joseph Gall
Which of the following is an example of a positive reward? A) Allowing a good child to skip some chores B) Giving a good child an extra piece of cake C) Spanking a bad child D) Taking a favorite toy away from a bad child
B) Giving a good child an extra piece of cake
According to relative deprivation theory, ________ can be blamed for most crime. A) Socialization into a violent subculture B) Inconsistencies in the ability to achieve the American Dream C) Growing up in a transitional neighborhood D) Being held to a middle class measuring rod
B) Inconsistencies in the ability to achieve the American Dream
Which of the following is a criticism of modeling theory? A) It ignores the role cognition plays in human behavior B) It lacks comprehensive explanatory power C) It lacks scientific support D) The elements of the theory have not been put into a wider context for society as a whole
B) It lacks comprehensive explanatory power
Which of the following is not a criticism of the ecological school? A) It seems to be unable to differentiate between a condition and the things a condition is said to cause B) It lacks explanatory power and appears to be tautological C) It gives too much credence to the idea that spatial location determines crime D) It does not explain crimes that occur outside socially disorganized communities
B) It lacks explanatory power and appears to be tautological
Which of the following crimes is not a Part I offense of the Uniform Crime Report? A) Robbery B) Kidnapping C) Arson D) Motor vehicle theft
B) Kidnapping
According to the NCVS, ________ is the least likely crime to be reported to the police. A) Arson B) Larceny C) Motor vehicle theft D) Burglary
B) Larceny
What is the effect of stress on brain structure? A) Stress does not have any effect on brain structure. B) Long-term exposure to high-level stress can reduce cognition. C) Long-term exposure to low-level stress can produce neuroplasticity. D) Short-term exposure to stress can increase brain development.
B) Long-term exposure to high-level stress can reduce cognition.
The Bureau of Justice Statistics is responsible for the A) Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program. B) National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). C) National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS). D) All of the above.
B) National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).
________ are the chemicals that facilitate the flow of electrical impulses from one neuron to the next across nerve synapses; and the presence or absence of both serotonin and noradrenaline have been linked to aggressive behavior in human beings. A) Gene B) Neurotransmitters C) Epigenetics D) Eugenics
B) Neurotransmitters
Which of Eysenck's personality dimensions is most closely correlated with criminality at all stages? A) Neuroticism B) Psychoticism C) Introversion/extraversion D) They are all equally correlated with criminality
B) Psychoticism
Culture conflict theories have been criticized for being A) Less applicable to modern society. B) Racist. C) Too focused on the spatial distribution of crime. D) None of the above.
B) Racist.
Differential opportunity theory was developed by A) Franco Ferracuti and Marvin Wolfgang. B) Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin. C) Albert Cohen. D) Walter Miller.
B) Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin.
A clash between middle-class values and lower-class norms would result in ________ culture conflict. A) Primary B) Secondary C) Tertiary D) None of the above
B) Secondary
David Fergusson and colleagues found that children whose mothers ________ during pregnancy had higher rates of conduct disorder symptoms. A) Used alcohol B) Smoked cigarettes C) Abused drugs D) All of the above
B) Smoked cigarettes
________ theories suggest that crime is the end product of factors such as inappropriate socialization and social learning. A) Social structure B) Social process C) Conflict D) Radical-Marxist
B) Social process
The Standard Social Science Model assumes that humans acquire values and behavior patterns through A) Instinct. B) Socialization. C) Heritability. D) Epigenesis.
B) Socialization.
Which of the following types of strain is most likely to cause crime? A) Strains perceived as low in magnitude B) Strain associated with high levels of self -control C) Strains that are perceived as just or reasonable D) Strains that create an incentive to engage in criminal coping
B) Strain associated with high levels of self -control
Individuals suffering from poor ________ development are likely to seek immediate gratification without considering the long-term consequences of their choices. A) Ego B) Superego C) Unconscious D) Id
B) Superego
A term used to describe a male offender with XYY chromosome is A) Alter ego offender. B) Supermale. C) Criminal chromosome. D) Juvenile offender.
B) Supermale.
Which of the following is not one of the early signs or indicators of psychopathy? A) Bed-wetting B) Teenage pregnancy C) Cruelty to animals D) Fire setting
B) Teenage pregnancy
Which of the following is not one of the three components of the personality? A) The ego B) The Thanatos C) The id D) The superego
B) The Thanatos
As changes in society have increased opportunities for women to commit traditionally male crimes, what has happened to the gender gap? A) The size of the gender gap has decreased significantly as the proportion of crimes committed by women has greatly increased. B) The size of the gender gap has not changed significantly. C) The size of the gender gap has decreased but only slightly as women are just starting to commit more crimes. D) The size of the gender gap has increased as the proportion of crimes committed by women has decreased.
B) The size of the gender gap has not changed significantly.
According to moral development theory, when are people likely to turn to crime? A) They learn to shift back and forth between developmental stages of moral reasoning. B) They cannot successfully transition between developmental stages of moral reasoning. C) They learn to appreciate the needs and interests of others. D) They develop moral relativism.
