CSET Multiple Subject Subtest 2 Science

litmus

-A water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens -It is often absorbed onto filter paper -The resulting piece of paper or solution with water becomes a pH indicator (one of the oldest), used to test materials for acidity -Turns red under acidic conditions, and turns blue under basic (i.e., alkaline) conditions -Other indicators of the presence of an acid are that when acids react with metals, hydrogen gas is released causing bases to feel soapy when touched

the periodic table of elements

-Arranges all of the known elements from left to right and top to bottom in order of increasing atomic number, and they generally coincide with their increasing atomic mass -Elements with similar properties fall into the same vertical columns to form groups or families -ex: fluorine and chlorine are highly reactive gases that form strong acids in solution -Helium, neon and argon are inert, noble gases that do not form chemical compounds -Properties of elements change greatly across any one row (period) -In each element's square, the chemical symbol is in the middle, the atomic weight is usually directly below the symbol, the atomic number is usually shown at the top of the square -As of 2006, the table contains 117 chemical elements whose discoveries have been confirmed -94 are naturally found on the earth, and the rest are synthetic elements that have been produced artificially in particle accelerators

solids

-Characterized by their ability to retain their shape -Relatively incompressible -Melt when heated and vaporize only slightly -All substances become solid if cooled sufficiently Examples: rocks, crystals, wood, feather, ice

gases

-Expand to fill any available space, takes shape of container -A gas is a compressible fluid, with its volume determined by the pressure and temperature of the environment -A compressed gas pushes out equally in all directions -Boyle's Law: If the pressure increases, the volume decreases; the reverse is true as well -Charles's Law: As temperature increases (at a fixed pressure), so does volume Examples: air, helium, steam

wheel and axle

-In the category of a first-class lever -In its simplest form it consists of a rod attached to a wheel so that their movements are coupled when one of the parts is turned -The wheel and axle is used either as a force multiplier (such as a doorknob, steering wheel or fishing reel) or as a distance multiplier (such as on a bicycle or the driven wheels of a car) --ex: truck, axle is point at which wheel rotates, wheels reduce friction with truck on the ground -In the first kind of application, the larger wheel is used to create more torque (in the axle) with less force -In the second kind of application, when the axle is turned, the outside of the wheel turns at a greater linear speed that is proportional to the ratio of the radii of the wheel and axle. For example, if a bike wheel has a gear that turns eight inches in one second, and the wheel circumference is eighty inches, the wheel rotates through a distance ten times greater than the gear (and reducing the number of rotations of the pedals required) -By varying the radii of the axle and/or wheel, any amount of mechanical advantage may be gained

metals in the periodic table

-Metals account for the vast majority of the elements in the periodic table -Show a wide range of chemical and physical properties -Most metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, and some, like iron and cobalt, are magnetic -Many metals in the periodic table are alkali metals, such as sodium and potassium; these metals are very reactive

newton's second law of motion

-Relies on the the first law -The acceleration of an object is proportional to the force applied (the more force, the more acceleration) -mass times acceleration

Indention hardness

-Resistance to plastic (permanent) deformation due to a constant load from a sharp object

sublimation

-SOLID TO GAS -makes it possible for some elements to transition from a solid to a gas phase without becoming a liquid - a common example is a block of dry ice (CO2) which will turn into a gas at room temperature -some gases can transition directly to a solid, such as the formation of frost (deposition)

liquids

-Take on the shape of their containers, yet cannot be compressed to any significant extent. -the volume is constant unless evaporation is occurring -liquids crystallize when chilled sufficiently, while head causes liquids to vaporize -the liquid state is intermediate between the solid and gaseous states with regard to molecular motion and attractive forces b/w molecules Ex: water, oil, milk, honey

motion law of gravity

-The more massive either or both bodies are, the greater the gravitational force between them -The further apart two bodies are, the lesser the gravitational force between them

inclined plane

-a flat surface whose endpoints are at different heights, resulting in a slope. by moving an object up an inclined plane rather than completely vertically, the amount of force required is reduced, at the expense of increasing the distance the object must travel. -ie loading something in truck, if 4x as far, you are doing 1/4 the amount of effort -mechanical advantage: the ratio of the length of the sloped surface to the height it spans. allows the same work to be done with a smaller force exerted over a greater distance

pulley

-a mechanism composed of a wheel (called a sheave) with a groove between two flanges around the wheel's circumference. a rope, cable, or a belt usually runs inside the groove, used to lift an object and redirect force -used to change the direction of an applied force, transit rotational movement, or realize a mechanical advantage in either a linear or rotational system of motion. -helps an individual lift an object by spreading the weight of the object over the length of the rope -ex: 2:1 mechanical advantage: requires 150lbs of force to lift 300 lbs. for every 2 feet of rope the person pulls, the weight lifts 1 foot

lever

-a rigid object that is used with an appropriate fulcrum (pivot point) that can be applied to another object. the leverage is also termed as mechanical advantage. ex: wheelbarrow (wheel is fulcrum), scissors (fulcrum is where blades cross), crowbar (spot bw what you are lifting) -the further you are from fulcrum, the more mechanical advantage you have -to balance to uneven objects, move larger object toward fulcrum or smaller object away from fulcrum

Density

-for a homogeneous object is determined by dividing the mass by the volume (Density = Mass / Volume.... D=M/V) -the mass is normally measured with an appropriate scale or balance, the volume may be measured directly from the geometry of the object or by the displacement of a fluid -ex: if steel and wood have equal dimensions, the steel would have a greater mass as it is more dense

newton's 3rd law of motion

-for every action (applied force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (reciprocal actions)

compounds

-formed by the chemical combination of 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio. water, for example, is made up of molecules with the composition H2O and the structure (arrangement) of H-O-H -the straight lines denote bonds -H20, CO2, NaCl -water: built from two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen -ordinary table salt is a compound composed of one atom of sodium and one atom of chlorine (NaCl)

thermal energy

-heat can be converted to motion, and motion can produce heat -unlike temp, the amount of thermal energy depends on the quantity of the substance -a bathtub has 90 deg more thermal energy than a cup of coffee at 120 deg. you spend more energy to heat bathtub -the ocean at 75 deg doesn't have the same thermal energy as water on stove at 75 deg. because of greater quantity, the more energy it takes to heat up something, the more energy that is stored in the moving molecules of that thing. .

Hardness

-refers to various properties of matter in the solid phase that give it a high resistance to its shape changing when force is applied. -hard matter is contrasted with soft matter -the behavior of solid materials under force is complex, resulting in several different scientific definitions of what might be called hardness in everyday usage

electron

A subatomic particle that has a negative charge, equal but opposite to the proton, orbits outside nucleus, Mass is 1/1836 AMU

neutron

A subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom, center of atom, Mass is 1 AMU -each element has a set number of neutrons, often the same number of protons

first-class lever

Can multiply force or distance depending on the location of the fulcrum End: Output force Middle: Fulcrum Other end: Input force Examples: seesaws, scissors, pliers

List and define three ways that heat can be transferred and discuss two ways in which a thermos bottle actually limits heat loss

Conduction is the transmission of heat through a medium. Convection is the transferring of heat by the circulating motion of particles (in liquid or gas). Radiation is the transferring of heat by emission and dissemination of waves and particles. A thermos bottle block the process through which heat is transferred. Limiting conduction is one example of why it works efficiently. A thermos bottle is double walled, with a vacuum between the walls. Heat cannot be conducted easily because there are a few air molecules to move around in a vacuum. The inside of the bottle has a shiny surface that acts like a mirror and reflects the heat (either inside or outside the container) back to its source. This limits heat loss or gain by radiation.

pulley written response

Example: -Raising and lowering window blinds -Diagram 1 represents a double pulley. As effort is applied (pulling power), the load (weight) is raised. In this system, the load moves only half the distance that the rope is pulled. However, the force raising the load is double the effort pulling the rope. In this system, the pulleys provide a 2-to-1 mechanical advantage. -Diagram 2 represents a multiple-pulley system. In this system, less strength is used to accomplish the same lifting height as in diagram 1. The workload does not change; however, less force, and consequently less effort, is needed. In this system, the load moves one-third the distance that the rope is pulled, and the pulleys provide a 3-to-1 mechanical advantage. -In both diagrams, the top pulley is only a change of direction and does not provide any type of mechanical advantage.

Hydrogen

H protons:1 neutrons: 0 mass: 1

Rebound hardness

Height of the bounce of an object dropped on the material, related to elasticity

newton's first law

Law of Inertia -in the absence of the application of an outside force (such as gravity or friction), a body at rest will remain in rest, while a body moving in a straight line will continue to move in a straight line with uniform speed. -an object in motion stays in motion, an object at rest stays at rest -friction can cause resistance, slowing forward movement

Second-class lever

Multiply force but do not change the direction of the input force End: Fulcrum Middle: Output force Other end: Input force Examples: wheelbarrows, baby strollers, bottle openers

measurement

N x 10^p meter: 1.1 yard liter: 1.1 quart gram: 1/30 ounce

protons

Positively charged particles, defines the element, don't change, located in the nucleus, mass is 1AMU

Scratch hardness

Resistance to fracture or plastic (permanent) deformation due to friction from a sharp object

ionic bond

a bond in which one atom loses an electron to form a positive ion, and the other gains an electron to form a negative ion, creating an electrostatic force which holds them together

simple machine

a mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force. defined as the simplest mechanisms that use mechanical advantage (also called leverage) to multiple force. the work load (ignoring friction) is equal to the work done by the applied force -reduce required effort by minimizing friction or spreading effort over greater distance and time

mixture

a substance made by combining two or more different materials without a chemical reaction occurring (the objects do not bond together). They are the product of a mechanical blending or mixing of CHEMICAL substances. each ingredient substance retains its own chemical properties and makeup. the chemical properties of a mixture at melting point may be different. ex: mixture of salt and pepper is still identifiable as salt and pepper

suspension (mixture type)

a system in which small particles are kept dispersed by agitation or molecular motion in the surrounding medium (muddy water in the river, will separate after agitation)

Atoms

are made up of several tiny parts. at the center of an atom is a core called the nucleus. the nucleus is made up of particles called protons and neutrons. Electrons have a negative charge and they are attracted to the positively charged protons in the nucleus. This attraction keeps the electrons in orbit around the nucleus

elements are arranged by

atomic number (protons in nucleus)

radiocarbon dating

because of the halflife of C14, radiocarbon dating only works on organisms that died 50,000 years ago or less. that's how long it takes to decay back into C12. however, many other elements have much longer half lives and can be used to date non-living things such as moon rocks which are millions of years old

Physical changes

do not involve one substance changing into another. Water, for example, can change from a gas (water vapor) to a liquid (water) to a solid (ice), but water molecules do not change. The particular state of water is determined by pressure and temperature. The dashed lines show the behavior of water at one atmosphere (sea level) freezing at 0 degrees celcius and boiling at 100C.

Boyle's Law

gases, if the pressure increases, the volume decreases, the reverse is true as well, in swimming pool, put balloon down and balloon gets smaller, the volume of the gas decreases, if balloon goes into sky less pressure in atmosphere

homogeneous mixture

is a solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture that has the same proportions of its components throughout any given sample (ie vodka, steel, air, rain)

carbon 14

isotope created in the earth's atmosphere by cosmic rays, all living things absorb this. when they die, this absorption stops and the existing C14 turns back into C12. half life of carbon isotope is 5400 years, decay gets slower over time,

pressure

less atmosphere at sea level means less pressure, the more pressure there is the more it wants to be a solid, the less the more it wants to be a gas

pH

measure of the presence of hydrogen ions in a substance. it affects its propensity to bond with other substances measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. relative to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement. Scale of 0-14 (acid - basic) NEUTRAL: water (7.0)

Chemical changes

occur when a substance is changed into something else. occurs whenever compounds are formed or decomposed. -during this reaction, there is a rearrangement of atoms that makes or breaks chemical bonds. This change is usually not reversible, unlike physical changes, which typically are reversible. -an example of a chemical change is the formation of rust. Iron chemically reacts with air and water to form rust (ferrous oxide) and is unable to change back to iron

atomic properties

organized by row. atomic number and mass increase as you move right to left and top to bottom (bottom right has highest masses)

Mohs hardness scale

rates minerals and puts them on a scale from 1 to 10 (1 is the softest and 10 is the hardest) determined by the ability of a harder mineral to scratch a softer mineral. Ex: talc is a 1 and a diamond is a 10

Physical properties

the characteristics that make up the physical composition of a substance. Physical properties include color, form, electrical conductivity and density

kinetic energy

the energy possessed by a moving object. an object in an unstable position has potential energy, for the position could be converted into movement, energy in motion ex: baseball thrown vertically upward. its speed decreases upward because the acceleration of gravity is acting downward. the rising ball loses kinetic energy (slows down) as it gains potential energy (rises high). at the peak of the ball's flight, the ball is instantaneously at rest, with no kinetic energy but maximum stored potential energy. as the ball falls, the potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy and the ball accelerates

gravitation

the force that pulls all objects in the universe toward one another --Compels dispersed matter to coalesce, and thus it accounts for the very existence of the earth, the sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe -Responsible for keeping the earth and the other planets in their orbits around the sun, for keeping the moon in its orbit around the earth, for the formation of tides, for convection (by which hot fluids rise), for heating the interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures, and for various other phenomena that we observe

velocity

the rate of change of position over time. represented using a vector -ex: an automobile that is 100 miles farther along a highway at 3pm than at 1pm has an average velocity during the interval of: 100miles/ 2 hrs = 50 miles/ hour -v= change in distance / change in time

acceleration

the rate of change of velocity with time -ex: if the automobile had an initial velocity of 40mph and a final velocity of 60mph, then its average acceleration would be: change in velocity / change in time: 20 miles/hour / 2 hours = 10 miles/ hour ^2 -a= change in velocity / change in time

mechanical advantage

the ratio of the output force to the input force -Also called leverage -Results in less force applied over a greater distance -Helps to make work easier

Atoms that are missing an electron (that is, have one more proton than electrons)

will tend to attract additional electrons

atoms that have an excess electron (one more electron than protons)

will tend to eject the outer-most electron

Thermal radiation

-electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object, which is due to the object's temperature -heat transmitted in the form of electromagnetic radiation. typically occurs with high intensity reactions -ex: the sun radiates heat and electromagnetic radiation outward -ex: infrared radiation from a common household radiator or electric heater, light emitted by a glowing incandescent light bulb -generated when heat from the movement of charged particles within atoms is converted to electromagnetic radiation. -when infrared radiation is absorbed by an object, it is changed to heat

renewable energy

-Energy generated from natural sources (such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat) which are renewable (naturally replenished) -In 2006, about 18% of global energy consumption came from renewable sources, with 13% coming from traditional biomass materials, such as wood burning -Hydroelectricity was the next largest renewable source, providing 3%, followed by solar hot water/heating which contributed 1.3% -Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy, wind power, solar power, and ocean energy, together provided 0.8% of final energy consumption

subsurface flow

-The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers -Subsurface water may return to the surface (as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans -Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it entered, under the force of gravity or gravity-induced pressures -Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished slowly, and so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years

what causes clouds

-increased humidity and/or decreased temperature causes invisible water vapor to condense into visible water droplets or ice crystals. droplets become gaseous vapour when hot enough

golgi bodies

-involved in secretion, production and transportation of proteins

centrosome

-participates in cell division

Which of the following is a true statement about chemical reactions?

