CSP Final

Satyagraha

"Truth force," a term used by Gandhi to describe peaceful boycotts, strikes, noncooperation, and mass demonstrations to promote Indian independence. a form of non-violence; no absolute truth so how could you be violent if you don't know if your absolutely right. Best way to go about it is to use love. Its not passive resistance, doing everything you can without causing harm. Also a way of life. 1906

tabula rasa

"the idea that something or someone is entirely unmarked and uninfluenced"- this phrase from latin means "blank slate." The philosopher John Locke referred to the mind of a young person unaffected by experience as a tabula rasa. we are filled up with ideas from our sensual experiences; reflection also allows us to understand more complex ideas. No knowledge is innate in us. 1689

Adam Smith

"wealth of nations" Scottish, advocated the idea of laissez faire; or government not involving themselves in the economy discovered the idea of the "invisible hand" that controls our markets. attacked restrictive practices of mecantilism and wished to free the ecnomy to operate in accordance with the laws of nature. first work of political economy. natural laws of market were indiviudal, enlighted self-interest and competition. opposed any artificial controls. not an apologist for any system, but industrial capitalists would use his arguments. . 1723-1790

Lenin's Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism

1) Capitalistic tendencies lead to monopolies that maintain a surplus of product. These surpluses are then exported by their nations to developing nations. This creates reliance of the other nations on the exporting nations, and gives the exporting nation control. This tends towards an imperialistic relationship. 2) capitalism dissolves once monopolies take power- there is no competition, and the free market that created the monopolies in the first place, is now controlled by the biggest companies. 1917

indulgences

1517, Johann Tetzel, began to sell indulgences. Forgiveness for your sins, led to the Reformation The sale of indulgences was a byproduct of the Crusades in the 12th and 13th centuries. Because they risked dying without the benefit of a priest to perform the appropriate ceremonies, Crusaders were promised immediate salvation if they died while fighting to "liberate" the Christian holy city at Jerusalem. Church leaders justified this by arguing that good works earned salvation, and making Jerusalem accessible to Christians was an example of a good work. Over time, Church leaders decided that paying money to support good works was just as good as performing good works, and it evened things up for people who were physically incapable of fighting a Crusade. Over several centuries, the practice expanded, and Church leaders justified it by arguing that they had inherited an unlimited amount of good works from Jesus, and the credit for these good works could be sold to believers in the form of indulgences. In other words, indulgences functioned like "confession insurance" against eternal damnation because, if you purchased an indulgence, then you wouldn't go to hell if you died suddenly or forgot to confess something. In later years, the sale of indulgences spread to include forgiveness for the sins of people who were already dead. That is evident in this passage from a sermon by John Tetzel, the monk who sold indulgences in Germany and inspired Martin Luther's protest in 1517. Don't you hear the voices of your dead parents and other relatives crying out, "Have mercy on us, for we suffer great punishment and pain. From this, you could release us with a few alms . . . We have created you, fed you, cared for you and left you our temporal goods. Why do you treat us so cruelly and leave us to suffer in the flames, when it takes only a little to save us?

"a revolution in female manners"

A Vindication of the Rights of Women, Wollstonecraft "It is time to effect a revolution in female manners, time to restore to them their lost dignity, and make them, as a part of the human species, labour by reforming themselves to reform the world. It is time to separate unchangeable morals from local manners." That a proper education; or, to speak with more precision, a well stored mind, would enable a woman to support a single life with dignity, I grant; but that she should avoid cultivating her taste, lest her husband should occasionally shock it, is quitting a substance for a shadow. To say the truth, I do not know of what use is an improved taste, if the individual is not rendered more independent of the casualties of life; if new sources of enjoyment, only dependent on the solitary operations of the mind, are not opened. People of taste, married or single, without distinction, will ever be disgusted by various things that touch not less observing minds. On this conclusion the argument must not be allowed to hinge; but in the whole sum of enjoyment is taste to be denominated a blessing? 1792