B) They cannot successfully transition between
The culture conflict perspective was most clearly expressed by A) Robert Merton. B) Thorsten Sellin. C) Lloyd Ohlin. D) Walter B. Miller.
B) Thorsten Sellin.
The unusual genetic makeup of ________ is known as Klinefelterʹs syndrome. A) XYY B) XXY C) XXX D) YYY
B) XXY
According to Merton, an innovator A) accepts both the legitimate goals and the socially approved means of acquiring those goals. B) accepts the legitimate goals but rejects the socially approved means of acquiring those goals. C) rejects legitimate goals and but accepts socially approved means. D) rejects both the legitimate goals and the socially approved means of acquiring those goals.
B) accepts the legitimate goals but rejects the socially approved means of acquiring those goals.
Sigmund Freud suggested that aggressive behavior is a natural response to A) anger. B) frustration. C) psychosis. D) neurosis.
B) frustration.
The relationship between testosterone and aggressive behavior in young males appears to be moderated by A) age. B) the social environment. C) genetics. D) prenatal substance abuse
B) the social environment.
The nothing works doctrine was based on the work of A. James Q. Wilson. B. Robert Martinson. C. David Fogel. D. Lawrence Cohen.
B. Robert Martinson
According to Terrie Moffitt, about what percentage of population variation in antisocial behavior is influenced by genes? A) 20%-25% B) 5%-10% C) 40%-50% D) 90%-100%
C) 40%-50%
Which of the following is an example of the technique of neutralization known as the metaphor of the ledger? A) An individual claims that "everybody does it" B) An individual claims that she has special privileges that make her behavior acceptable C) A individual claims that he has been very good recently and is entitled to indulge in misbehavior D) An individual claims that his background of poverty and child abuse causes him to engage in criminal behavior
C) A individual claims that he has been very good recently and is entitled to indulge in misbehavior
The individual best known for his work on behavior theory is A) Michael Gottfredson. B) Ivan Pavlov. C) B.F. Skinner. D) Albert Bandura.
C) B.F. Skinner.
conducted a study of Lombrosoʹ's theory and concluded that it was fundamentally unsound. A) Sigmund Freud B) Earnest Hooton C) Charles Goring D) William Sheldon
C) Charles Goring
Early ecological theories of crime were collectively referred to as the ________ School of Criminology. A) Classical B) Positivist C) Chicago D) New York
C) Chicago
The proportion of reported or discovered crime within a given offense category which is solved by the police is known as the ________ rate. A) Arrest B) Index C) Clearance D) Indictment
C) Clearance
are expectations for human behavior within a social group. A) Techniques of neutralization B) Modes of adaptation C) Conduct norms D) Middle class measuring rods
C) Conduct norms
According to Merton, which mode of adaptation typifies most middle - and upper-class individuals? A) Retreatism B) Ritualism C) Conformity D) Innovation
C) Conformity
According to Merton, which of the following would not be a socially approved means to achieving legitimate goals? A) Education B) Hard work C) Criminal activity D) Financial savings
C) Criminal activity
According to Anthony Walsh, biosocial perspectives are theories of A) Crime. B) Violence. C) Criminality. D) Victimization.
C) Criminality.
Genes are made of ________ and carry coded instructions for making everything the body needs. A) Traits B) Chromosomes C) DNA D) All of the above
C) DNA
Which of the following is not a characteristic of the charismatic psychopath? A) Charming B) Habitual liar C) Easily offended D) Attractive
C) Easily offended
The term sociobiology was coined by A) Cesare Lombroso. B) Franz Joseph Gall. C) Edward O. Wilson. D) Auguste Comte.
C) Edward O. Wilson.
The study of the chemical reactions that occur within a genome, and that switch parts of the genome on or off at strategic times and locations, is referred to as A) Genealogy. B) Positivism. C) Epigenetics. D) Eugenics.
C) Epigenetics.
The concept of luck or of being lucky relates to the focal concern A) Excitement. B) Autonomy. C) Fate. D) Smartness.
C) Fate.
In his study of the Kallikak family, Goddard concluded that a tendency toward ________was inherited. A) Criminality B) Degeneracy C) Feeblemindedness D) Alcoholism
C) Feeblemindedness
The ________ is a perspective that refers to physical changes in certain parts of the brain to explain criminality. A) Rear brain hypothesis B) Eugenic hypothesis C) Frontal brain hypothesis D) None of the above
C) Frontal brain hypothesis
Studies such as those focusing on the Juke and Kallikak families suggest that criminal tendencies are ________ based. A) Environmentally B) Ecologically C) Genetically D) Psychologically
C) Genetically
The category of crimes in NIBRS which corresponds most closely to the UCR Part I offenses is A) Part I crimes. B) NIBRS key crimes. C) Group A offenses. D) None of the above
C) Group A offenses.
Which of the following is not a key assumption of biological theories? A) The brain is the locus of personality. B) A tendency toward crime may be inherited. C) Human behavior is controlled by free will. D) Some humans are further along the evolutionary ladder than others.
C) Human behavior is controlled by free will.