The chemical properties of the products are usually different from those of the reactants.

Which best describes the typical relationship between two organisms during mutualism

Two unrelated organisms coexist where both benefit.

Which sentence best describes the typical relationship between two organisms during parasitism?

Two unrelated organisms coexist where one benefits and the other is harmed.

Uranium

U protons: 92 neutrons: 146 mass: 238

groups

Vertical columns on the periodic table (elements with similar characteristics)

A device that converts electrical energy directly into mechanical energy is best described as which of the following?

a motor

paleozoic era

600,000,000 years before now, duration 375,000,000 years, invertebrates

Which is the cause of a sound getting lower from the Doppler effect?

A decrease in the frequency of a wave

A 5 kg bowling ball and a 0.5 kg basketball are dropped from the same height. In the absence of air resistance, which of the following is true?

Both balls will hit the ground at the same time.

33. As a part of a science class, a clear pot of water with heat censors is placed above a burner. The water begins to boil, and a student observes that the hottest water at the bottom of the container seems to move upward and the cooler water continuously moves in to take its place as illustrated below.

C. Heat is convected through the water, causing the hotter, less dense water to rise. Cooler, denser water then moves in to take its place.

respiratory system

allows for gas exchange -the space between the aveoli and the capillaries, the anatomy or structure of the exchange system and the precise physiological uses of the exchanged gases vary, depending on the organism -in humans and mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system always include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles

where does weather occur?

almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere). weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, but not understood well

After a person completes an experiment and collects the data in a scientific investigation, which of the following is the next logical step?

analyzing the results

Helium

He protons: 2 neutrons: 2 Mass: 4

photosynthesis equation

carbon dioxide + water + energy ---chlorophyll--> sugar + oxygen

mutualism

both members benefit

49. Mountains are most likely to form along which type of plate boundary? A. Transform B. Convergent C. Divergent D. Mid-continental

convergent

the strongest earthquakes in earth usually occur near the edges of

convergent boundaries convergent plate motion occurs when 2 plates push together- ex during mountain building in the himalayas and the andes. such faults are relatively deep

32. The filament in a light bulb is made of a material which provides more _______ than the copper wires through which electricity usually flows? A. Stability B. Vibration C. Resistance D. Conduction

resistance

atria

smaller upper chambers of heart

wavelength

the distance between two consecutive points on a wave (Crest to crest)

days are based on

the earth's rotation of its axis

30. The force of gravitational attraction between two bodies is least dependent on which of the following? A. Mass of the larger body B. Distance between the bodies C. Temperature of the bodies D. Mass of the smaller body

temperature of the bodies

air sealed greenhouse containing many plants, which is most likely a result?

the air becomes poorer in carbon dioxide

atomic mass

the amount of matter that makes up an atom, estimate the atomic mass by adding number of protons and neutrons

beaker

for containing fluids

deposition

gas to solid

in what order would a continuous drill find these 3 substances?

gas, oil, water occur in the order of density, gas is lightest, oil floats on water

charles's law

gases, As temperature increases, volume increases, boiling water on the stove

planets

generally divided into 2 main types: large, low-density gas giants, and smaller rocky terrestrials -4 terrestrials, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, then 4 gas giants, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune

A behavioral response from an organism is determined by which of the following factors?

hereditary and experience

conductivity of materials

high conductivity: metals such as aluminum, iron, nickel, silver, and gold poor conductivity (act as insulators, electrons held tightly inside atoms and cannot move freely): plastic, rubber, glass, air, and wood

dispersion of sunlight through a glass prism

incident white light: red - orange - yellow -green - blue- indigo -violet -violet has shortest wavelength, red has longest

Which of the following hormones is most directly involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels?

insulin

imbalanced atom

ion, can be positive or negative, more electrons = negative, more protons = positive

As a covered kettle of vegetable soup continues to boil gently on the stove, what happens to the temperature of the soup? A. It falls very slowly B. It remains the same. C. It rises very slowly D. It rises rapidly

it remains the same

why is the length of a day on venus longer than the length of a year on earth?

it takes more time for venus to rotate on its axis than to revolve around the sun. it takes approx 7.5 months for venus to revolve around the sun, approx 8 months to rotate on its axis

Which of the following categories is the broadest in the biological taxonomy

kingdom

in the following classification levels, which level has the most members? a. phylum b. species c. kingdom d. order

kingdom types: plants, animals, fungi, protists, and monerans kingdom - phylum- class- order - family- genus- species

47. What is the term for the thick layer surrounding Earth's outer core? A. Geosphere B. Crust C. Mantle D. Hydrosphere

mantle

air mass and characteristics?

maritime air forms over water and is associated with wet air continental air forms over land and is associated with dry air tropical air forms over the tropics and is warm polar air forms over the polars and cold

Which of the following factors least affects a compound's tendency to change state? A. Pressure B. Temperature C. Type of compound D. Mass

mass

force

mass x acceleration

radioactive decay

most isotopes radioactively decay back to their normal forms over time. the amount of time required for half the atoms to disintegrate is the half life

is it's noon can you see a full moon in the sky?

no, because the sun is overhead and the moon is in the sky, the sun's light is hitting the back of it. you see a full moon at night when the sun is opposite to it. the only time you could see it is at dawn or dusk

commensalism

one member benefits, the other is unaffected

Which of the following best explains why the Moon has a greater effect than the Sun on the tides of Earth's oceans?

the moon is much closer to the earth than the sun

meteorology

the science of the atmosphere and weather. the amount of water vapor in the air depends on the prevailing temp and the availability of water. the hydrologic cycle links the processes

biology

the scientific study of life

cell

the smallest amount of living matter, a bit of organic material that is the unit of structure and function for all organisms -range in size from a small speck to an egg yolk size -some tiny organisms like bacteria are uni-celled, but all larger organisms are composed of many cells arrayed in tissues -the cells packed together in plant or animal tissues have flattened walls

crest

the top of a wave's hill

during meiosis, the genome of a diploid cell

undergoes DNA replication, resulting in 4 haploid cells. each one of these cells contains one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original cell -if meiosis produces gametes, these cells must fuse during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote before any new growth can occur -because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete, and thus each zygote will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA -together, meiosis and fertilization generate genetically distinct individuals in populations

which of the following would make litmus paper turn red?

vinegar (RED in acid, BLUE in base)

ovule

(small egg) In seed plants, it is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells. After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed. -in flowering plants the ovule is located within the actual flower, the part of the carpel known as the ovary, which ultimately becomes the fruit. Depending on the plant, flowers may have one more multiple ovules per ovary. The ovule is attached to the placental wall of the ovary through a structure known as funiculus, the plant equivalent of the umbilical cord

respiratory system in other animals

-(insects) Have very simple anatomical features -In amphibians, even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange

exoplanet / dwarf planets

-333 known exosolar planets, ranging from the size of a gas giants to terrestrial planets. total identified planets: 341 -5 dwarf planets: Ceres, Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, and Eris. no extrasolar dwarf planets have been detected yet

wedge

-A compound and portable inclined plane -A triangular-shaped tool used to separate two objects or portions of an object, lift an object, or hold an object in place -ex: split firewood, put wedge in middle, goes into object -It functions by converting a force applied to its blunt end into forces perpendicular (normal) to its inclined surfaces -The mechanical advantage of a wedge is given by the ratio of the length of its slope to its width -Although a short wedge with a wide angle may do a job faster, it requires more force than a long wedge with a narrow angle

electricity

-A form of energy that can be used to produce sound, light, heat, and power. -the number of negative electrons does NOT precisely equal the number of positive protons. -electrons are held in the atom by an electrical force and have an electrical charge. when electrons are not held tightly in their atoms, the electrons can move freely and can carry electricity from one place to another -when the electrons flow in one direction, the flowing electricty is referred to as a current: a flow of electrons through wire. can still flow easily through materials that conduct electricity.

incandescent light bulb

-A source of electric light that works by incandescence -An electric current passes through a thin filament, heating it until it produces light -The enclosing glass bulb prevents the oxygen in the air from reaching the hot filament, which otherwise would be destroyed rapidly by oxidation -Sometimes called electric lamps/arc lamps

Non-metals in the periodic table

-Account for 17 elements in the periodic table -Lack the properties of metals but are very common -Include oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon, 7 metalloid elements, and 7 gases -Poor conductors of electricity

stars

-Bodies similar to the sun but immensely distant -Closest stars are 4 light-years away -Speed of light is 186,000 miles/second -Distance to closest stars can be calculated by measuring the parallax, a slight shift in apparent position against the background of more distant stars as the earth travels around the sun -Stars with the highest surface temperature appear blue, while stars with the lowest surface temperature appear red

organisms

-Complex chemical systems, organized in ways that promote reproduction and some measure of sustainability or survival -It is generally the phenomena of entire organisms that determine their fitness to an environment and therefore the survivability of their DNA-based genes

Chemical elements

-Composed of only one atom and cannot be separated into different substances except in some instances by radioactive decay or by nuclear reactions -Elements are assigned atomic numbers equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of their atoms -Each element has a different number of protons -The sum of the protons and neutrons gives an average atomic mass for the element

center of the sun

-may have a temp of millions of degrees, its visible surface, the photosphere, is about 6000 degrees celcius -sunspots are somewhat cooler disturbances in the photosphere -the sun's atmosphere is divided into the inner chromosphere with explosive prominences and the outer corona, a glowing halo visible only during a total eclipse -the sun is constantly emitting particles as a solar wind

electrolysis

a method of separating ions within a substance by passing electrical current through the substance. electrolysis involves the use of two electrodes called a cathode (negatively charged) and an anode (positive charge) -positively charged anode attracts negatively charged ions. negatively charged cathode attracts positively charged ions. can separate a chemical or compound into its constituent parts

river

a natural flow of water, usually freshwater, traveling toward an ocean, a lake, or another stream. in some cases, a river flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water. usually larger streams are called rivers, while smaller streams are called creeks, brooks, rivulets, rills, etc. -a component of the water cycle

Which of the following would not necessarily contribute to the reduction of uncertainty when investigating a scientific phenomenon?

a new hypothesis

predation

a non-symbiotic relationship in which a predator hunts prey

time zone

a region of the earth that has uniform standard time, usually referred to as the local time. time zones are divided into standard and daylight savings (summer). daylight savings include an offset of +1 hour. -standard time zones can be defined by geometrically subdividing the earth's spheroid into 24 lunes (wedge shaped sections), bordered by meridians, each of 15 degrees of longitude apart. the local neighboring zones would differ by 1 hour -15 degrees of longitude equals 1 hr of time

Which of the following is generally thought to be a contributing factor to obesity?

a sedentary lifestyle

estuary

a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea -often associated with high levels of biodiversity -typically the tidal mouths of rivers and have sedimentation or silt carried in from terrestrial runoff frequently from offshore -made of brackish water -names like ford, bay, sound -as ecosystems, estuaries are under threat from human activities such as pollution and overfishing

Earth is considered to be the only planet in the solar system that can sustain a complex biosphere because it is the only planet that has

a significant amount of surface water in liquid form

46. The shape of the Milky Way can best be described as ________.

a spiral disk

which of the following best demonstrates the theory that molecules are always in motion?

a spoonful of sugar is added to a cup of cocoa, and the cocoa becomes sweet in all parts of the cup

amplitude

a wave's height, the distance between its resting position (trough) and its crest -to changes waves you can modulate the amplitude (AM radio)

nucleus

-membrane-enclosed structure found in all eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, fungi, algae). the nucleus contains most cell's growth and reproduction -brain of the cell -organized as multiple long and linear DNA molecules with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes -the genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome -the function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression

effects of topography on tides

-more isolated bodies have more extreme tides (ie gulf of baja) since it's the most isolated

plate tectonics theory

-states that all of earth's continents at one time were joined as a super continent called pangaea. overtime the continents drifted apart

farenheit

-temperature scale that is named after the German physicist Daniel Farenheit. freezing point of water is 32 and boiling point is 212, placing boiling and freezing points 180 degrees apart. farenheit and celcius coincide at -40 degrees -C=5/9 (F-32) -F= 9/5 C + 32

Mass

-the amount of matter in a chemical substance -in everyday situations, the weight is proportional to the mass, which usually makes it acceptable to use the same word

digestion

-the breaking down of chemicals into a form that can be absorbed -it is also the process by which the body breaks down chemicals into smaller components that can be absorbed by the blood stream -carbs are converted to various sugars by the action of several enzymes, including ptyalin from saliva -fats are transformed into glycerol and fatty acids by the combined action of bile from the liver and the enzyme lipase from the pancreas -proteins are broken apart to their constituent amino acids

ecosystems studied

-the entire terrestrial surface of earth, all matter that composes it, the air that is directly above it, and all the living organisms within it can be considered as one large ecosystem -can be divided into terrestrial ecosystems (ie forests, steppes, savannas), freshwater ecosystems (lakes, ponds, rivers) and marine ecosystems -population includes all the members of a given species that live in a defined geographic area

nuclear fusion

-yields energy when very light nuclei unite to a heavier nucleus. a hydrogen bomb contains the 2 heavy isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium which unite to form helium nuclei and neutrons, with a conversion of 0.4 percent of the initial mass into energy. stars (including the sun) derive their energy from nuclear fusion

precambrian era

5.6 billion years ago, no life except algae, duration 5 billion years

A car weighing 2000 pounds and moving 20 miles per hour collides with a moving truck weighing 5000 pounds and moving two miles per hour. Upon collision, the car's velocity goes from 20 mph to 0 mph, the front of the car is crushed in, and the truck is knocked back several feet. Discuss how each of Newton's three laws of motion plays a role in explaining the physics of the accident.