"a well-stored mind"

A Vindication of the Rights of Women, Wollstonecraft. "But they might as well pine married as single, and would not be a jot more unhappy with a bad husband than longing for a good one. That a proper education, or, to speak with more precision, a well-stored mind, would enable a woman to support a single life I own it frequently happens that women who have fostered a romantic unnatural delicacy of feeling, waste their 3 lives in imagining how happy they should have been with a husband who could love them with a fervid increasing affection every day, and all day. But they might as well pine married as single—and would not be a jot more unhappy with a bad husband than longing for a good one. That a proper education; or, to speak with more precision, a well stored mind, would enable a woman to support a single life with dignity, I grant; but that she should avoid cultivating her taste, lest her husband should occasionally shock it, is quitting a substance for a shadow. To say the truth, I do not know of what use is an improved taste, if the individual is not rendered more independent of the casualties of life; if new sources of enjoyment, only dependent on the solitary operations of the mind, are not opened. People of taste, married or single, without distinction, will ever be disgusted by various things that touch not less observing minds. On this conclusion the argument must not be allowed to hinge; but in the whole sum of enjoyment is taste to be denominated a blessing? with dignity..." 1792

utilitarianism

A belief that the purpose of all action should be to bring about the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. A liberal ideology promoted by English philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Based on the writings of John Locke (1632-1704), it argues that the best social and political policies are those that produce - in Bentham's words - "the greatest good for the greatest number" and are therefore the most useful, which, to him, meant liberalism. Liberals supported the Enlightenment ideas of increased personal liberty and free trade in economics. Also proposed revenue reforms that would help the peasant class. assumes happiness as naturally "good". Speaks of a Hierarchy of pleasures (moral action more satisfying than scratching an itch.) 1789

epistemology

A branch of philosophy that investigates the origins, nature, method and limitations of human knowledge. Essence of knowledge (Aristotle), rationalism (Descartes), empiricism (Bacon)

Galapagos Islands

A chain of islands west of South America that have a surprisingly varied climate in which species have adapted to survive differently on each island, where Darwin found the finches that led him to the theory of evolution. 1831-1836

Edmund Burke

A conservative leader who was deeply troubled by the aroused spirit of reform. In 1790, he published Reforms on The Revolution in France, one of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism. He defended inherited privileges in general and those of the English monarchy and aristocracy. Glorified unrepresentative Parliament and predicted reform would lead to much chaos/tyranny. 1729-1797

Natural Law

A doctrine that society should be governed by certain ethical principles that are part of nature and, as such, can be understood by reason. Antigone

sexual selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates. 1859-Present

parliamentary supremacy

A legislative body has absolute sovereignty, meaning it is supreme to all other government institutions—including any executive (government) or judicial bodies. The concept also holds that the legislative body may change or repeal any previous legislation, and so that it is not bound by precedent.

rationalism

A movement of thought that emphasized the role of reason in human affairs, A belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response. seperates the laws of mind from the laws of matter, are external world being unreliable (we can never know). knowledge comes through internal dialogue, mathementical proofs, logical arguments. assurance of the mind comes from the "cognito ergo sum". Rationalists believe reality has an intrinsically logical structure. Because of this, rationalists argue that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths. Descartes 1640's

simony

A practice where bishops sold positions in the Church. It also means buying powers in the church like absolution or the power to perform miracles. This was a problem in the church until up about the 900s. Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII enforced church laws against simony. This mostly took place in Europe.