The most important contribution made by the ecological school is A) Its claim that people age out of crime. B) The concept of the existence of deviant subcultures. C) Its claim that the community has a significant influence on behavior. D) The development of techniques of neutralization.
C) Its claim that the community has a significant influence on behavior.
brought phrenological theory to the United States and helped to spread its influence. A) Franz Joseph Gall B) Konrad Lorenz C) Johann Spurzheim D) Cesare Lombroso
C) Johann Spurzheim
According to William Sheldon, ________ have the greatest likelihood of becoming criminal offenders. A) Ectomorphs B) Endomorphs C) Mesomorphs D) Cyclothmorphs
C) Mesomorphs
Which of the following is not one of the key identifiable features of a delinquent subculture, according to Cloward and Ohlin? A) Acts of delinquency that reflect subcultural support recur with great frequency B) Access to a successful career sometimes results from participation in a delinquent subculture C) Participation revolves around an attempt to seek high status through the use of violence D) The delinquent subculture gives its members a high degree of stability and resistance to control or change
C) Participation revolves around an attempt to seek high status through the use of violence
According to differential opportunity theory, drug use predominates in the ________ delinquent subculture. A) Criminal B) Conflict C) Retreatist D) Deviant
C) Retreatist
According to Merton, the ________ mode of adaptation involves rejecting culturally defined goals but accepting socially approved means. A) Conformity B) Innovation C) Ritualism D) Retreatism
C) Ritualism
According to John Bowlby, ________ attachment is a healthy form of attachment. A) Anxious-avoidant B) Anxious-resistant C) Secure D) Insecure
C) Secure
______ is/are known as the behavior-regulating chemical. A) Endorphins B) Norepinephrine C) Serotonin D) Neurotransmitters
C) Serotonin
________ selection is a form of natural selection which influences an individual's ability to attain or choose a mate. A) Conventional B) Biological C) Sexual D) Criminal
C) Sexual
Which of the following is not a type of social structure theory? A) Strain theory B) Culture conflict theory C) Social control theory D) Social disorganization theory
C) Social control theory
According to Freud, the ________ develops into a moral guide to right and wrong. A) Id B) Ego C) Superego D) Unconscious
C) Superego
According to sociobiologists, much of the conflict among humans is explained by A) Evolution. B) Eugenics. C) Territoriality. D) Monozygosis
C) Territoriality.
According to research on crime patterns in concentric zones, what will happen to rates of offending as different groups move in and out of the zone of transition? A) The crime rate will increase. B) The crime rate will decrease. C) The crime rate will say about the same. D) We do not know what will happen.
C) The crime rate will say about the same.
How does behavior theory differ from other psychological theories? A) The major determinants of behavior are seen as co-existing in the individual and the environment. B) The major determinants of behavior are seen as existing in the individual. C) The major determinants of behavior are seen as existing in the environment. D) There is no major difference.
C) The major determinants of behavior are seen as existing in the environment.
Which of the following is NOT a critique of biological and biosocial theories of criminality? A) They may be racially biased. B) They cannot explain why crime rates change over time. C) They fail to include elements of the social environment. D) They fail to accurately predict criminality while claiming to understand its causes.
C) They fail to include elements of the social environment
According to Adrian Raine, by examining the brains of children as young as ________ years of age, criminologists could already see signs indicating the potential for troubled behavior in the future based on neurological links between the organism, social factors, and criminal behavior. A) Ten B) Eight C) Three D) Five
C) Three
Which of the following statements would not apply to Starks theory of deviant neighborhoods? A) More crowded homes result in reduced levels of supervision of children. B) Poor, densely-populated neighborhoods tend to be mixed-use. C) When homes are more crowded, people tend to congregate in the home rather than outside the home. D) Lower levels of child supervision results in poor school achievement and increased deviance.
C) When homes are more crowded, people tend to congregate in the home rather than outside the home.
Who are the theorists of situational choice theory? A. Liebman and Fagan B. Sykes and Matza C. Clarke and Cornish D. Beccaria and Bentham
C. Clarke and Cornish
Bentham's approach is known as A.The rational choice school. B.Just deserts. C.Hedonistic calculus. D.Positivism.
C. Hedonistic Calculus
An offender convicted of ________ is most likely to have a low level of serotonin in the brain A) Bank robbery B) Insider trading C) Planned burglary D) A crime of passion
D) A crime of passion_
Which of the following is not a form of psychopathology? A) Depression B) Schizophrenia C) Alcoholism D) All of the above are forms of psychopathology.
D) All of the above are forms of psychopathology.
Which of the following foods has not been implicated in the production of criminal violence or antisocial behavior? A) Food additives B) Coffee C) Sugar D) All of the above may possibly trigger antisocial behavior or criminal violence.
D) All of the above may possibly trigger antisocial behavior or criminal violence.
Based on Bandura's theory, which of the following events might provoke aggression? A) An individual is physically assaulted B) An individual's attempts to achieve a goal are obstructed C) An individual is verbally threatened D) All of the above might provoke aggression.
D) All of the above might provoke aggression.
Criminologists work for A) Universities and other academic institutions. B) Federal research agencies. C) Private research organizations. D) All of the above.
D) All of the above.