??

In the evolution of Earth, once the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere increased, which adaptation helped organisms evolve to more advanced forms?

Aerobic respiration

rainbow

After a rainstorm, the air is full of tiny drops of water -Each drop acts as a prism, splitting the light into the colors of the spectrum -Violet is the shortest wavelength; red is the longest

Which of the following best describes a scientific theory?

An explanation of some part of the natural world acquired as a result of the scientific method and tested via observation and experimentation

screw

An inclined plane (thread) wrapped around a wheel and axle -inclinded plane goes up in a circle

Which causes a sound to get louder?

An increase in the amplitude of a wave

Which of the following would be considered a scientific career?

Archeologist, Doctor, Physicist

isotope

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons than its base, change number of neutrons - change mass

the nervous system

Composed of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves that extend throughout the body -nerve cells look like brooms with whiskers at end (dendrites) which receive info and pass it through the axon (stick). axon wrapped in myelin sheath which holds in the energy. energy gets transmitted to axon up to next nerve cell across a gap called a synapse to the next cell's dendrites

What would be the most likely effect if the sun, moon, and the earth in that order were directly aligned?

Increased gravitational pull on the tides. the moon is nearer to the earth, so the moon's mass attracts the oceans

Which of the following is a major advantage of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?

Increasing the genetic diversity of organisms in a population

In which environment will a person have no weight?

Interstellar space

Which TWO of the following objects are strongly attracted to magnets?

Iron nail Steel safety pin

Which statements are correct for the gaseous state of matter?

It is easily compressible. It assumes the volume of its container. It assumes the shape of its container.

Which statements are correct for the liquid state of matter? Select ALL the answers that are true.

Its particles move, vibrate, and slide past one another. It assumes the shape of its container.

if an individual weights 200 lbs on earth, on which planet would the same individual weigh the most?

Jupiter. its mass is more than 300 times earth's mass. weight is a function of gravity

crust

Less than 1% of the earth; this relatively thin zone (5 to 25 miles) contains the only rocks we can study, even in the deepest mines or drill holes -average composition of crustal rocks: 62.6% oxygen, 21.2% silicon, 6.5% aluminum

Which of the following is the best example of the refraction of light waves?

Light passing through raindrops produces a rainbow.

Which of the following elements have the most similar chemical properties?

Lithium and potassium (same column)

Pure nitrogen is obtained by liquefying air, which is 78 percent nitrogen. Which is the best method to condense air to a liquid?

Lowering the temp while increasing the pressure (lowering the temp can change a gas into a liquid, raising pressure has same result)

composition of air

Nitrogen 78%, Oxygen 21%, Other Gases 1%(carbon dioxide & water vapor, etc.)

Which of the following two gasses compose the vast majority of the Earth's atmosphere?

Nitrogen and Oxygen

telophase- mitosis

Nuclear membrane reforms and 2 new cells result

Oxygen

O protons: 8 neutrons: 8 mass: 16

parasitism

One member benefits the other is harmed

organisms pt 2

Owe their origin, metabolism, and many other internal functions to chemical phenomena, especially the chemistry of large organic molecules -Semi-closed chemical systems: Although they are individual units of life, they are not closed to the environment around them -To operate, they constantly take in and release energy -Are either autotrophs or heterotrophs

major oceans

Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Southern Ocean, and Arctic

Clothing items that cling together after being tumbled and dried in a clothes dryer best illustrate which of the following?

The electrostatic force

According to the diagram above, which of the following statements about the full moon is true?

The full moon is never in the sky at the same time as the sun.

A piece of ice of unusual shape is dropped into a large glass of water and instantly floats. What is the best explanation for this occurrence? A. Ice contains microscopic bubbles of air B. The atomic structure of ice and water produce different densities C. Water contracts when frozen D. The ice has a density of less than 1.0

The ice has a density of less than 1.0 Any material with a density less than that of the liquid will float. Water has a density of 1.0

The moon at night appears to be a white object in the night sky. At the same time, the planet Mars appears to be reddish. What is the best explanation for the difference in color bw the 2 objects?

The light reflected by each All planets are visible only by the sunlight reflected from them. Only stars (sun) have an independent source of constant light

Which of the following best describes homeostasis in organisms?

The maintenance of a constant internal environment by an organism

During a moderate windstorm a bridge collapsed. After studying the structural failure, the Army Corps of Engineers issued an order mandating that soldiers cannot march in step while crossing a bridge. What is the principle on which the order discussed above is based?

The marching might make the bridge vibrate at its own natural frequency

Which is true of a chemical reaction?

The molecular structure of a substance changes.

Which is the cause of a new moon?

The moon orbits between the Earth and sun.

months are based on

The moon's rotation around the Earth.

differential heating

The motive force behind land breezes and sea breezes, also known as on- or off-shore winds. Land absorbs and radiates heat faster than water, but water releases heat over a longer period of time. Result: Locations where sea and land meet, heat absorbed over the day will radiate more quickly by land at night, cooling the air.

Which of the following is true about ionic bonds but NOT about covalent bonds?

They have a high polarity.

Which is true about comets?

They orbit the sun at the center of the solar system.

Which of the following is true about electrons?

They play a major role in chemical bonding.

Which of the following properties is the best evidence for considering viruses a life form?

They produce nucleic acids to reproduce themselves

What measurement does a caliper provide in a scientific process?

Thickness

Which of the following scientists is best known for research with electricity?

Thomas Edison

What is the primary reason that a genetic counselor would want to know the karyotype of an individual's chromosomes?

To determine the number and pairs of chromosomes. Inside each chromosome is stored the long DNA molecule that carries the coded messages that control all inhereited traits. In a karyotype, a pic of the chromosomes is analyzed for abnormal chromosomes. Can reveal if a baby has the correct number of chromosomes

Which best describes the function of the lysosomes in a cell?

To help the cell digest nutrients

Which best represents the function of DNA?

To provide instructions for a living organism

Which description best applies to the function of the endocrine system?

To regulate the activity of organs and cells

Third-class lever

Top: Output force (resistance) Middle: Input force (effort) End: Fulcrum Examples: baseball bat, fishing pole, shovel

Which of the following has the shortest wavelength? A. Red light B. Violet light C. UV radiation D. Infrared radiation

UV radiation

Certain lakes in arid environments, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea in Israel, are extremely saline. Other lakes in similarly arid environments contain fresh, rather than salt, water. Which of the following is the most accurate explanation for the high salinity of saltwater lakes?

Water does not drain out of saltwater lakes and is removed primarily by evaporation, which leaves salt behind.

An experiment is conducted in which 5 circular holes of equal size are cut into a large plastic bottle. The holes are arranged from top to bottom, with each hole exactly 1 inch from the next. The holes are covered with tape, and the bottle is filled with water. The tape is then removed.

Water from the bottom will squirt out farther than that from any other hole Water pressure increases with depth

covalent bond

a bond formed when atoms share one or more of their valence electrons, orbits in the shell path of both atoms

motion

a change in position -a constant change in the location of the body, and is described by stating an object's position, velocity, and acceleration -unless an object is moving in a vacuum, the object causes displacement

Scientists believe that the solar system formed from which of the following?

a cloud of gas and dust

which is the most logical global climatic consequence of cataclysmic volcanic eruptions?

a decline in the sun's energy that reaches earth, resulting in higher global temps send dust into atmosphere which acts as a shield to the sun rays, could have contributed to the last ice age

metamorphosis

a distinct change in physical appearance an organism can go through from birth to death

The shape of the Milky Way galaxy is best described as:

a flat central disk with rotating spiral arms.

fluorescent lamp

a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor -the excited mercury atoms produce shortwave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light. -unlike incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps always require a ballast to regulate the glow of power through the lamp. however, a fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light more efficiently than an incandescent lamp, lower energy costs offset the higher initial cost of the lamp. -compared with incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps use less power for the same amount of light, generally last longer, but are bulkier, more complex, and more expensive than a comparable incandescent lamp

chorophyll

a green-colored magnesium containing pigment is essential to this process. it is generally present in plant leaves and often in other plant parts as well

pulley machine

a grooved wheel with a rope or other object wrapped around it. raising and lowering window blinds is an example of a pulley system. a pulley can change the direction of a force or the amount of force

solution (mixture type)

a homogeneous mixture in which one substance has dissolved into the other (ie saline), distribution is even, cannot separate

sun

a huge ball of incandescent gases. mass is more than 300,000 times that of earth, and its volume could engulf a million earths -the principle constituents of the sun are the lightest elements, helium and hydrogen -under solar conditions, those gases are undergoing nuclear fusion to heavier elements with the release of prodigious quantities of energy

mountain

a landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area, with a peak. generally steeper than a hill, but there is no universally accepted standard definition for the height of a mountain or a hill, although a mountain usually has an identifiable summit

A maritime air mass is an air mass that forms over

a large body of water

the primary chemical element in these compounds is

carbon -the physical properties have great affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms -its small size makes it capable of forming multiple bonds and makes it ideal as the basis of organic life -it is able to form small compounds containing 3 atoms such as carbon dioxide, as well as large chains of many thousands of atoms that are able to store data (nucleic acids), hold cells together, and transmit info (protein)

the optic nerve

carries impulses from the light sensitive cells of the retina to the brain

adaptation

characteristic of an organism that has been favored by natural selection and increases the fitness of its possessor -the change in living organisms that allows them to live successfully -can be structural (skin color, shape, body covering), behavioral (ie phototropism) or physiological (venom, slime, homeostatis)

Which of the following cell structures are made only of DNA and protein?

chromosomes

meteors

chucks of rock that strike a planet, meteors enter the earth's atmosphere all the time. usually the friction of the air colliding with it causes it to burn up before it reaches earth's surface -when you see a shooting star, you're seeing a meteor burn up -when a meteor strikes the moon, it collides into it because it has no atmosphere, causing a crater

Which of the following organ systems is responsible for the transport of blood and nutrients?

circulatory

altostratus clouds

clouds piled in waves and indicate rain or snow

which is not a reliable indicator in identifying hardness? a. color b. cleavage c. density d. scratch test

color

seasonal temperature changes

compared to axial tilt, other factors contribute little. the seasons are not the result of the variation in earth's distance to the sun, because of its elliptical orbit, earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer when farther from the sun. this is because the northern hemisphere has more land than the southern hemisphere and land warms more readily than sea

lithosphere

comprising the crust and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle

As currents move, heat is transferred from a liquid into a cooler area. Which method of heat transfer does this describe?

convection

cool air vs warm air

cool air is heavier. sinks down from areas of high pressure. air always moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure. warm air rises and produces low pressure near ground level. as cooler air moves down, it leaves areas of high pressure. when two air masses meet, a front develops and poor weather results. a rising barometer (pressure) generally indicates improving weather and a falling barometer (lower pressure) indicates poor weather

red stars

coolest stars

fossil fuels

created by the compression of biological matter beneath layers of sedimentary rock, are renewable over a geological timescale, but not over a human timescale (oil, coal, etc)

Which type of cloud is most closely associated with the formation of tornadoes?

cumulonimbus

what type of cloud indicates an upcoming thunderstorm?

cumulonimbus

29. Which of the following is the most acidic? A. Vinegar B. Milk C. Bleach D. Household lye

a. vinegar

pH solutions less than 7

acidic, examples: battery acid, lemon juice, vinegar, coffee, some foods, citrus BLUE litmus paper turns RED

all of the following must necessarily exist for all known forms of life except? a. air b. carbon atoms c. nucleic acids d. water

air some organisms (including yeasts and bacteria) are anaerobic- existing without free oxygen. for these organisms through fermentation, glucose is changed into ethanol and carbon dioxide anaerobically

A scientist would use a barometer in order to compare which of the following conditions between two localities?

air pressure

response to stimuli

all do this. even jellyfish

food chains

also called food networks or trophic social networks, describe the eating relationships bw species within an ecosystem -organisms are connected to the organisms they consume by lines representing the direction of organism or energy transfer -food chains show how the energy from the producer is given to the consumer -typically a food chain refers to a graph where only connections are recorded, and a food network or ecosystem refers to a network where the connections are given weights representing the quantity of nutrients or energy being transferred

long period comets

are believed to originate at a much greater distance from the Sun, in a cloud (the Oort cloud) consisting of debris left over from the condensation of the solar nebula

High Pressure- Cyclone

associated with improving weather, hot air expands causing it to heat up

Low Pressure - Anticyclone

associated with poor weather (storms), cool air contracts

brain stem

at the base where brain connects to the spinal cord. responsible for life support functions, ie respiration, heart rate, digestion

example of a wedge

ax, knife, zipper, pencil sharpener, cheese grater, shovel. instead of an object moving across an inclined plane, the inclined plane moves

lunar eclipse

darkens the moon as the earth passes bw it and the sun, casting a shadow on the moon. may be seen from anywhere the moon is visible, about half of the earth. SUN-EARTH-MOON -sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth

with science tools how would you find the density of a marble?

density: mass / volume. to find mass, use a balance to see how much it weighs. find volume with displacement using graduated cylinder (difference bw where water is and was)

plate techtonics

describes the movement of several large plates that make up the surface of Earth (lithosphere). encompasses the older concepts of continental drift and seafloor spreading -the outermost part of the earth's interior is made of 2 layers

Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged by _____

diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. this exchange process occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs

mitosis creates

diploid cells, which are typically capable of starting the process again

magnetism

displayed by permanent magnets and around electric currents. the north pole of one magnet attracts the south pole of the other, but like poles repel each other -Iron filings spread out on a piece of paper above a bar magnet become arranged in a pattern that maps a magnetic field in the space around the magnet -The earth's magnetic field orients the iron needles of navigational compasses -An electric current also generates a magnetic field, demonstrating an intimate connection between electricity and magnetism

plants

divided into 5 broad groups: fungi, algae, ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms

asexual reproduction

does not involve meiosis, or fertilization -only one parent is involved -primary form of reproduction for single celled organisms such as the archaea, bacteria, and protists, many plant and fungi

mesozoic era

beginning 225,000,000 years before now, duration 155,000,000 years, reptiles

cenozoic era

beginning 70,000,000 years before now, duration 70,000,000 years, life forms: mammals

asthenosphere

below the lithosphere. solid, but has relatively low viscosity and shear strength and can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. -the deeper mantle below the atmosphere is more rigid, due to higher pressure

two types of fluids that move through the circulatory system

blood and lymph -cardiovascular system and lymphatic system make up circulatory system

where are blood cells produced

bone marrow

trough

bottom of a wave's hill

ventricles

bottom, larger chambers of the heart -left ventricle is most powerful chamber of heart