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits. 1859-Present

alienation

A term used by Karl Marx to describe the deep separation that workers seemed to experience between their innermost sense of identity and the labor they were forced to perform in order to earn enough money to live. bougieuse stifles intelligence and cripples ideas. Labor should be positive affirmation of ones talents, but under capitalism it is drudgery, forced labor. in proper society work is an expression and fulfillment of the individual. an end in its itself., as of know it is coerced (must produce to live), which creates alienation. A better economic system will allow for more Issac Newtons, More Shakespeares. optimistic for the development to labor-saving technology. 1844

Eugene de Rastignac

A young man who moves to Paris and immediately becomes caught up in attempting to join high society. His failure to do so comes as he mention's Pere Goriot's name at the Countess de Restaud's (the daughter of goriot) home. He then decides to settle on a middle-class life. As a character his importance is exposing the obscene characteristics of high society, and the near impossibility of maintaining a lifestyle completely based on wealth. It seems, to this society, that wealth is above all morals. This high society in contrast with the boarding house is Balzacs commentary on the industrial revolution and the class separation it has created. 1835

"What is the Third Estate?"

Abbe Sieyes wrote this in a pamphlet. What is the 3rd estate? Everything. What has it been in the political order up to the present? Nothing. What does it ask? To become something. outlines as those who work off the land in the countryside, the industrial labor, the merchants, and those who provide services. It those who sustain society. privileged society not third estate. Idea fostered the French revolution and abolished the aristocracy, although replaced them with capitalist bouegiouse afterwards. 1789

Oedipus complex

According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. The Oedipus complex occurs in the third — phallic stage (ages 3-6) — of the five psychosexual development stages: (i) the oral, (ii) the anal, (iii) the phallic, (iv) the latent, and (v) the genital — in which the source of libidinal pleasure is in a different erogenous zone of the infant's body. In classical Freudian psychoanalytic theory, child's identification with the same-sex parent is the successful resolution of the Oedipus complex and of the Electra complex; key psychological experiences that are necessary for the development of a mature sexual role and identity. Sigmund Freud further proposed that boys and girls experience the complexes differently: boys in a form of castration anxiety, girls in a form of penis envy; and that unsuccessful resolution of the complexes might lead to neurosis, paedophilia, and homosexuality. Men and women who are fixated in the Oedipal and Electra stages of their psychosexual development might be considered "mother-fixated" and "father-fixated". In adult life this can lead to a choice of a sexual partner who resembles one's parent. 1910

General Will

According to Rousseau the general will is sacred and absolute, reacting the common interests of the people who have displaced the monarch as the holder of ultimate power.The set of principles that guides us as a general public is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to contribute personally, or through their representatives, to its formation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in its eyes, are equally admissible to all public dignities, positions, and employments, according to their capacities, and without any other distinction than that of their virtues and their talents. BUT public can be wrong. when do you know someone is right. sometimes it forces us to be free. we sometimes don't know what is in our best interest. the general will IS NOT the majority. 1755

Malthus

An English economist who argued that increases in population would outgrow increases in the means of subsistence; consequences will be war, famine, and disease. Influenced Darwin. 1766-1834

empiricism

Bacon's method of philosophy. Founding of knowledge based on experience and observation. (Inductive) 1640's

nihilism

Belief that existence and all traditional values are meaningless. a result of realizing that there is not objective truth and way to measure life, and represents a void by the recognition that life has no inherent meaning. Precursor the Existential writing. Nietzche, while at times identifying as a Nihilist, did not support Nihilism because he viewed it as a continuation of accepting the false notion that truth is inherently good. Instead proposes the nature of "Will To Power" . 1817

ahimsa

Buddhist and Hindu and especially Jainist doctrine holding that all forms of life are sacred and urging the avoidance of violence used by Gandhi. 1906

"We must cultivate our garden"

Candide. This can be translated into two different ideas. One way of translating this would be that one must take an inward look in life and take the time to do what he or she really wants to do. However, this could also mean that one should function in society to help others and push toward a continuously evolving society. 1759

Galileo's Trial

Catholic Church forbade Galileo to teach his views. Church accuse him of not obeying this order, he agreed to recant his assertions publicly. Was under house arrest for the rest of his life, could only publish his works in the Dutch Republic. Pushed Italy back in terms of technological advancements because Italy was seen as a place that was hostile towards science, compared to Northern Europe. Galileo Lamented this, wishing Italy to be cultured and powerful. 1633