According to Avshalom Caspi and Terrie Moffitt, childhood maltreatment appears to be a universal risk factor for ________ in adulthood. A) Psychopathy B) Depression C) Obsessive Compulsive Disorder D) Antisocial behavior
D) Antisocial behavior
The term atavism was coined by which of the following individuals? A) John Laub B) Jeremy Bentham C) Robert Merton D) Cesare Lombroso
D) Cesare Lombroso
Claiming that the authorities are responsible for their own victimization is an example of the ________ technique of neutralization. A) Denying injury B) Denying responsibility C) Denying the victim D) Condemning the condemners
D) Condemning the condemners
______ theories suggest that crime is the result of class struggle. A) Social structure B) Social process C) Social development D) Conflict
D) Conflict
Which of the following is not one of Miller's focal concerns? A) Trouble B) Toughness C) Autonomy D) Control
D) Control
According to Dollard, ________ is violence directed against something or someone who is not the source of the original frustration. A) Repression B) Catharsis C) Transference D) Displacement
D) Displacement
The book The Code of the Street was written by A) Albert Cohen. B) Thorsten Sellin. C) David Matza. D) Elijah Anderson.
D) Elijah Anderson.
Who was the first western scientist to study heredity? A) Edward Wilson B) Sigmund Freud C) Charles Darwin D) Francis Galton
D) Francis Galton
According to ________, crime is the result of fundamental personality characteristics, or traits, which are largely inherited. A) Robert Hare B) Philippe Pinel C) James McDaniel D) Hans Eysenck
D) Hans Eysenck
Which of the following was not one of the objectives of the Chicago Area Project? A) Involve project members in the lives of troubled youth B) Provide recreational opportunities for youth C) Improve the physical appearance of poor neighborhoods D) Increase job and educational opportunities for delinquents
D) Increase job and educational opportunities for delinquents
Which of the following is not one of the assumptions on which most sociological perspectives of crime causation are built? A) Social groups, institutions, and rules, as well as the arrangements of society, all provide the proper focus for criminological study. B) The structure of society and its relative degree of organization or disorganization are important factors contributing to the prevalence of criminal behavior. C) Group dynamics, group organization, and subgroup relationships form the causal nexus out of which crime develops. D) It is generally possible to predict the specific behavior of an individual member of a given group.
D) It is generally possible to predict the specific behavior of an individual member of a given group.
Which of the following is not a behavior pattern or characteristic of individuals suffering from antisocial personality disorder? A) A tendency to blame others for their behavior B) Selfishness and impulsivity C) A low tolerance to frustration D) Loyalty to groups or individuals
D) Loyalty to groups or individuals
Taking away an offender's freedom by incarcerating him is an example of a A) Positive reward. B) Negative reward. C) Positive punishment. D) Negative punishment.
D) Negative punishment.
Which term is also referred to as brain plasticity or cortical plasticity? A) Forebrain B) Cerebral Cortex C) Frontal brain D) Neuroplasticity
D) Neuroplasticity
______ behavior operates on the environment to produce consequences for the individual. A) Self-controlled B) Modeling C) Psychotic D) Operant
D) Operant
According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the id conforms to the A) Morality and conscience. B) Unconscious mind. C) Reality principle. D) Pleasure principle.
D) Pleasure principle.
A ________ psychopath is neurologically different from other people A) Secondary B) Distempered C) Charismatic D) Primary
D) Primary
________ helps police investigators better understand people wanted for serious crimes. A) Sublimation B) Selective incapacitation C) Deterrence D) Psychological profiling
D) Psychological profiling
General strain theory was developed by A) Robert Merton. B) Lloyd Ohlin. C) David Matza. D) Robert Agnew
D) Robert Agnew
Which researcher developed the Psychopathy Checklist (PCL)? A) Michael Stone B) Hervey Cleckley C) Robert Merton D) Robert Hare
D) Robert Hare
Which focal concern involves the ability to con or outsmart others? A) Excitement B) Toughness C) Autonomy D) Smartness
D) Smartness
The main goal of criminological research is to develop effective ________ based on scientific evidence. A) Clearance rates B) Reporting systems C) Integrated theories D) Social policies
D) Social policies
The case of Buck v. Bell endorsed A) Harsher prison sentences for XYY males. B) The use of the PMS defense by women. C) The development of a comprehensive biologically based crime prevention program. D) Social policies developed during the eugenics movement
D) Social policies developed during the eugenics movement
The systematic study of the biological basis of social behavior is known as A) Constitutional criminology. B) Eugenic criminology. C) Behavioral genetics. D) Sociobiology.
D) Sociobiology.