38. Which structure is responsible for regulating basic functions such as respiration and heartbeat?

brainstem

seasonal weather differences

bw hemispheres are caused by earth's elliptical orbit. earth reaches perihelion (the point in its orbit closest to the sun) in January, and aphelion (farthest point from the sun) in July -weather fluctuations depend on factors such as proximity to oceans or other large bodies of water, currents in those oceans, El Nino, and other oceanic cycles and prevailing winds

The positions of stars seen in the summer at 11 P.M. are different than those seen in the winter at the same time. Which of the following best explains this?

earth revolves around the sun

A spacecraft uses its engines to escape earth's gravitational pull. once in space, the spacecraft does not need its engines to stay in the orbit. which best explains why an astronaut in orbit is weightless?

earth's gravity pulls the spacecraft and the astronaut equally, but no force pulls the astronaut to the spacecraft

seasons are caused by

earth's tilt on its own axis. as it revolves around the sun, the tilt causes each hemisphere to receive more direct exposure at certain times in the orbit (earth pointed away from sun in north- winter)

The magnitude of which of the following can be measured using the Richter scale?

earthquakes

51. The map below depicts a fictional continent located in the northern hemisphere of a planet similar to Earth. A warm water current from the south flows along the west coast of the continent. A cold water current from the north flows along the east coast of the continent. Based on the map above, which of the continent's major cities would be most likely to encounter a hurricane?

eddenfirth (near warm water)

electromagnetism

electricity and magnetism, each can be used to create the other

Most of an atom's volume is

empty space

almost all ecosystems run on

energy captured by the primary producers -photosynthetic plants fix carbon from carbon dioxide, and nitrogen from atmospheric nitrogen or nitrates present in the soul, to produce amino acids -much of carbon and nitrogen contained in ecosystems is created by such plants and is then consumed by and incorporated into secondary and tertiary consumers -nutrients are usually returned to the ecosystem through decomposition. -the entire movements of chemicals in an ecosystem is termed a biogeochemical cycle, and includes the carbon and nitrogen cycle

law of conservation of energy

energy changes forms but is not created or destroyed

Most hurricanes form in which general part of the planet?

equator

boiling and freezing point

every substance has its own boiling and freezing points.

solar system

everything that surrounds a star. made up of numerous bodies which orbit the sun due to centrifugal force (the balance between inertia and gravity)

During the Loma Prieta Earthquake of 1989, homes located nearest to San Francisco Bay generally sustained worse damage than similar homes further from the bay. The severity of the damage sustained by homes nearest to the bay is most likely due to the:

existence of sediments and fill near the shoreline.

Which of the following is not considered a major class of nutrient?

fibers

31. What is the term for the process of releasing atomic energy by bombarding a dense element with neutrons and splitting its nucleus? A. Fusion B. Gamma radiation C. Fission D. Quantum mechanics

fission

a nuclear reactor that powers an electricity generating plant relies on

fission. All nuclear reactors obtain their energy through fission, which releases energy when a heavy nucleus splits into smaller fragments. In fusion, tremendous energy is released when very light nuclei unite to form a heavier nucleus. Stars, including the sun, derive their energy through fusion, as do hydrogen bombs

which lightbulb uses less energy?

fluorescent light bulb -when external radiation bombards certain types of elements, the excited atoms fluoresce, giving off electromagnetic energy, often in the form of light -electricity stimulates these atoms and they fluoresce on their own -with an incandescent light you have to push electricity through a filament

which characteristic of a wave must change in order to affect the pitch of a sound

frequency. the pitch of a sound depends on how fast the particles of a medium vibrate. the number of waves produced in a given time is the frequency

first class lever

fulcrum is in the middle of an object, the output and input force are at the ends. can multiply force or distance ex: seesaw, scissors, pliers

A total lunar eclipse occurs when Earth casts a shadow on the Moon. What is the Moon's phase when a total lunar eclipse occurs?

full moon

polar orbiting

give more detailed information around the polar regions of earth. because they're up in the poles, they're orbiting closer to earth and can give more detailed images

When a seed germinates, its roots will grow down and its shoots will grow up, even if the seed is planted upside down. This downward growth of roots and upward growth of shoots is due to the plant's response to:

gravity

Which of the following holds stars together in the form of a galaxy?

gravity

Which point on the map above would be likely to experience the greatest daily difference between high and low tides?

gulf of mexico, they have a diurnal tide

The time required for half the atoms of a particular substance to disintegrate is known as that substance's

half life

first and third quarters

half the moon is lit

meiosis creates

haploid cells (only has one chromosome) which must join with another gamete (sex cell) in order to continue cell division, typically a sperm, ova, egg -process has to be occuring in testes or ovaries. with embryo its mitosis

The energy pyramid is narrower at the top than at the bottom because organisms at the higher levels:

have less energy available to them than organisms at the lower levels.

main component of human circulatory system

heart, blood, blood vessels

homeostasis

how an organism maintains a variety of factors necessary for effective metabolism etc. key factor is body temp -ie warm blooded (internally regulate) and cold blooded (externally)

food pyramids

illustrate life glow in an ecosystem. the base of the food pyramid (producers) supports all of the other levels of the pyramid at each succeeding level, there is a decrease in available energy

when a mutation in a gene occurs it does not have an effect on the group unless the

individual lives long enough to breed

food web

interconnected energy systems. a food web demonstrates the alternate energy links available to an organism. food webs help explain predator/prey relationships in an ecosystem and include networks of food chains

inner core is made of

iron and nickel

rust

iron and oxygen

after being processed in the stomach, food

is passed to the small intestine -the majority of digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine. absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestional tract, and the process ends with defecation

the cerebrum

is the largest part of the brain, it receives info from the senses and makes conscious decisions

the function of white blood cells

is to fight infection, while platelets initiate the clotting necessary to stop bleeding after a wound -

which is not a true statement regarding ozone depletion?

it is directly linked to a rise in earth's avg temp warming trend is caused by an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide

when white light (including sunlight is refracted by a glass prism

it is separated into its component colors as a beautiful spectrum. experiments have shown that various colors travel at uniform speed c= 186,000 miles / second = 3 x 10^8 meters/second -the colors differ in wavelength

Which best summarizes the importance of homeostasis in the human body?

it regulates the control systems to ensure proper cell function

cumulonimbus clouds

large, dark clouds that indicate thunderstorms

Which chamber of the heart labeled in the diagram above is primarily responsible for pumping blood to most of the organs and tissues of the body?

left ventricle

Which of the following properties of a solid object is most likely to remain unchanged as the object accelerates down an inclined ramp that has a frictionless surface?

mass

37. During which phase of mitosis do the duplicated chromosomes line up along the equatorial plate of the spindle?

metaphase

Which of the following characteristics is (are) unique to mammals?

milk producing glands

Which objects do NOT orbit directly around the sun?

moon

full moon

moon phase when the entire side facing Earth is illuminated.

graduated cylinder

more accurate way of containing liquids

chronological order of the evolutionary appearance of the following plants?

moss-fern-pine-rose

Polar bears developed their white coats by accident when a gene turned some of them white. Which process does this describe?

mutation

Sickle-cell anemia is an inherited disorder that results from a change in the amino acid sequence of the beta-globin molecule. The change in the beta-globin molecule is the result of which of the following?

mutation of a gene

Certain species of acacia trees have long hollow thorns that house stinging ants. The ants feed on nectar produced by the tree and attack anything that touches the tree. The relationship between the ants and the acacias is an example of:

mutualism

In which of the following organ systems are the brain and spinal cord found?

nervous

functional unit of the nervous system

neuron nerve cell with short dendrites that carry electrical impulses to the cell body and long axon, the outgoing fiber along which the impulse is transmitted further

in the human heart

one atrium, one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary circulation -4 chambers in total: left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle

diurnal tide

one tide cycle per day.

symbiotic relationship

organisms live in close interaction with one another

the heart pumps __ to the body and __ to the lungs

oxygenated blood to the body deoxygenated blood to the lungs

Which of the following is a measure of the acidity of an aqueous solution?

pH

metaphase

phase of mitosis in which the duplicated chromosomes line up across the center of the cell -spindle starts to grow, which eventualy cuts the cell in 2

plants and animals are classified into

phyla on the basis of their cells, tissues, organs, and overall organization, each phylum is a major group of organisms

Multicellularity and the ability to carry out photosynthesis are characteristics of which of the following groups?

plants

plant pollination

plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate. -nonflowering plants like ferns, moss and liverworts use other means of sexual reproduction

Which of the following properties has the greatest influence on the amount of water that can be stored in an underground rock?

porosity

mitochondria

powerhouse of the cell. take carbs and ATP and metabolize them into a usable form of energy

why does weather occur?

primarily due to density (temp and moisture) differences bw one location and another. these differences can occur due to the angle of the sun at a particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics (the farther from the tropics you are positioned, the lower is the angle of the sun). this causes those locations to be cooler due to indirect sunlight. the strong temp contrast bw polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream

meiosis

process of reductional division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half. creation of sex cells -in animals, meiosis always results in the form of GAMETES, while other organisms can give rise to spores -essential for sexual reproduction and occurs in all eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi, protists) that reproduce sexually -does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce through asexual processes such as binary fission

autotophs

produce usable energy in the form of organic compounds, using light from the sun or inorganic compounds

changing tide

produced at a given location is the result of the changing positions of the moon and sun relative to the earth, coupled with the effects of the earth's rotation and bathymetry of oceans, seas and estuaries. -sea level measured by coastal tide gauges may also be affected strongly by the wind

bunsen burner

produces a controlled flame, used to cause substances to change state from a solid to a liquid, or use to create chemical reaction

anther

produces male gametophytes, and the sperm is produced by pollen grains, which attach to the stigma on top of a carpel, in which the female gametophytes (inside ovules) are located

Krebs cycle

produces molecules that carry energy to the second part of cellular respiration sugar + oxygen --krebs cycle--> carbon dioxide + water + energy

in the periodic table shown above, an element's atomic number indicates the number of

protons

what makes up the nucleus of an atom

protons and neutrons

subatomic particles

protons, neutrons, electrons

the circulatory system includes

pulmonary circulation: a loop through the lungs where blood is oxygenated and systemic circulation: a loop through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood

42. Within a forest ecosystem, which of the following would be considered a primary consumer? A. Grass B. Rabbit C. Snake D. Hawk

rabbit (herbivore)

In which form of heat transfer is energy transported through space?

radiation

example of inclined plane

ramp, stairs

40. Which of these is not a division within the standard system of scientific taxonomy? A. Phylum B. Species C. Rank D. Order

rank

light rays are

refracted as they pass through the cornea, lens and virtuous body to focus on the retina

Before a dividing cell can begin mitosis, the DNA of the cell must undergo

replication

sound waves

required a medium and travel much slower than light waves. cannot travel through outer space

digestive system

responsible for breaking down and absorbing food -includes salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum -coating food with saliva which makes it easier for food to go down your throat, passes down esophagus, into stomach with mucus lining, then pancreas secretes acids which further break down food, food passed into small intestine where we absorb nutrition then the depleted goes through large intestine then excreted through rectum

static electricity

results hen electrical charges build up or increase on the surface of a material. no current flowing. when certain materials are rubbed together, electrons can move from one object to another. -a material can become negatively or positively charged if electrons in the material are gained or lost. ex: spark against wool rug or doorknob, hair positively charged from balloon (since opposites attract, balloon will cling to hair), lightning

in plants and in many protists, meiosis

results in the formation of haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization (spores) -in these groups, gametes are produced by mitosis -meiosis uses many of the same biochemical mechanisms employed during mitosis to accomplish the redistribution of chromosomes -there are several features unique to meiosis, most importantly the pairing and genetic recombination bw homologous chromosomes

periods

rows in periodic table

50. During which phase of the water cycle is water most likely to act as an agent of transportation for sediments? A. Precipitation B. Evaporation C. Infiltration D. Runoff

runoff

balanced atom

same amount of protons and electrons

in a neutral atom

same number of protons and electrons

48. Which of the below is an example of metamorphic rock? A. Sand B. Sediment C. Schist D. Granite

schist

Chemical reactions

show the number of molecules or formula units of the reactants and products. -For example, nitrous oxide is a colorless, odorless gas that causes mild hysteria when inhaled, it is prepared by heating ammonium nitrate crystals

anaphase- mitosis

sister chromatids separate

stratus clouds

smooth layers of low clouds that indicate a chance of drizzle or snow

Which of the following environmental factors is likely most important in determining the distribution of the plant species within the swamp-forest ecosystem described?

soil moisture

Which of the following is an example of a mixture?

solution

catalyst

something that sparks a chemical reaction such as a spark (fire)

Which category is narrower than genus in the biological taxonomy?

species

Which of the following is a structure formed during the asexual phase of the moss life cycle?

spore

quantum theory

states that both matter and energy have the properties of both particles and waves

theory of relativity

states that space and time are relative, not absolute concepts

Ecosystem relationships are primarily governed by ___ events

stochastic (chance) events, the reactions these events provoke on nonliving material, and the responses by organisms to the conditions surrounding them -an ecosystem results from the sum of individual responses of organisms to stimuli from elements in the environment -presence or nonpresence of populations depends on reproductive and dispersal success, and population level fluctuate in response to stochastic events -if the number of species in an ecosystem is higher, than the number of stimuli is also higher

potential energy

stored energy

elements

substances made with different combos of protons, neutrons & electrons & different properties

Th sun converts nuclear energy to electromagnetic energy and thermal energy. Which of the following is the best example of a change from thermal energy to chemical energy when solar energy reaches earth?