Nietzsche on Christianity

Christianity has placed a guilt complex (slave morality) on the individual. People become obsessed with how evil they are. Nietzsche believes that Christianity took down the Roman empire by smothering passions and instincts and that people should be free to express their passions, even if they are evil. We need people with many different perspectives, to explore all sides of ideas. Christianity deplored suffering, which is essential for progress in society (as the Will To Power is essentially the process of overcoming suffering through resistance). Made European society impotent, average human beings are simply "the herd" and must be left to their own devices, focus should be on developing excellence in society through the few supermen.1886

Voyage of the Beagle

Darwin was convinced that species change as they adapt to their changing environments. Darwin noticed that the species on the islands were similar to, but different from the plants and animals of the nearest mainland. Darwin inferred that mainland species had changed after they colonized the islands and adapted to their various new environments. Darwin concluded that the slow processes of mountain building and erosion suggested an Earth that must be very old. He also realized these slow and gradual processes occurring over vast spans of time could cause enormous change on Earth. 1839

The Descent of Man

Darwin's second great work of evolution that applied evolutionary theory and natural selection to the development of human beings. He believed that humans shared a common ancestry with monkeys and apes. 1871

significance of fossils for Darwin

Darwin's work with fossils demonstrated the slow evolution that animals followed from their beginnings and reinforced Darwin's Natural Selection. This fossil theory, that all animals evolved from other animals, broke religious rules that said that God had created a finite number of animals in the beginning, and no animal has changed since. 1859

Berlin Conference on Africa

Diplomatic but terrible, met to split up Africa and decide who gets what, they ignored the people living there with existing political units. created borders but did not eradicate tension among European countries in Africa. Africans resisted imperialism. 1885

Diderot's Encyclopedie

Edited by Denis Diderot, it became hugely popular for its vast reservoirs of knowledge, undertone of criticism, and summaries of the "scientific, technical, and historical knowledge of the age". It became the main form through which ideas spread. it was the first encyclopedia to include contributions from many named contributors, and it was the first general encyclopedia to lavish attention on the mechanical arts. Still, the Encyclopédie is famous above all for representing the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Denis Diderot in the article "Encyclopédie", the Encyclopédie's aim was "to change the way people think".[1] He wanted to incorporate all of the world's knowledge into the Encyclopédie and hoped that the text could disseminate all this information to the public and future generations. 1751

Condorcet's Tenth Stage

Education, Morality, Equality, Progress: inequality will decline, no more hereditary privilege end to slavery, no more racism or sexism, greater intellectual progress through education. great satisfaction from helping others science will conquer nature and extract resources to conquer poverty, starvation and scarcity machines will provide leisure time to be free each generation will have more possessions science will make conquests against disease. 1793

Opium Wars

England's successful efforts to force China to allow the sale of opium in China, beginning in 1839. China's imperial government opposed the sale, but England's forces were too strong. England's colony, India, was a major source of opium and needed markets for the supply it produced. 1839-1842 and 1856-1858

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator. . his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterized as genocidal or near-genocidal

"Existence precedes essence"

Existential Sartre, each of us are first born into the world and everything is ultimately up to you, we have nothing to appeal to in order to justify our actions. We are purely free which leads to huge responsibility. This is in contrast to such thought as Aristotle's "things have an essence to obtain" or any philosophy that says we are born with a nature or duty specific to us. essence will be different depending on life choices and experiences, people will be what they choose to be. no eternal standards. influenced by Nietzsche (everything subjective). 1946

The Origin of the Species

First book written by Charles Darwin that gave evolution its first articulation; expressed the idea that there will be variation in a species, there will be competition in an environment, and obstacles to attain resources. Begins with breeding, doesn't talk about humans at all. How humans take control of natural thing, and how that you can see its natural. Evolution was already an idea, he just found all of the evidence that made it irrefutable. Goes into natural selection, based off competition and limited resources. 1859