A formal written enactment of a legislative body is known as a A) Crime. B) Theory. C) Deviant act. D) Statute
D) Statute
Merton's strain theory stresses A) The idea that although criminal behavior is not inherited, tendencies toward criminal behavior are inherited. B) The importance of a person's early family environment in determining attitudes towards crime. C) The sexual maladjustments of people as a main source of crime. D) The idea that American society emphasizes common success goals without providing equal access to the means of obtaining them
D) The idea that American society emphasizes common success goals without providing equal access to the means of obtaining them
Which of the following is not one of the three elements included in Edwin Sutherland's definition of criminology? A) The process of breaking laws B) The process of making laws C) How we react to the breaking of laws D) The operation of the criminal justice system
D) The operation of the criminal justice system
The level of exposure to lead appears to be a reliable predictor of all but which of the following? A) The number of juvenile offenses B) The seriousness of juvenile offenses C) The number of adult offenses D) The seriousness of adult offenses
D) The seriousness of adult offenses
According to Gall, the shape of which body part can be used to predict criminality? A) Heart B) The feet C) The hands D) The skull
D) The skull
Which of the following was not part of Mobilization for Youth? A) Boycotts against schools B) Rent strikes against slum landlords C) Voter registration D) Welfare-to-work program
D) Welfare-to-work program
Which of the following was/were influenced by Beccaria's ideas? A. The Bill of Rights B.The U.S. Constitution C.The French penal code of 1791 D.All of the above
D. All of the above
The term "positivism" came from the writings of A) Cesare Lombroso. B) Charles Darwin. C) Franz Gall. D) Auguste Comte
D. Auguste Comte
The Seductions of Crime was written by A. Marcus Felson. B. James Q. Wilson. C. David Weisburd. D. Jack Katz.
D. Jack Katz.
Research by ________ found that a small number of chronic recidivists were responsible for a large majority of serious violent crime. A. Ronald V. Clarke B. Jack Katz C. Marcus Felson D.Marvin Wolfgang
D.Marvin Wolfgang
A negative punishment increases the frequency of unwanted behavior. T/F
False
A street family attempts to uphold decent family values T/F
False
According to Ellis and Walsh, there is likely to be a gene for criminal behavior T/F
False
According to Kohlberg's cognitive structural theory of morality, a preference for higher levels T/F
False
According to Park and Burgess, Zone III contained primarily single -family homes. T/F
False
According to William Sheldon, endomorphs are most likely to be criminals True False
False
According to the U.S. Department of Justice, the majority of defendants facing capital charges in federal courts are white. True False
False
Anger and fear are examples of positive affective states.T/F
False
Atavism implies that individuals learn to be criminals True False
False
Bentham felt that prisons should be built in isolated locations so that the sight of incarcerated offenders does not affect citizens. True False
False
Biological theories consider external forces to be the cause of behavior. True False
False
Biosocial perspectives are theories of crime rather than of criminality T/F
False
Both men and woman can have Klinefelter's Syndrome T/F
False
Cesare Beccaria considered punishment to be an end in itself. True False
False
Cesare Beccaria considered the purpose of punishment to be rehabilitation. True False
False
Charles Goring supported the theory of atavism True False
False
Compared to non-profilers, trained criminal profilers tend to much more accurately estimate offender characteristics and motives based on information about their crimes. T/F
False
Conflict theories suggest that crime results from inappropriate socialization and social learning. T/F
False
Constitutional theories explain criminality by using atavism True False
False
Countercultures generally conform to the parameters of the surrounding cultureT/F
False
Criminaloids are offenders who have surrendered to intense emotions and commit crimes of passion True False
False
Criminology focuses on the causes of crime and does not consider possible solutions to the crime problem.
False
Cultural changes in our society have resulted in a significant increase in female involvement T/F
False
Cultural deviance theory emphasizes frustration as a key cause of criminal behavior.T/F
False
Dizygotic twins develop from the same fertilized egg T/F
False
Drug use in contemporary society is a modern-day example of primary conflict.T/F
False
Essay on Crimes and Punishments was written by Jeremy Bentham. True False
False
Females with ASPD exhibit different characteristics than their male counterparts. T/F
False
Fluctuations in female hormones are not related to crime T/F
False
Forensic psychologists are medical doctors. T/F
False
Genes cause human action T/F
False
Goddard concluded that criminality was inherited True False
False
In general, recidivism rates in the United States are fairly low. True False
False
In the modern-day criminal justice system, punishments are swiftly imposed. True False
False
Increases in social cohesion are associated with increases in violent crimeT/F
False
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation was authored by Beccaria. True False
False
Jeremy Bentham advocated extreme and cruel punishments. True False
False
Personality theory emphasizes behavioral conditioning. T/F
False
Psychological theories suggest that normality is defined by a small group of individuals wielding political power. T/F
False
Recent research suggests that the death penalty is an effective general deterrent. True False
False
Situational crime prevention focuses primarily on offender motivation. True False
False
Sociological approaches generally use a micro perspective. T/F
False
Taking away a bad child's candy is an example of a positive punishment. T/F
False
The Uniform Crime Report was designed to help uncover the "dark figure" of crime.
False
The actual occurrence of all crimes that are reported to NCVS interviewers is verified before they are included in the data.
False
The case of Buck V. Bell struck down a Virginia statute permitting sterilization True False
False
The conformity mode of adaptation typifies most lower-class individuals.T/F
False
The eugenics movement was prominent in the US after WW2 True False
False
The id conforms to the reality principle. T/F
False
The metaphor of the ledger is a technique of neutralization that claims that the authorities are corrupt or responsible for their own victimizationT/F
False
The term criminology is believed to have been coined by Edwin Sutherland.