sugars in the leaves of plants

the final products of digestion

sugars, glycerol, fatty acids, and amino acids- are absorbed into the bloodstream through the millions of projections (villi) lining the small intestine -once in the blood, these molecules are metabolized into various body tissues

el nino and la nina

sustained sea surface temp anbormalies of magnitude greater than 0.5C across the central tropical pacific ocean

heterotrophs

take in organic compounds from the environment

solar eclipse

takes place when the moon passes bw the earth and the sun, with the moon blocking the sunlight for about 2 mins. a total eclipse of the sun may be seen only from a small zone on the earth. SUN-MOON-EARTH -moon is between the earth and the sun

balance

tells you the mass of an object

the two factors that cause a substance to change state are

temp and pressure

Which agricultural practice helps maximize yield, specifically in mountainous areas of steep elevation?

terracing

forms of energy

the ability to perform work, to move objects. can define various forms of energy so that their mathematical sum is constant -Solar -Chemical -Electrical -Magnetic -Nuclear -Sound -Light -Electromagnetic -Mechanical (motion)

Which of the following is a chemical change?

the burning of wood

erosion

the carrying away or displacement of solids (sediment, soil, rock and other particles), usually by the agents of currents such as wind, water, or ice by downward or downslope movement in response to gravity -distinguished from weathering, which is the process of chemical or physical breakdown of minerals in the rocks, although the 2 processes may be concurrent -most likely erosion will have occurred at the bottom layer of a bed before the top sedimentary layer got deposited

metaphase 3

the chromosomes align themselves in a line spanning the cell, microtubules, miniature strings, splay out from opposite ends of the cell and shorten, pilling apart the sister chromatids of each chromosome

why is climate on west coast of CA relatively cool in the summer compared to temps on the east coast of NY?

the cold-water currents creates cooler climates in coastal areas

the seasons of the year are

the consequence of Earth's equatorial plane being tilted about 23 degrees from the orbital plane -in each hemisphere at noontime, the sun is near the zenith during summer and low in the sky during winter

tectonic plates

the lithosphere is divided into pieces -7 major plates, and many minor -the plates ride of the asthenosphere -move in relation to one another at one of 3 types of plate boundaries, convergent or collision boundaries, divergent or spreading boundaries, and transform boundaries. -earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, and oceanic trench formation occur along plate boundaries. the lateral movement of the plates is typically at speeds of 50-100mm annually

soil

the materials left over after the rock breaks down combine with organic material to create soil -the mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material, thus a soil derived from a single rock type can often by deficient in one or more minerals for good fertility, while a soil weathered from a mix of rock types often makes a more fertile soil

temperature

the measure of kinetic energy in a substance's molecules, atomic motion. -the hotter the substance is, the faster it moves. heat causes molecular movement and molecular movement causes heat. -substances become less dense as they get hotter, that's why gas is less dense than a liquid -as the molecules move more quickly they don't want to run into each other, creating more space

45. What is the moon's position relative to Earth during a lunar eclipse?

the moon and sun are on opposite sides of the earth

Months are based on which of the following?

the moon's revolution around the earth

doppler effect

the motion of objects emitting or reflecting sound waves changes their frequency. car starts in a fixed location and is producing sound at a certain frequency. as the car starts to move the waves in front of it are not as far apart, more space behind the car. it causes a change in frequency because they are closer together. the higher the frequency, the higher the pitch -ex cars on race track as they go by you higher pitch sound, as they leave lower pitch. you are hearing waves closer as they come together then farther apart -weather tracking: inaudible waves are sent out, the waves hit a cloud and bounce back to a receiver. if they come back with the same frequency, the cloud is not moving. if the cloud is moving toward us, it would come back with a higher frequency

phototripism

the movement of a plant in a reaction to a stimulus (light source). in phototropism, due to complex chemical changes, the plant bends toward the light source.

frequency

the number of waves produced in a given amount of time. how often a crest passes a point. how many crests pass a given point per second -higher frequency causes: speed or wavelength (how close or far apart) -ex: FM radio

Which is the largest structure of the Earth's hydrosphere?

the oceans

tides

the rising of the earth's ocean surface caused by the tidal forces of the moon and the sun acting on the oceans. -caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the earth. the moon exerts more gravitational pull on the earth than the sun. the earth bends toward the gravitational pull -tides cause change in the depth of the marine and estuarine water bodies and produce oscillating currents known as tidal streams, making prediction of tides important for coastal navigation

atomic number

the same number of protons a particular type of atom has. the atomic number defines the type of element, if you add a proton to helium, you don't have helium anymore, you can change electrons or neutrons but not protons

geology

the science that describes and interprets the earth -classifies materials that make up the earth, observes their shapes and distribution, and tries to discover the processes that caused its materials to be formed in that manner -some major fields are geomorphology (landforms), petrology (rocks), stratigraphy (layered rocks) and paleontology (fossils)

after the pollen tube grows through the carpel's style

the sex cell nuclei from the pollen grain migrate into the ovule to fertilize the egg cell. the resulting zygote develops into an embryo

New Moon

the side of the moon that's facing the sun is lit up, if it's daytime you won't see anything

sublimination

the state change where a solid (ice or snow) changes directly into a gas (water vapor). SOLID --> GAS

ecosystem

the sum of interacting living organisms and their nonliving environment (the biotope) in an area -studies of ecosystems usually focus on the movement of energy and matter through the system -the types of organisms that an ecosystem can support depends upon the amount of water, the most important factor in the distribution of plant life

mass number

the sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus

neap tide

the sun, earth, and moon form a 90 degree angle with earth at the vertex- results in tidal ranges on the earth. tidal range is lowest during a neap tide

light sources come from

the sun, lightbulbs, excited atoms (neon, fluorescent bulb)

taxonomy

the system by which are living things are categorized. Kingdom (plant vs animal)- phylum- class- order - family- genus-species King Philip Came Over For Good Soup

evaporation

the transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. the source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation -often implicitly includes transpiration from plants. although together they are specifically referred to as evotranspiration

the right atrium

the upper chamber on the right side of the heart -receives blood from the upper body through the superior vena cava, and from the lower body through the inferior vena cava

runoff

the variety of ways by which water moves across the land. this includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. as it flows, the water may percolate into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses

Which of the following is true of the four planets farthest from the Sun compared with the four planets closest to the Sun?

they are less dense

Which of the following is true about covalent bonds?

they have low polarity

enzymes are proteins that are essential during metabolism. which best summarizes the importance of enzymes in the metabolic process?

they permit certain chemical reactions to proceed at significant speeds

short period comets

thought to originate in the Kuinper belt, or associated with scattered discs, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune

Which best represents the basic function of leaves?

to convert sunlight to energy

A researcher is preparing to study the effects of logging on the streams and lakes of an area in the Pacific Northwest. Which of the following types of information would be a primary source of data to the researcher in preparing for this investigation?

topographic maps of the area showing logging roads and areas of clear-cutting

motor neurons

transmit signals from the central nervous system to the muscles

red cells

transport oxygen in combo with the iron pigment, hemoglobin, like truckers on the highway

moon

travels around the earth each month. its distance from Earth averages 237,000 miles -has rugged topography formed billions of years ago by volcanic eruptions and meteor

Semidiurnal

two high waters and to low waters per day. most tide cycles are this

A large round boulder is pushed from the top of a smooth steep hill and rolls to the bottom. Which of the following graphs shows the distance the boulder travels with respect to time as it rolls down the hill?

upward curve

cytoplasm

varies in consistency from a fluid to a semisolid. inside are functional bodies: centrosome, ribosomes, mitochondria, golgi bodies, vacuoles -everything inside cell membrane, where all other organelles are floating

Which of the following represents the amount of space an object takes up?

volume

Evapotranspiration

water transpired from plants and evaporated from plants and evaporated from the soil

metabolism

way of using energy

full moon and tides

when the earth, sun and moon form a line, the tidal forces due to the sun reinforce those of the moon. the tide's range is at a max and is called a spring tide (jump)

spring tide

when the moon and the sun are in alignment, more extreme tides

neap tides

when the moon and the sun are pulling at perpendicular angles, less extreme tides

retina

where an image is formed

plasma

where nutrients, waste, hormones, antibodies, and enzymes are dissolved

plant ovary

which produced the female gametophytes, then grows into a fruit, which surrounds the seeds.

The stems of a bunch of just-cut white flowers are immersed in a container of water to which blue dye has been added. After 24 hours, 2 tablespoons of salt are added to the water. Twenty-four hours later the flowers will most likely appear:

wilted and light blue

41. Which of the following is not a necessary component of photosynthesis? A. Sunlight B. Water C. Carbon dioxide D. Wind

wind

bonds

within compounds, the various atoms making up molecules are held together by bonds

scale

works on compressed spring based on gravity

cerebral cortex

wrinkly outer later made up of 4 different lobes, responsible for a variety of higher-functioning behavior such as spatial awareness, conscious thought, and reasoning, language, process vision -inner cortical structures ie things that process satiation, fear responses, memory (hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalumus)

Iron

Fe protons: 26 neutrons: 30 mass: 56

waves are created by

-wind, which stirs the ocean's surface over great distances

cirrus clouds

Featherlike clouds that indicate fair weather

battery giving energy to lightbulb. Which kind of energy transformation?

Chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. The battery converts stored (potential) chemical energy to electrical energy.

In what part of the subcellular organelle is genetic material stored? A. Vaculoes B. Chromosomes C. Cytoplam D. Membranes

Chromosomes Contain all genetic material. Inside each xsome is stored the long DNA molecule that carries the coded messages that control all inherited traits. In the nucleus

prophase

Chromosomes become visable, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle forms chromosomes thicken, centrosomes divide nuclear membrane disappears and spindle develops

metaphase- mitosis

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and gather on spindle

Which THREE of the following actions will result in reduced energy consumption?

Commuting to work using public transportation instead of driving alone in a gasoline-powered car Setting the thermostat for a home cooling system to a higher temperature in warm weather Preventing electrical appliances from drawing power in standby mode by unplugging them when they are not in use

Approximately how long ago did the first anatomically modern humans appear on the Earth?

200,000 years ago

How many pairs of chromosomes are contained within a typical cell in the human body?

23

core

31% of the earth's mass; iron and nickel metals, melted by the extremely high temperature of the center of the earth

an average adult contains

5-6 quarts of blood, composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. -the digestive system works w it to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping

earth's structure

Has been inferred from its astronomical properties and seismic records of earthquake waves that have traveled through the interior of the earth -Center: 3000°C (temperature rises from the surface to the center

In which order should the "three R's" be listed in terms of importance and benefit to the environment?

Reduce, reuse, and then recycle

reproductive system

Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (oocytes) -sperm cells are created in the testes and eggs are created in the ovaries. when a sperm fertilizes an egg, the two haploid cells combine to form a diploid cell -the key advantage to sexual reproduction is greater genetic variation -disadvantage, requires a mate, no choice after fertilization -ie aphids in the summer can reproduce asexually in the summer when they have lots of food

Amoebas can live in soil or water. Which of the following biological processes is most helpful in explaining the metabolism process of an amoeba?

Respiration The central life process during metabolism. Oxygen is taken in, allowing a stored chemical, allowing stored chemical energy to be released. Respiration takes place within a cell.

interphase 1 (mitosis)

S phase, the interphase period that precedes the miotic phase in the cell cycle where preparation for mitosis occurs. each new chromosome now contains two identical copies of itself, called sister chromatids, attached together in a specialized region of the chromosome known as the centromere

Which of the following is a true statement about temperature?

Temperature is a measure of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance.

C14 is an isotope of C12. Both carbon atoms have an atomic number of six. Which of the following is the main difference between these two types of carbon atom?

The C14 atom has eight neutrons and the C12 atom has six neutrons.

Midochondria

-conducts metabolism

Mountain breezes and valley breezes

-Due to a combination of differential heating and geometry -When the sun rises, it is the tops of the mountain peaks which receive first light, and as the day progresses, the mountain slopes take on a greater heat load than the valleys -This results in a temperature inequality between the two, and as warm air rises off the slopes, cool air moves up out of the valleys to replace it -This upslope wind is called a valley breeze -The opposite effect takes place in the afternoon, as the valley radiates heat -The peaks, long since cooled, transport air into the valley in a process that is partly gravitational and partly convective and is called a mountain breeze

nonrenewable energy

-Energy taken from finite resources that will eventually dwindle, becoming too expensive or too environmentally damaging to retrieve -Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, and natural gas -Fossil fuels are limited and nonrenewable and contribute to global warming -coal is a major source of pollution -When fossil fuels are burned, they release trapped energy in the form of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere -Carbon dioxide and methane are major greenhouse gases. light passes through greenhouse gases quicker -The burning of coal also contributes to the formation of acid rain

transfer to heat

-Heat tends to move from a high-temperature region to a low-temperature region -This heat transfer may occur by the mechanisms of conduction, radiation, and convection

galaxies

-Huge systems of billions of stars -Milky Way is estimated to have 100 billion stars arranged in a great spiral disk ---The sun is not at the center of the disk, but out toward the perimeter, and is revolving around the galactic center -Neighboring Andromeda galaxy is about 20 million light-years away -Galaxies of spiral, elliptical, and irregular form are speckled throughout the visible universe -Largest telescope has detected galaxies to its limit of several billion light-years -the spectra of distant objects displays a red shift, which is interpreted as meaning that they are rapidly receding from us -the apparent expansion of the universe has given rise to the big bang theory, where one primeval mass exploded about 12 billion years ago

the sensory system

-Includes those specialized structures that initiate a nerve impulse after being affected by the environment -The eyes are the organs of vision -Light rays are refracted as they pass through the cornea, lens, and vitreous body to focus on the retina, where an image is formed -The optic nerve then carries impulses from the light-sensitive cells of the retina to the brain

equinoxes

-Occur twice a year, when the tilt of the earth's axis is oriented neither from nor to the sun, causing the sun to be located vertically above a point on the equator -happens each year at 2 specific moments when the center of the sun can be observed to be vertically above the equator, occuring around March 20 and Sept 22 each year

winter solstice

-Occurs at the instant when the sun's position in the sky is at its greatest angular distance on the other side of the equatorial plane from the observer's hemisphere (when the sun is at its greatest distance from the equator) -Depending on the shift of the calendar, the winter solstice occurs some time between Dec. 20 and Dec. 23 each year in the Northern Hemisphere, and between June 20 and June 23 in the Southern Hemisphere, during either the shortest day or the longest night of the year

optics

-Refraction occurs when light waves travel from a medium with a given refractive index to a medium with a different index -Lead to invention of lenses and refracting telescope example: light will refract as it enters and leaves glass, assuming there is a change in the refractive index

nuclear fission

-Releases energy when a heavy nucleus splits into smaller fragments. -ex: bombarding uranium with a neutron produces an unstable, intermediate, which disintegrates to lighter nuclei with the conversion of 0.1 percent of the mass into energy -Used in power plants and atomic bombs

seasons

-Result from the earth's axis being tilted to its orbital plane, NOT the result of the variation in the earth's distance to the sun (Because of its elliptical orbit, the earth as a whole is slightly warmer when away from the sun; this is because the Northern Hemisphere has more land than the Southern Hemisphere, and land warms more readily than sea) -Axis tilt deviates by an angle of approximately 23.5 degrees -Thus, at any given time during summer or winter, one part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the sun -This exposure alternates as the earth revolves in its orbit -At any given time, regardless of season, the Northern and Southern Hemispheres experience opposite seasons

deserts

-Take up about 1/3 of the earth's land surface -Usually have a large diurnal (day) and seasonal temperature range, with high daytime temperatures, and low nighttime temperatures (due to extremely low humidity) -The temperature in the daytime can reach 45°C/113° or higher in the summer, and dip to 0°C/32° or lower in the winter -Water acts to trap infrared radiation from both the sun and the ground, and dry desert air is incapable of blocking sunlight during the day or trapping heat during the night -Thus, during daylight, most of the sun's heat reaches the ground and as soon as the sun sets, the desert cools quickly by radiating its heat into space -Many deserts are formed by rain shadows, mountains blocking the path of precipitation to the desert

respiratory system in plants

-The directionality of as exchange can be opposite to that in animals -Includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata

strata

-The layers of sediment deposited in a quiet environment -Common sites of deposition are lakes, deltas at the mouths of rivers, beaches and sandbars along the coast, and (most important) the marine environment -Commonly very extensive laterally and relatively thin vertically, like a blanket -Law of original horizontality: most sediments were deposited in beds that were originally horizontal, and any tilting is due to later earth movements -Law of superposition: younger beds were originally deposited above older beds

earth movements

-The result of forces within the earth, where temperature and pressure differences lead to instability -The stress is particularly severe in orogenic zones, which are characterized by volcanism, metamorphism, deformation, and uplift ---Two styles of rock deformation are faulting and folding ---Edge-of-continent deformation is attributed to plate tectonics, which suggests that oceanic crust emerges from the mantle along the oceanic ridges. -broad plates of oceanic crust may spread outward from the ridges until they crush against the margins of continental crust, the oceanic plate being forced under the continental plate and back into the mantle

hydrologic cycle

-The sun which drives the water cycle, heats water vapor in the oceans. Water evaporates as vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. -rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere, where cooler temps cause it to condense into clouds. -when air droplets get too big and air currents move clouds around the globe and cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation -some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years

fossils

-Traces of ancient life preserved in the layers/strata as shells, footprints, and bones. -because life has evolved continually through geological history, the fossils in older strata differ from those found in more recent deposits. in fact, strata deposited during one geological period contain characteristic life forms different from those of any other period. ex: the earliest fossil-rich beds have many trilobites, early crab-like creatures that have been extinct for hundreds of millions of years, discovery of fossil trilobites in a formation permits assignment of that bed to an early period

Earth

-Travels in an orbit that is slightly elliptical (oval), and so the distance from the sun ranges from 91.5 to 94.5 million miles -Its daily rotation deforms the earth to a flattened spheroid, with a polar radius slightly less than the equatorial radius Locations of the surface are described by a grid of latitude and longitude lines

characteristics of most life forms

-a living organism has a very complicated organization in which a series of processes take place. -life responds to its environment, often with movement -an organization must maintain itself and grow -finally, a plant or animal will produce new organisms much like itself -reproduction is the most universal process of life, explaining its survival and variety -carbon forms key building blocks of life. bonds readily with different elements -organisms need a habitat that provides food, water, and a method of maintaining homeostasis and reproducing

ferns

-both asexual and sexual reproducer -Lack seeds and reproduce by means of spores, each of which may develop into a new plant without fertilization. Unlike ferns, the seed plants require fertilization and male pollen grains are carried to the female ovule by vectors like the wind and insects

mitochondrion

-a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria are sometimes described as cellular power plants because they generate most of the cell's supple of ATP, used as a source of chemical energy. -also involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, and cell death, and control of the cell cycle / growth

Photosynthesis

-a metabolic pathway that converts light energy into chemical energy. Plants use the energy in sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere plus water into simple sugars. The sugars are used as the building blocks and form the main structural component of the plant. Chlorophyll, a green-colored magnesium containing pigment is essential to this process. it is generally present in plant leaves and often in other plant parts as well. Chlorophyll is necessary - plants break apart WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE --> to create CARBS + OXYGEN -the sugar made by plants can be oxidized later in a process that releases energy. The oxidation can be in the plant itself or in an animal that eats the plant. The release of energy by oxidation of sugar is respiration

waves

-a progressive disturbance propagated from point to point (with regularity between points).

plant cell nucleus

-a separate mass containing nucleoli and chromosomes, the genetic material

el nino

-a warm current of nutrient-poor tropical water, heated by its eastward passage into the equatorial current, replaces the cold, nutrient-rich surface water of the humboldt current, also known as the peru current, which supports great populations of cold fish

volcano

-an opening or rupture in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from below the surface -volcanic activity involving the extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like mountains over a period of time -generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging -a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the mid-atlantic ridge has examples of volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together -not usually created where 2 tectonic plates slide past one another -can also form where there is stretching or thinning of the earth's crust -can be caused by mantle plumes, hot spots. in hawaii they can occur from plate boundaries. hotspot volcanoes are also found elsewhere in the solar system, especially on rocky planets and moons

anaphase 4

-anaphase: cell begins to split. genetic material moves to opposite sides -as the cell elongates corresponding sister chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends and a new nuclear envelope forms around the separated sister chromosomes

effect of ocean currents

-arctic current going down on west coast, bringing cold water down -gulf stream on east coast bringing warm water up, can cause hurricanes bc hot air rises, leaving a space behind, creating low pressure. the surrounding high pressure regions want to equalize, so high pressure air flows into lower pressure region, causing winds of hurricane. as hot air rises, it takes water particles with it, creating storm clouds. earth spins underneath, causing a spinning action

metamorphic rock

-as rocks in sedimentary bed get deeper there is more pressure pushing down from above, turn into metamorphic rock. tend to be very pure -the result of the transformation of an existing rock type, the protolith, in a process called metamorphism, which means change in form. the protolith is subjected to heat and pressure (temperatures greater than 150-200 celcius and pressures of 1500 bars), causing profound physical or chemical change. the protolith may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock, or another metamorphic rock -make up a large part of the earth's crust and are classified by texture and by chemical change and mineral assemblage. they may be formed simply by being deep beneath the earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it -can be formed by tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion ex: gneiss, slate, marble, schist, quartzite, diamond -eventually the rock gets so hot that it heats up and becomes igneous

darwin's theory of evolution

-asserts that organisms have changed over time to adapt to the unique and varied demands of their changing environments -supporting evidence includes fossil records, comparative anatomy (ie looking at certain types of whales who have feet buried beneath blubber from when they were land-based) and DNA sequences -overtime, natural selection causes beneficial traits to be propagated and detrimental traits to be eliminated

weathering

-can occur by chemical means, such as acid rain, or physical means, such as rain, wind, and ice -generally requires at least some degree of surface exposure -landforms with smoother contours have generally undergone more erosion and are typically older than angular landforms -the decomposition of earth rocks, soils and their minerals through direct contact with the planet's atmosphere. occurs in situ, or with no movement, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, rice, wind, and gravity -mechanical or physical weathering: involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice, or pressure -chemical weathering: involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals (also known as biological weathering) in the breakdown of rocks, soils, and minerals

asteroids

-chunks of rock that orbit in a belt around the solar system -Sometimes called minor planets or planetoids -Bodies—primarily of the inner Solar System—that are smaller than planets but larger than meteoroids, excluding comets -The distinction between asteroids and comets is made by visual appearance; when discovered, comets show a perceptible coma while asteroids do not

ribosomes

-constructs proteins and assists in communication of the cells -house RNA which help to take DNA and translate that DNA to create proteins

telophase 5

-cutting action completes and the cells pull apart into 2 child cells Division of cytoplasm Chromosomes uncoil and decondense Nuclear envelope reforms Spindle fibers disappear Nucleus reforms -the mother cell will be split in half, giving rise to two daughter cells, each with equivalent and a complete copy of each original genome

refraction

-explains why objects appear bent as light passes from one transparent object into another. light travels faster through air than water or glass (solids, liquids, gases) -ex: an object such as a straw in a glass of water appears bent at the surface due to the refraction of light. light travels at different speeds through different objects -rainbows: liquid particles in the air, sun's light comes through the gas of atmosphere then passes through liquid, a different medium and gets refracted. when bent, the wavelengths are separated into colors of rainbow. water droplets are acting as a prism -ex: fish in fisk tank -refraction is also responsible for rainbows and the splitting of white light into a rainbow-spectrum as it passes through a glass prism. glass has a higher refractive index than air, and the different frequencies of light have different wavelengths (dispersion), causing them to be refracted at different angles so you can see them. the different frequencies correspond to different colors being observed

reproduction

-flowering plants reproduce by sexual and asexual means and are the dominant plant form on land -often their most distinguishing feature is their reproductive organs, commonly called flowers

angiosperms

-flowering plants that bear their seeds (sex organ, pistol female, male stamen) within fruits

the law of reflection

-for smooth surfaces, the angle at which light is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected (ie a mirror)

igneous rock

-formed by solidification of cooled magma (molten rock). cools quickly, ususally has a lot of specks or impurities -may form with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface or extrusive (volcanic) rocks -this magma can either be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either the earth's mantle or crust. typically, the melting is caused by one or more of the following processes: an increase in temp, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition -igneous rock on surface can be exposed to weathering which break down rock into smaller pieces and can get carried away and deposited into beds to become sedimentary rock beds -over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the crust -they have diverse properties, depending on their composition and how they were formed -ex: gabbro, granite, basalt, rhyolite

vacuoles

-sometimes found in animal cells but most typically plant cells -large storage container used in digestion, store materials used for energy production such as fluid or propulsion

sedimentary rock

-formed by the deposition and consolidation of mineral and organic material and from precipitation of minerals from solution, deposited into sedimentary rock beds. -the deeper the bed is, the older the rock is -the processes that form this occur at the surface of the earth and within bodies of water -rock formed from sediments covers 75-80% of the earth's land area, and includes common types such as sand, limestone, chalk, dolostone, sandstone, conglomerate, some types of breccia, and shale -classified by their source of sediments, and are produced by one or more of the following: rock formed by fragments broken off from a parent rock, by weathering (erosion by water, ice, or wind), followed by transportation of sediments, to the place of deposition

rock cycle timeline

-fossil records can determine the depositional timeline of sedimentary strata rock. the timeline can also help us determine the dating of fossils within the bed -other factors such as weathering, depth, fault shifts, and discontinuities can also help us date rock strata

prophase

-genetic material (chromosomes) duplicate so you have 2 pairs of chromosomes -first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus

factors that affect plant growth

-gravity: sends stem upward and roots down (geotropism is response to gravity) -light: when exposed to light, plant changes method by which it chooses direction of growth (phototropism, ie plants in house lean toward windows) -stress (external factors ie frost, step on plant)

differential heating of ocean

-heat is still being released into the air at night, and rises. this convective motion draws the cool land air and replaces the rising air, resulting in a land breeze in the late night and early morning -during the day, roles are reversed. warm air over the land rises, pulling cool air in from the sea to replace it, giving a sea breeze during the afternoon and evening

to mitigate climate change

-home energy efficiency, supporting clean power production, green transportation, local / low animal food choices, reducing reusing recycling, forest conservation and land management

changes in hydrosphere

-hydrosphere: all parts of earth that contain water -are driven by energy from the sun (causes water to evaporate) and gravity (causes water to fall to eath and move) -changes can have an effect on other earth systems such as the atmosphere (air surrounding earth.. clouds form moisture here), biosphere (where living things are.. dependent on water), and lithosphere (rock and soil.. eroded and shaped by water) and are subjected to human impacts -water physically and chemically breaks down rocks

erosion and humans

-increased by human land use -land erosion and soil movement by humans annually exceeds the movement of soil and land from all natural processes -ex: dams can change the course of a river, which can affect how fish are moving in the river, which affects the biosphere. can also change course of a river which can effect erosion, which can effect the ecosystem around it -poor land practices include deforestation, overgrazing, unmanaged construction activity, and road building -land used for the production of agricultural crops generally experiences a significantly greater rate of erosion than that of land under natural vegetation. this is particularly true if tillage is used, which reduces vegetation cover on the surface of the soil and disturbs both soil structure and plant roots that would otherwise hold soil in place -improved land practices can limit erosion by using techniques such as terrace building, conservation tillage practices, and tree planting -excessive erosion can cause damage by excessive loss of soil

electromagnetic radiation: longest wavelengths - shortest wavelengths

-longwave radio (wavelengths as long as a KM) -shortwave radio (TV) - microwaves, including radar -infrared radiation (heat when light strikes an object) -visible light (longest is red, O Y G BIV, shortest violet) -ultraviolet (UV, can burn your skin bc shorter wavelength) -xrays -gamma waves (sun or nuclear reactions)

minerals

-made of one specific chemical composition, whereas rocks are made of various materials -natural chemical compounds that are crystals that make up rocks. each mineral has a specific composition -2 chemical elements may substitute for each other are enclosed by parantheses -ex: quartz, calcite, hornblende, mica, ores (minerals that contain elements) -classified by hardness, habit (shape), color, luster, streak -the most abundant minerals in the crust are the 2 feldspars (orthoclase and plagioclase), quartz, olivine and augite (they are silicates, built from interlocking silicon and oxygen atoms)

interaction of light with matter

-matter generally absorbs light, and what we see as color is the particular wavelength that is not absorbed (if yellow, it is absorbing all colors except yellow which is reflected back to us) -if an object appears white it is either reflecting or emitting all visible wavelengths - if is appears black, it is absorbing all visible wavelengths (producing all wavelengths.. ie black cement is hotter bc it is absorbing all wavelengths and turns into heat) or producing no light like in space

convection

-occurs when cooler portions of a liquid or gas flow in to take place of hotter, rising portions (a hotter portion moves up and a cooler portion moves into fill the space). creates a circular action hot air is less dense than cool air, and hot air rises. when heat moves in a circular pattern, convection currents are formed. heat can be transferred by the circulation of fluids due to buoyancy from changes in density -ex: the upward flow of air due to a fire or hot object, and the circulation of water in a pot that is heated from below. hot air rises up and cooler water above it moves into take its place, creating a churning action -ex: a glass full of hot water with red food dye may be placed in a fish tank with cold, clear water. the convection currents of the red liquid will be seen to rise and fall and eventually settle

reflection

-occurs when light travels only in straight lines. -occurs when light returns after bouncing off an object (angle of incidence) -an object is visible because light is reflected from the object into our eyes. -reflection is the change in direction of a wave front at an interface between two different media so that the wave front returns to the medium from which it originated -common examples include the reflection of light, sound, and water waves.