False
The theory of phrenology was developed by Konrad Lorenz. True False
False
There is no relationship between juvenile crime and high levels of manganese T/F
False
The concept of ________ holds that the human mind may choose to keep certain aspects of itself out of consciousness. A) Repression B) Catharsis C) Superego D) Displacement
Repression
A normal male chromosomal structure is XY True False
True
A psychopath has no thought or feelings for his or her victims. T/F
True
A wealthy and socially privileged individual may still experience relative deprivation.T/F
True
According to Bandura, aggressive behavior must be learned. T/F
True
According to Eysenck, neurotics are the most likely to be criminal T/F.
True
According to Ferracuti and Wolfgang, violence may be a learned form of adaptation to certain life circumstances. T/F
True
According to Freud, an individual with a poorly developed superego is more likely to be led into crime. T/F
True
According to Gall, poorly developed areas of the brain lead to a lack of associated personality characteristics. True False
True
According to Matza, delinquents drift between delinquent and conventional actions.T/F
True
According to biological theories, the basic determinants of human behavior may be inherited. True False
True
According to differential opportunity theory, a lower-class youth who becomes addicted to drugs is probably involved in a conflict subculture.T/F
True
According to general strain theory, strain may occur when you are presented with negatively valued stimuli.T/F
True
According to psychoanalysis, criminal behavior is maladaptive. T/F
True
According to psychological theorists, improper conditioning may be a cause of defective mental processes. T/F
True
Alloplastic adaptation involves empowerment. T/F
True
An advocate of the just deserts model of criminal sentencing would state, "She got her due." True False
True
Biosocial theories do not appear able to explain why crime rates are higher in some parts of the country than in others. T/F
True
Cesare Beccaria was opposed to the use of torture. True False
True
Cesare Lombroso was a positivist True False
True
Correctional psychology deals with the diagnosis and classification of offenders. T/F
True
Crime may be an adaptation to life's stresses. T/F
True
Criminal history is a criminogenic need T/F
True
Criminology is an interdisciplinary profession.
True
Culture conflict theories have been criticized for being racist.T/F
True
Disengagement is a process by which people who devalue aggression may still engage in it. T/F
True
Distempered psychopaths are easily offended and fly into rages at very slight provocations. T/F
True
Emile Durkheim used the term anomie to refer to normlessness or a lack of belongingT/F
True
Environmental criminology emphasizes the relationship between location and the prevalence of victimization.T/F
True
Gall located the roots of personality in the brain True False
True
Hypoglycemia is believed to reduce an individuals ability to reason effectively or judge the long term consequences of behavior T/F
True
Increased levels of testosterone may be linked to aggressive behavior in women T/F
True
It is not necessary for an offender to be convicted of a crime for the crime to be counted as cleared by the FBI.
True
It is possible for a behavior to be illegal in one jurisdiction but legal in another.
True
Modeling theory has been criticized for lacking comprehensive explanatory power. T/F
True
Modern inner-city gangs are often heavily involved with drug dealing.T/F
True
Most truth in sentencing laws require that offenders serve a large portion of their sentence before they can be released. True False
True
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to change its structure and function in response to injury or experience
True
One of the best replicated biological correlates of antisocial behavior is a high resting heart rate T/F
True
Parental substance abuse can affect the risk of delinquency of the child later in life T/F
True
Park and Burgess found that as their economic positions improved, inner -city residents tended to move to outer zones. T/F
True
Poor conventional coping skills can increase the likelihood of criminal behavior.T/F
True
Positivists believe social phenomena are observable and measurable. True False
True
Prefrontal cortex dysfunction may predispose someone to criminality T/F
True
Repression involves rendering certain impulses and desires unconscious. T/F
True
Research by the U.S. Department of Justice found significant racial and geographic disparities in how federal death sentences are imposed. True False
True
Research has found a significant correlation between juvenile crime and high levels of lead T/F
True
Robert Martinson's research suggests that programs designed to rehabilitate offenders do not work. True False
True
Samenow argues that criminals and noncriminals think differently T/F
True
Sheldon described endomorphs as being thin and fragile True False
True
Social structural theories see economic disenfranchisement as a fundamental cause of crime. T/F
True
Sociological theories attempt to predict the specific behavior of a given individual T/F
True
Some types of common and accepted behavior may be illegal.
True
Subcultures of violence expect their members to be violentT/F
True
The Chicago Area Project focused on reducing delinquency in transitional neighborhoods.T/F
True
The Classical School of Criminology saw crime as a product of the exercise of free will. True False
True
The Classical School sees the principles of right and wrong as inherent in our nature. True False
True
The Panopticon was designed by Jeremy Bentham. True False
True
The War on Poverty was intended to reduce crime by redistributing wealth in society. T/F
True
The XYY defense has never been used successfully in court T/F
True
The broken windows thesis suggests that physical deterioration of a neighborhood can affect crime.T/F
True
The concept of hard determinism implies that offenders are not totally responsible for the crimes they commit. True False
True
The consensus perspective applies primarily to homogeneous societies
True
The crime shift that began in the 1960s may be linked to the postwar baby boom.