chloroplasts

-organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conducted photosynthesis , holds chlorophyll which gives plants their green color -absorb light and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide to produce sugars, the raw material for energy and biomass production in all green plants and the animals that depend on them, directly or indirectly, for food -capture light, and are members of a class of organelles known as plastids

organization

-organelles make up cells, cells make up tissue, tissues make up organs, organs make up organ systems, organ systems make up organisms

Mantle

-primarily composed of rock, viscous solid. crust can shift around mantle Largest zone of the planet (68%); crystalline silicates, rich in magnesium, calcium, and iron; very hot and mainly solid, but local melting to magma is the source of volcanic eruptions. the very hot mantle is mainly solid, but local melting to magma (molten rock) is the source of volcanic eruptions

the geological time scale

-refers to vast periods of time over which the earth changes -a major achievement of stratigraphers, who used fossils to arrange strata in a standard order. more recently, geochemists have measured the amount of radioactive decay in minerals and calculated the time at which the rock formed -the earth is believed to be about 5.6 billion years old. the fossiliferous strata record only the last 11% of the earth's history, human civilization has lasted only 10,000 years

circulatory system

-responsible for blood pumping to all the tissues of the body -organ system that moves nutrients, gases, and wastes to and from cells, helps fight diseases and stabilizes body temp and pH to maintain homeostasis. -can be strictly a blood distribution network, some think it as cardiovascular system + lymphatic system -humans and vertebrates have a closed system: blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries

differences in salinity

-rivers, lakes and oceans and estuaries may differ greatly in their salinity levels. the differences primarily depend upon how water enters and leaves the body -bodies with drainage tend to have lower salinity levels than those that lose water only through evaporation -ex big bear lake has a lower salinity level than salton sea. that's because there's drainage from big bear lake (stream takes salt with it). the water in salton sea only leaves through evaporation, which leaves the salt behind

comet

-small, solar body that orbits the sun and when close enough to the sun, exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere) or a tail- both primarily from the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's nucleus. -comets and nuclei are loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles, measuring a few Kilometers or tens of kilometers across -tail is made of ice breaking away, melting behind it -have a variety of diff orbital periods, ranging from a few years to hundreds of thousands of years -thrown from these outer reaches of the solar system inward toward the sun by graviational pertubations from the outer planets or nearby stars, or as a result of collisions

hydrologic cycle pt 2

-snow packs and can thaw and melt, and the ensuing water flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, snow, hail fleet, where the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff -a portion of water enters rivers, with stream flow moving water toward oceans. runoff and groundwater stored as freshwater in lakes. not all runoff flows into rivers. much of it infiltrates into ground through percolation

hydrologic cycle pt 3

-some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifiers through infiltration, which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface water bodies and the ocean as groundwater discharge. Some ground water finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. Overtime, the water runoff reenters the ocean, where the water cycle started.

algae / fungi

-the most primitive groups of plants -algae: green, photosynthetic plant that reproduces asexually -lack true roots, stems, sand leaves -algae range from a single cell to huge seaweed, mostly they inhabit lakes and oceans -fungi is an asexual reproducer -fungi include molds, yeasts, and mushrooms -fungi lack chlorophyll and are incapable on manufacturing food, so they are either parasites, preying on living organisms, or saprophytes, existing on waste and decaying organisms -lichens are 2 organisms, a fungi and an alga, living together symbiotically. -the more advanced plants possess roots, stems and leaves

world ocean

-the oceanic water mass comprises one global innerconnected body of salt water often referred to as global ocean -the ocean covers 3/4 of the earth's surface and have great impact on biosphere. the evaporation of these oceans is how we get most of our rainfall, and their temp determines our climate and wind patterns -life within the ocean had already evolved 3 bil years prior to the movement of animal and plant life on land

electric current

-the path or circuit an electric current flows. electricity requires a complete path for the electrons to flow. if the path is broken and there is no alternative paths, the electrons will not move. make it possible for electric energy to operate a vast range of technology.

mitosis

-the primary result of mitosis, or cell division, is the division of of the parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. cells mostly divide via mitosis (ie if you get a cut and the skin heals itself, child growing into adult) -the genome is composed of a number of chromosomes that contain genetic info vital for proper cell function -bc each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis (occurs during interphase)

Heat conduction/Thermal conduction

-the spontaneous transfer of thermal energy through matter, from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature (usually through solids) -occurs when heat is transferred due to fast moving molecules colliding with slower ones in a neighboring region -heat energy is transferred from one material to another by direct contact. metals are good conductors of heat. -ex: if a cup of coffee is stirred with a metal spoon, the spoon will quickly get hot. the molecules in the hot coffee make atoms in the spoon vibrates. hot coffee has faster moving molecules that bump into the molecules that are part of the spoon in the coffee and those bump into the molecules farther up on the spoons handle, and bump into other ones farther up

sun and tides

-the tidal force produced by the sun is only 46% as large -the gravitational attraction bw the moon and earth (And sun) causes the tides

condensation

-the transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, producing clouds and fog

cell wall in plants

-thick outer layer that protects plants and gives it structure -still have a cell membrane, inside cell wall.

light

-travels in perfectly straight lines as rays. the direction of a ray changes at the interface between two transparent materials, like air and water. some of the light is reflected (the angle of reflection being equal to the angle of incidence). -the portion of the light that crosses the boundary is deflected in another direction, and the angle of refraction does not equal the angle of incidence -other optical experiments are inconsistent with the simple ray theory and require that light travel as waves of electromagnetic energy.

what causes wind

-uneven heating of the earth's surface causes pressure differences and air flows between those areas to equalize it -on-shore breeze during day usually because air on land is being heated faster than ocean -at night, the ground cools faster water holds onto some of that heat, air rising more over water and settling on land, creating off-shore breeze (blowing toward the ocean) -tropics heat up faster so air is trying to equalize. earth is rotating and causes rotation of air (Coriolis effect)

la nina

-unusually cold ocean temps in the eastern equatorial pacific, compared to el nino, which is characterized by unusually warm ocean temps in the same area -atlantic tropical cyclone activity is generally enhanced during la nina -la nina often follows el nino, especially when the latter is strong

ecology

-usually considered as a branch of biology, the general science that studies living organisms, multidisciplinary -organisms can be studied from proteins and nucleic acids (in biochem and molecular bio), to cells (in cellular biology), to individuals (in botany, zoology) and at the level of populations, communities and ecosystems -focus on higher levels of the organization of life on earth and the relationship bw organisms and their environment, draws of other branches such as geology, geography, meteorology, pedology, genetics, chem, and physics

moon and tides

-when the moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the sun and moon are separated by 90 degrees when viewed from the earth -the forces induced by the sun partially cancel those of the moon. at these points in the lunar cycle, the tide's range is at a min and is called neap tide, or neaps

butterfly life cycle

1. egg or embryonic stage: eggs are usually laid on plants, lasts a few weeks 2. larva, known as caterpillar or feeding stage: from the eggs, caterpillars consume plant leaves and search for food. hormones are produced when larva is fully grown. larva stops feeding and begins wandering in the quest of a suitable place for pupa 3. pupa (chrysalis) or cocoon stage: the larva transforms into a pupa or chrysalis by anchoring itself to a substrate and molting for the last time 4. adult butterfly (imago) stage: after it emerges from pupa stage, a butterfly cannot fly until the wings are unfolded

plate tectonics evidence

1. seafloor spreading- the puzzle piece argument and fossil records all support the idea of continental drift 2. the shifting plates can cause earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain building 3. plate movement occurs along three major fault types: convergent (mountain building, plates push upward), divergent (plates pulling apart), and transform (plates sliding past one another) -the ring of fire: volcanoes, earthquake row because of movement along plate boundaries -earthquakes: jars up and down more because of the greater amplitude in a softer ground

how can electricity be used to power a lightbulb?

1. something creates spinning generator. as that magnet rotates it causes electrons to build up a charge to build up on that coil and those electrons want to bond with other atoms. we have to give them a path to travel through. we give them a good conductor (copper wire) so it can ground out. we pass it through a lightbulb. flip the switch on the wall, close the circuit, and the electrons travel through the lightbulb. inside, there is a filament made of a metal that provides resistance so it is harder for the electrons to travel through. electrons have to push their way through, creating friction bw the metal, creating heat. metal gets hot enough that it glows which creates light in incandescent light bulb

life cycle of a frog

1. starts with an egg. a female frog usually lays thousands of eggs in water. the eggs are highly vulnerable to predators, and so frogs have evolved many techniques to ensure survival 2. eggs hatch and life continues as tadpoles. they lack lungs, eyelids, and front and hind legs. herbivorous, eating algae 3. transition to adulthood. tadpole with hind legs, lose their gills and develop lungs 4. adult frog. may leave the water and disperse into terrestrial habitats or continue to live in aquatic habitats

weather forecasting

1. surface observations: barometric pressure, temp, humidity, winds, visibility, and precipitation, local 2. radar: usually pulse doppler, cover a larger area, looking for moisture in the air 3. satellites: geostationary and polar orbiting, can see things that are visible light or infrared

addressing natural disasters

1. volcanic eruptions can often be predicted in time to evacuate residents 2. earthquakes happen suddenly, but their damage can be mitigated through a combination of geological knowledge, construction engineering and prepardness

39. If two brown-eyed parents each carry a recessive gene for blue eyes, what is the probability of them having a blue-eyed child?

1/4

As part of a research project, a student compares two specific regions, one a desert biome and the other a temperate forest. The desert has very little plant life other than cacti and several hearty weeds and is inhabited by animals such as insects, lizards, and small rodents. The temperate forest has a great deal of plant life, including a variety of trees and grasses, and is home to animals such as rabbits, deer, elk, and wolves. Because the animals in the temperate forest region are on average much larger than those in the desert, the student theorizes that more massive species of animals prefer cooler climates. Using your knowledge of biology: discuss the validity of the student's theory; and present an alternative theory that is consistent with the principles of energy pyramids and food webs

??

homologuous structure

A common example of homologous structures is the forelimbs of vertebrates, where the wings of bats, the arms of primates, the front flippers of whales and the forelegs of dogs and horses are all derived from the same ancestral tetrapod structure.

Which of the following best describes the role of a law in scientific inquiry?

A conclusion about the natural world based on the results of repeated observations

Which of the following examples best demonstrates the difference between thermal energy and temperature?

A cup of water at 50°C contains less thermal energy than a bathtub full of water at 10°C.

compound

A substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds

pH solutions greater than 7

basic (alkaline), examples: lye, ammonia, soap, cleanser RED litmus paper turns BLUE

Which of the following steps in making a cup of coffee involves a chemical change in matter?

A burner on a propane stove is lighted to heat water.

In which of the following cases of cell division is the amount of genetic material halved?

A cell in the testes of a male sparrow divides and produces four sperm.

Summer days in parts of California are occasionally interrupted by afternoon thunderstorms. Which of the following statements best describes the typical conditions that lead to these summer thunderstorms?

A cold front moving through the area forces warm air up, causing condensation of water and the formation of thunderheads.

Some species of aphids can reproduce asexually under certain conditions. Female aphids produce other female aphids without being fertilized by a male. This asexual reproduction may continue over many generations during the summer. In late summer or early fall, male aphids are produced and sexual reproduction resumes. Which of the following is most likely to be an advantage to a female aphid asexually reproducing during the summer?

A female can replicate her genes very rapidly by producing large numbers of identical offspring when food is plentiful in summer.

heterogeneous mixture

A mixture that is not uniform in composition; components are not evenly distributed throughout the mixture (ie cereal in milk, ice in soda, soil, blood)

new moon

A moon that is completely dark because it's unlit side is facing Earth

Which of these represents an example of natural selection?

A population of insects includes both brown and green beetles. The green beetles are more visible, so they are eaten more often by predators. The brown beetles then reproduce more frequently.

Uniformitarianism

A principle that geologic processes that occurred in the past can be explained by current geologic processes -ex: glaciation in early eras is indicated by ancient deposits with features very similar to those produced by present day glaciers

35. As Experiment A, a physics teacher places a pencil on the edge of a desk as pictured in the first illustration below. She presses down firmly with her finger near the tip of the pencil and asks a student to press down firmly on the end with the eraser. As Experiment B, she then moves the pencil so that it is positioned as seen in the second illustration. Again, she presses down firmly near the pencil's tip and the student presses down firmly on the end with the eraser.

A. In Experiment A, the pencil will flip and fall from the table because the pressure applied by the student is further from the pencil's fulcrum, giving the student more mechanical advantage; in Experiment B, the pencil will stay in place because the pressure applied by the teacher is further from the fulcrum, giving her more mechanical advantage.

Two items are dropped simultaneously from a 10-story building. The items are shaped similarly and are relatively the same weight. Which of the following statements is correct concerning the rate at which objects fall?

A. The weight of the objects has no effect on the falling rate Two objects of different weights, if they have the same shape, fall at the same rate. With objects of different shapes and weights, air resistance does have an effect on the falling rate

A rock is released from rest at a certain height near the surface of the Moon. Which of the following correctly describes the motion of the rock after it is released?

A.It accelerates downward, toward the surface of the Moon.

Which of the following statements best explains how carbon plays a central role in the functioning of biological systems?

Carbon combines with a large number of other elements to form a variety of useful compounds

Newton's third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Which of the following is the best example of the application of this law?

B. An inflated balloon moves through the air when a jet of air leaves its neck as it deflates.

52. Which of the following best describes the process by which most waves on the ocean's surface are created? A. Deep sea earthquakes produce shockwaves which are propagated through the water until they reach the ocean's surface. B. Wind stirs the ocean's surface over great distances. C. Gravitational pull from the moon and sun cause water levels to rise on the side of the Earth closest to those bodies. D. Warmer water near the ocean's surface is forced upward by cooler water below.