True
The ego tries to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. T/F
True
The first "three-strikes" law was passed in California. True False
True
The justice model is based on the belief that prisons do not rehabilitate. True False
True
The key element in the contemporary street code is the issue of respect.T/F
True
The legalistic perspective recognizes that laws are social products.
True
The most likely consequence of frustration is direct aggression toward others T/F
True
The original positivists completely rejected the notion of free will. True False
True
The retreatist mode of adaptation is associated with drug use.T/F
True
The statement ʺI can take care of myselfʺ best represents the focal concern of autonomy.T/F
True
The superego guides the ego to select a behavior that is in keeping with social conventions. T/F
True
There is conclusive evidence linking sugar consumption to behavioral changes T/F
True
There is little evidence to suggest that XYY men commit crimes of greater violence than other men T/F
True
UCR data are based on reported crime.
True
Utilitarianism is a very practical philosophy. True False
True
Vitamin deficiencies among children can increase the risk of aggressive behavior T/F
True
Most criminologists who hold doctoral degrees teach criminology or related subjects in colleges and universities.
True
The UCR and the NCVS have standardized their definitions of crimes so that they are the same.
True
People are fascinated by crime because it is inexplicable
true
One who studies crime, criminals, and criminal behavior is referred to as a A) Criminologist. B) Police officer. C) Criminal justice professional. D) None of the above
A) Criminologist.
An academic or research criminologist generally holds a ________ degree. A) Doctoral B) Law C) Medical D) None of the above
A) Doctoral
The just deserts concept is inherent is which model? A. Justice model B. Lifestyle theory C. Routine activities D. Rational choice
A. Justice model
People appear to be particularly fascinated by ________ crime. A) Violent B) Property C) Victimless D) Common law
A. Violent
The ________ perspective holds that laws should be enacted to criminalize given forms of behavior when members of society agree that such laws are necessary. A) Conflict B) Consensus C) Causality D) Pluralists
B) Consensus
Which of the following is not considered a property crime by the UCR? A) Burglary B) Robbery C) Arson D) Theft
B) Robbery
The concept of ________ refers to the view that social events are interpreted differently according to the viewer. A) Social primacy B) Social relativity C) Causality D) Politicization
B) Social relativity
Rational choice theories have been criticized for A. An overemphasis on the role of social factors in crime causation. B. An overemphasis on individual choice. C. An under emphasis on individual choice. D.None of the above.
B. An overemphasis on individual choice.
The Panopticon was envisioned by A.Locke. B.Bentham. C.Sumner. D.Beccaria
B. Betham
Which of the following statements would be most likely to be made by an opponent of capital punishment? A. Capital punishment is widely accepted in the international community. B. Capital punishment is more expensive than imprisonment. C. There are no viable alternatives to capital punishment. D. Capital punishment deters crime.
B. Capital punishment is more expensive than imprisonment.
The pluralist perspective suggests that behaviors are typically criminalized through A) General agreement of members of society. B) The existence of shared norms and values. C) A political process. D) None of the above.
C) A political process.
Which of the following may explain the increase in crime in the United States between 1960 and 1980? A) Large numbers of young men entered the military B) Unemployment rates were increasingly high C) Baby boomers were becoming teenagers D) All of the above.
C) Baby boomers were becoming teenagers
Criminal justice emphasizes A) The application of the criminal law. B) The study of the components of the criminal justice system. C) Both A and B. D) Neither A nor B.
C) Both A and B.
Which of the following statements about deviance and crime is true? A) All deviant behavior is criminal. B) All criminal behavior is deviant. C) Deviant behavior and criminal behavior can overlap at times. D) Deviant behavior and criminal behavior are identical.
C) Deviant behavior and criminal behavior can overlap at times
________ theories have potentially wider explanatory power than other types. A) Complete B) Unicausal C) Integrated D) General
C) Integrated
The view of crime as human conduct that violates the criminal law is drawn from a ________ perspective. A) Sociological B) Psychological C) Legalistic D) Philosophical
C) Legalistic
The ________ is considered by many researchers to be a more accurate measure of the actual incidence of crime in the United States. A) UCR B) NIBRS C) NCVS D) They are all equally accurate.
C) NCVS
The first major shift in crime rates in the United States since the beginning of the collection of official crime statistics was probably due to the A) Start of the Great Depression. B) Outbreak of World War I. C) Outbreak of World War II. D) Assassination of President John F. Kennedy.
C) Outbreak of World War II.
Contemporary criminologists operate primarily from a ________ perspective. A) Psychological B) Biological C) Sociological D) Medical
C) Sociological
The number of personnel employed by private security agencies today is approximately ________ that of public law enforcement agencies. A) Half B) Equal to C) Twice D) Four times
C) Twice
Which of the following would a rational choice theorist be most likely to consider a likely factor in crime causation? A. A poor home environment B. Poverty C. Individual choice D. Inadequate socialization
C. Individual choice
Which of the following is not one of the basic assumptions or principles of the Classical School? A.Root principles of right and wrong are inherent in the nature of things. B.Human beings are fundamentally rational. C.Most human behavior results from forces that are beyond the control of the individual. D.Punishment is sometimes required to deter law violators.
C. Most Human behavior results from forces that are beyond the control of the individual
Criminology is A) A field of study. B) A collection of theories. C) A profession. D) All of the above.
D) All of the above.
One of the most common reasons for not reporting violent crime is that the victim A) Fears future victimization by the same offender. B) Believes the police will be ineffective in solving the crime. C) Is embarrassed over the type of victimization. D) Considers the crime to be a private matter.
D) Considers the crime to be a private matter.
Which of the following individuals probably would not be considered a criminalist? A) Forensics examiner B) Polygraph operator C) Fingerprint examiner D) Correctional officer
D) Correctional officer
The process of ________ makes some forms of behavior illegal. A) Legalization B) Illegalization C) Statutization D) Criminalization
D) Criminalization
Which of the following is not a reason why rape victims fail to report their victimization? A) Fear of the perpetrator B) Shame C) Fear of participation in the criminal justice system D) Fear that the crime is not important enough to report
D) Fear that the crime is not important enough to report
A(n) ________ theory of crime is one that attempts to explain all or most forms of criminal conduct through a single overarching approach. A) Complete B) Unicausal C) Integrated D) General
D) General
A behavior can be a crime even if there is no law defining that behavior.
False
A criminalist studies crime, criminals, and criminal behavior
False
A definition developed from linguistic analysis of the term criminology focuses on criminology as a discipline.
False
A general theory of crime focuses on explaining one specific type of criminal behavior.
False
According to the NCVS, the crime that is least likely to be reported to the police is motor vehicle theft
False
All forms of deviant behavior are violations of the criminal law
False
Crime has been increasing steadily since the mid -1990s.
False
Crime rates in the United States increased during World War II.
False
Criminology is primarily a collection of theories, rather than a profession.
False
In the United States, we have achieved a shared consensus regarding what should be criminal.
False
Kidnapping is one of the Part I offenses measured by the UCR.
False
Most contemporary criminologists operate from a biological perspective.
False
Only arrest data are reported for NIBRS Group B offenses.
False
Theoretical criminology attempts to explain criminal behavior.
True
The Enlightenment was primarily based in the United States. True False
False
The NCVS obtains data by interviewing victims of crime.
False
The UCR program has been criticized for seriously overestimating the true incidence of crime in the United States.
False
The UCR reports data on a total of twelve Part I offenses.
False
Crime does not affect everyone equally
True
According to numerous professional groups, violence in television, music, video games, and movies A) May lead to increased levels of violent behavior among children. B) May lead to decreased levels of violent behavior among children. C) Does not appear to have an effect on levels of violent behavior among children. D) May lead to emotional sensitization toward violence in real life.
A) May lead to increased levels of violent behavior among children.
A(n) ________ is made up of clearly stated propositions suggesting relationships between events and occurrences being studied. A) Theory B) Hypothesis C) Component D) Sample
A) Theory
According to the NCVS, ________ crimes are most likely to be reported to the police. A) Violent B) Property C) Household D) None of the above
A) Violent
Which of the following is not an argument put forward by opponents of capital punishment? A. Individuals who commit particularly heinous acts deserve death. B. The death penalty has at times been imposed upon innocent people. C. Human life is sacred. D. The death penalty is more expensive than imprisonment.
A. Individuals who commit particularly heinous acts deserve death.
Which of the following is not one of the five objectives of situational crime prevention? A. Reducing the risks associated with crime commission. B. Increasing the effort involved in crime C. Reducing the rationalizations that facilitate criminal activity D. Reducing the rewards of crime
A. Reducing the risks associated with crime commission.
The ________ model is predicated on the belief that criminals deserve punishment because of the choices they make. A. Justice B. Rational choice C. Situational D. Neoclassical
A. Justice
_____seeks to prevent a particular offender from engaging in repeat criminality. A. Specific deterrence B. General deterrence C. Retribution D. Recidivism
A. Specific deterrence
Which of the following is not a critique of classical criminology? A. It lacks appreciation for the deeper sources of personal motivation. B. It emphasizes crime as the result of free will. C. Its claims lack a scientific basis. D. It does not fully explain criminal motivation.
B. It emphasizes crime as the result of free will.
The argument that crime is not a result of poverty or social conditions and therefore cannot be affected by social programs was made by A. David Fogel. B. James Q. Wilson. C. Ronald V. Clarke. D. Lawrence Cohen.
B. James Q. Wilson
According to Beccaria, punishment should be imposed to A.Obtain revenge against the offender. B. Injure the offender in the same way that the offender injured the victim. C. Prevent the offender from committing additional crimes. D.All of the above.
C. Prevent the offender from committing additional crimes
A crime is cleared when an arrest has been made.
True
According to the Classical School, punishment serves to deter law violators. True False
True
According to the NCVS, less than 50 percent of all crimes are reported to the police.
True
According to various professional groups, prolonged viewing of media violence can lead to emotional desensitization towards violence in real life.
True