B. Wind stirs the ocean's surface over great distances.

Carbon

C protons: 6 neutrons: 6 Mass: 12

What is a production advantage to growing GMOs in commercial farming?

Crops are more resilient against weeds and weed-killing chemicals.

In a species of flowering plant, red flowers are dominant to white flowers. When breeding the plants, which of the following will produce only plants with white flowers?

Crossing a white-flowered plant with another white-flowered plant

36. Which of the following best describes a difference in how two types of organisms maintain homeostasis?

D. A snake depends predominantly on external factors like sunlight to regulate it body temperature, while a rabbit utilizes mainly internal processes.

Which of the following best explains why a person cannot drink sea water?

D. The high salinity of sea water causes tissues to become dehydrated due to the osmotic diffusion of water from within the cells.

Origin of Species

Darwin's 1859 book. formulated his theory of evolution which included: -survival of the fittest -natural selection -evolution of species over time -genetic variation through geographic isolation

Distillation

Designed to separate substances in a liquid through vaporization -Usually carried out in an apparatus called a still, which requires a boiler, a condenser, and a receiver Example: Purify ocean water -Heat the ocean water until it reaches its boiling point -As the ocean water boils, it begins to evaporate and change from a liquid to a gas, in the form of water vapor -The gas goes through tubing to a collector container -The container sits in ice, which accelerates the condensation from water vapor back to liquid (or from a gas to a liquid) -The condensed water is pure water -Salt and other impurities remain as a residue in the original pan -Salt has a higher boiling point than water and therefore doesn't evaporate with the water

longitude

Distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees

latitude

Distance north or south of the equator

central principle of ecology

Each living organism has an ongoing and continual relationship with every other element that makes up its environment.

Which occurs during a lunar eclipse?

Earth blocks sunlight from reaching the moon

One Earth year is the length of time it takes for

Earth to make one revolution around the Sun

years are based on

Earth's rotation around the sun

the law of conservation of energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed

Which should be the first step to follow in the event of a chemical spill?

Evacuating the area near the spill

Which explanation best describes the difference between weight and mass?

Mass is a measure of matter, and weight is the effect of gravity on that mass.

Which line in the table above accurately lists the mass, charge, and location of a proton?

Mass: 1 Charge: positive location: nucleus

A student measures the mass of a sample of cloudy pond water in a closed container. Under which of the following treatments will the mass of the sample most likely remain the same?

Placing the pond-water sample and container in a freezer overnight

ferns and characteristics

Plants with roots, stems and leaves have leaves called fronds do not produce flowers reproduce by spores

Evidence that Earth's inner core is solid was acquired largely from studying which of the following?

Seismic waves from earthquakes

Which of the following processes causes the contents of an aerosol can to spray out when the top button is depressed? A. The change from a gaseous to liquid state B. The expansion of a gas after being heated C. The movement of molecules toward a lower-pressure area D. The change in temp from the can to the atmosphere

The movement of molecules toward a lower-pressure area Aerosol cans are under high pressure. When the top button is pressed, gas escapes to lower the pressure in the surrounding air, pushing the product out of the pressurized can.

percolation

The movement of rainwater as it filters through soil and rocks into the ground, becoming groundwater

What happens to a broken magnet when brought together?

The north pole of one broken piece would attract the south pole of the other broken piece

valence shell

The outermost energy shell of an atom, containing the valence electrons involved in the chemical reactions of that atom.

pitch

The pitch of a sound depends on how fast the particles of a medium vibrate

nuclear energy

The potential energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. obtained by fission or fusion

canopy interception

The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage and eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground

respiration

The release of energy by oxidation of sugar -animals and plants take in oxygen and use it to reverse the chemical reaction to photosynthesis, breaking down carbs and releasing the energy stored in their chemical bonds -humans use lungs to take in oxygen, break off carbon off water and release the energy that was stored in the bond. waste production during exhalation is water and carbon dioxide -humans eat the carbs then release that stored energy through the process of respiration

snowmelt

The runoff produced by melting snow

The tilt of the earth's axis relative to the sun is responsible for the seasons of the year. Which corresponds to the tilt of the earth at its maximum and the sun at its highest point on its path through the sky in the northern hemisphere?

The summer solstice when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky and the earth is at its maximum tilt. The dates of zero tilt to the earth's axis correspond to the Vernal (Spring) and Autumn. The Winter Solstice is when the earth is at a maximum tilt, but the sun is at the lowest path in the sky.

Electrolysis experiment (battery) Which is the best explanation for the reaction of more bubbles of hydrogen than of oxygen? A. the cathode material is considerably more porous than the anode material B. Hydrogen gas is less dense than oxygen gas, so hydrogen bubbles rise faster C. Some oxygen is dissolved into the solution while all the insoluble hydrogen escapes D. The water being decomposed has twice as much hydrogen as oxygen

The water being decomposed has twice as much hydrogen as oxygen. The purpose of an electrolytic experiment is to break down water into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Each molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, so the decomposition of water gives off twice as much hydrogen as oxygen

pacific ring of fire

an area of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions encircling the basin of the pacific ocean. in a 40,00 km horseshoe shape, it is associated with a nearly continuous series of oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, and volcanic belts and or plate movements -452 volcanoes, home to over 75% of the world's most active and dormant volcanoes -90% of the world's earthquakes and 80% of the world's largest earth quakes occur along the ring of fire. it is a direct result and consequence of plate tectonics and the movement and collisions of crustal plates

organisms in a food chain

are grouped together into trophic level, based on how many links they are removed from the primary producers. 1. producers (plants, autotrophs that make their own food) 2. primary consumer (herbivore- rabbit) 3. secondary consumer (feed on primary consumers, meat eaters- snake) 4. tertiary consumer (organisms that feed on smaller primary and secondary consumers- hawk) 5. decomposers: consume dead organisms, heterotrophic, use organic substrates to get their energy, carbon and nutrients for growth and development (bacteria and fungi)

chemical properties

are loosely arranged by column (gas, metals)

accommodations

are non-genetic changes, allowing individual organisms to respond to temporary changes in the environment (ie when its cold the blood vessels contract, conserving heat)

frontal system

area of warm air and area of cool air moving toward each other, warm front or cool front depending on which gets rises up, can also create more moisture in the air. can see storms along frontal systems

geostationary satellites

around the equator. meteorologists use the images from these satellites. to create images. they are a composite of several satellite images put together

arteries vs veins

arteries take out blood to the body, and veins bring blood back in

as a car is driven at high speeds for a long duration, the size of the tires temporarily increases

as the temperature of the gas increases, the volume increases. The size, or volume of the tires increases bc the friction bw the tires and the road causes heat. The increase in temp increases the volume of the air in the tires, expanding them. Charles's law: as temp increases, so does volume.

what two factors keep the planets in their orbits?

b. inertia and gravity inertia: makes a planet travel in a straight line. by def, inertia is the tendency of a moving object to stay in a straight line or a stationary object to remain in place. but the power of the sun's gravity pulls the planets toward the sun.

adaptations

changes at the genetic level, allowing a population to respond to long-term changes in the environment

cerebellum

back of hindbrain, responsible for motor movements. purjinke fibers: internal timing mechanisms so you know when to do motor movements

The most rapid rates of evolution are typically observed for populations of which of the following?

bacteria

which of the following is an example of a third-class lever? a. a seesaw b. a baby stroller c. a baseball bat d. a wheelbarrow

c. baseball bat. the fulcrum is at the end of the bat, the input force is in the middle (effort) and the output (resistance) is at the top of the bat. third class levers examples: fishing poles, shovels

barometric pressure

can aid in weather prediction

electricity and magnetism

can be converted into heat and motion

surface temp differences

cause pressure differences. a hot surface heats the air above it, and the air expands, lowering the air pressure and its density. the resulting horizontal pressure gradient accelerates the air from high to low pressure, creating wind, and the earth's rotation then causes curvature of the flow through the Coriolis effect -small changes of one part can grow to have large effects: difficult to accurately predict weather for more than a few days. -the sun and ocean can also affect weather. if the sun heats ocean water for a period of time, water can evaporate. one evaporated into the air, the moisture can spread over nearby land, thus making it cooler

osmosis

causes salt to move across a permeable membrane from an area of greater salinity to lesser, causes water to move from an area of lesser salinity to greater... the ratio of water to salt is the same on both sides -ex: cut white flower into jar of blue water, the flower may become blue, put salt into water? salt causes water to come out of flower bc more salt in water than in flower and flower becomes wilted---> ends in blue wilted flower.... put salt and blue dye in at same time? flower would still end up wilted bc water would be coming out of it but it wouldn't become blue bc blue dye would never get absorbed into flower -humans cannot drink salt water, water gets sucked out of your cells bc of salt

the gravitational attraction of the moon

causes the oceans to bulge out on the side of the earth facing the moon -another buldge also occurs on the opposite side as the earth is being pulled toward the moon. -due to the rotation of the earth, two tides occur each day

hindbrain

cerebellum and medulla oblongata: operates unconsciously and automatically to regulate vital functions like circulation, respiration, excretion and muscle tension

Of the following processes, which is most directly responsible for the formation of clouds?

condensation

precipitation

condensed water vapor that falls into the earth's surface. most precipitation occurs as rain, but can also include fog drip, hail, graupel and sleet

sensory neurons

conduct signals from the sense organs to the central nervous system, the spinal cord and brain

cytoplasm in plant cells

contain plastids, bodies with chlorophyll that carry out photosynthesis.

in which location would soft tissue most likely avoid decomposition and survive as a fossil? a. desert soil b. beach sand c. river silt dd. lake bottom mud

in lake bottom mud soft tissues decompose quickly in the presence of decay bacteria, which exist wherever oxygen exists. lake bottom mud prevents oxygen rich air from reaching the tissues

blood cycle

left ventricle pushes blood out to the body and pushes it out through the biggest artery called the aorta, aorta branches out into smaller arteries, until it eventually branches out into capillaries (small blood vessels) which weave through tissues and allow cells to absorb the oxygen, and the food that the red blood cells are carrying and then the waste product is picked up by other capillaries and fed to the veins that can filter out other toxins and bring back to right atrium with depleted blood. -blood in right atrium pushed through valve, then pushed into right ventricle, then pushed into lungs to get oxygenated by alveoli which weave through lungs and can absorb oxygen. -oxygenated blood comes back up into left atrium, which pushes into left ventricle

the diagram illustrates a seesaw. what is it?

lever. a rigid object that rotates around a fixed point. to determine mechanical advantage, the distance from the fulcrum is divided by the distance to the output force. The force you exert is called the input force. the force exerted by the machine is called output force.

what causes lightning or thunder

lightning is caused by charges created in clouds by the movement of particles (electrons at top, protons at bottom and they collide). when the lightning strikes, it super-heats the air around it, causing it to quickly expand, sending out a shock wave

what physical principle best explains the use of mercury in thermometers?

liquid mercury expands at regular intervals upon heating

outer core is made of

liquid metal (iron and nickel) -reason why we have a magnetic field that surrounds earth. as it spins the liquid metal outer core causes the magnetic field to build up

Using the periodic table, how would you find elements with chemical properties similar to Helium? A. Look in the column below it. B. Look in the row next to it. C. Find elements whose atomic number is close to Helium. D. By looking in the alkaline earth metals.

look at the column below it

lymphatic system

lymph, lymph nodes, lymph vessels

cardiovascular system

made of blood, heart, and blood vessels

Which part of a cell controls all the functions within it?

nucleus

in the temperate and polar regions

seasons are marked by changes in the amount of sunlight, which in turn often cause cycles of dormancy in plants and hibernation in animals. these effects vary with latitude and with proximity to bodies of water -ex: the south pole is in the middle of the continent of Antarctica and is a considerable distance from the moderating influence of the southern oceans. the north pole is in the arctic ocean and its temperature extremes are buffered by the water. the result is that the south pole is consistently colder during the southern winter than the north pole during the northern winter

cell membrane

semi-permeable, allowing some substances to pass while excluding others. the main material is cytoplasm -outside cytoplasm and holds everything in -selectively permeable, lets in food and oxygen, lets out waste product

gymnosperms

sexular reproducer, Cone-bearing plants (including pines) with seeds exposed on cone scales

which process yields an igneous rock?

the eruption of a volcano igneous rock: produced by the solidification of molten rock, which cools and becomes solid either deep within earth or at the earth's surface

moon and earth

the far side of the moon always faces away from the earth because the moon revolves around the earth in the same amount of time it takes the moon to rotate on its axis. the near side always faces the earth.

second class lever

the fulcrum is at the end of an object, the output force is in the middle, and the input force is at one end. multiply force but do not change direction. ex: wheelbarrows, baby strollers,

which is the primary factor in determining climate? a. the atmospheric conditions b. the latitude c. the meeting of warm and cold air masses d. the rain shadow

the latitude directly correlated with temperature: warm and wet at equator, cold and dry at polar regions

phases of the moon

the phases of illumination through which the moon passes each month can be understood by contemplating the position relative to those of Earth and the sun -the movement of the moon around the earth, what we see depends upon its relative position to earth -a new moon occurs when the moon sets at sunset, then the moon is bw Earth and sun and we only see the dark half of the moon -waxing (moon getting bigger), waning (getting smaller) -each after the moon has waxed through a crescent, quarter, and gibbous phases, a full moon appears. at that time, the moon rises at sunset and we see all of its illuminated side. the phase wanes gradually to a new moon -29.5 days bw each cycle

natural selection

the process by which favorable heritable traits become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common -acts on the phenotype or the observable characteristics of an organism -the phenotype's genetic basis will increase in frequency over the following generations. overtime, this process may result in adaptations that specialize organisms for particular ecological niches and may eventually result in the emergence of new species. -the mechanism by which evolution may take place within a given population of organisms

mountains

usually produced by the movement of lithospheric plates. the compressional forces, isostatic uplift, and intrusion of ingenous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than surrounding features -the height of the feature makes it either a hill or if higher and steeper, a mountain -major mountains occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity. -2 types of mountains are formed, depending on how the rock reacts to the tectonic forces, block mountains or fold mountains -some isolated mountains were formed by volcanoes, including many apparently small islands that reach great heights above the ocean floor