Marx on the Paris Commune

For a brief period of time (8 or so months), a communist government controlled Paris. Marx supported this government, and though it was overthrown rather quickly, it became the "prototype" that other communist nations could learn from. Marx argued that in order for the commune to be successful, it would need more time to break down the institutions in place for capitalism. Notable for its democratic ideals, including decentralization. Is an example counter to the Manifesto, outlining a society closer to Social Democracy. 1871

theocracy

Form of government in which a country is ruled by religious leaders. Tudor England the crown forced the church to break away from Rome so the royal (and, especially later, parliamentary) power could assume full control of the now Anglican hierarchy and confiscate most church property and income. 1531

Victor Frankenstein as a parent

Frankenstein's idealism prepared him for a idyllic relationship. Instead of the expected adulation by his offspring, he was immediately confronted with the creature's loathsomeness and his own responsibility. His disillusionment with parenthood, more particularly mothering, led to depression and neglect. Frankenstein himself had no one at his side encouraging him or advising him of what to do with what he had created. His entire venture was done in secret, in self-imposed isolation. Through his obsession he isolated himself from any form of community. While bringing his child into the world he was himself alienated from society. 1818

"God is dead."

Fredrick Nietzsche, saw the Christian God as no longer a viable source for moral principles. God is dead means more than just christian moral values, but all systems of determine "good", "just", and "truth". Tied into the notion of "beyond good and evil". It means that systems for outlining how the world "is", such as utilitarianism, Christianity, socialism, and empiricism all need to be tossed away, and that the strongest, most willing philosophers in society must now create new "gods", new systems of believe to propel mankind forward. "God Is Dead" represents the destruction of all idols in society in favor of new ideals. 1882

id/ego/superego

Freud said that there was conscious, which you could control, and the subconscious. He said that the Id was living in the subconscious was just had primordial desires that wanted stuff like food and sex. Then there was the Superego that did not want pleasures of love, and was just pure intellect and rationality. The ego is the middle ground, the referee between the two different things, Id and Superego. All of this is going on the subconscious. The id (German: Es)[3] is the unorganized part of the personality structure that contains a human's basic, instinctual drives. Id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.[4] It is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives. The id contains the libido, which is the primary source of instinctual force that is unresponsive to the demands of reality The ego is the organized part of the personality structure that includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual-cognitive, and executive functions. Conscious awareness resides in the ego, although not all of the operations of the ego are conscious. Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean a sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory.[1] The ego separates out what is real. It helps us to organize our thoughts and make sense of them and the world around us.[1] "The ego is that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external world. ... The ego represents what may be called reason and common sense, in contrast to the id, which contains the passions The superego (German: Über-Ich)[26] reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly taught by parents applying their guidance and influence.[8] Freud developed his concept of the super-ego from an earlier combination of the ego ideal and the "special psychical agency which performs the task of seeing that narcissistic satisfaction from the ego ideal is ensured ... what we call our 'conscience'."[27] For him "the installation of the super-ego can be described as a successful instance of identification with the parental agency," while as development proceeds "the super-ego also takes on the influence of those who have stepped into the place of parents — educators, teachers, people chosen as ideal models."[28] 1923

pleasure principle

Freud's theory regarding the id's desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in order to achieve immediate gratification. Humans inherently live for pleasure (instinctual). But the possibilities for happiness and pleasure are limited, and more often we experience unhappiness from the following three sources: 1) our body; 2) the external world; and 3) our relations to other men. We employ various strategies to avoid displeasure: by isolating ourselves voluntarily, becoming a member of the human community (i.e. contributing to a common endeavor), or influencing our own organism. Religion dictates a simple path to happiness. In Civiilization and its discontents. 1930

sublimation

Freud, a defense mechanism that involves channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities. Is inevitable in society, because civilization disallows us from achieving our most basic pleasures of sex and aggression. 1936

Wollstonecraft on dolls

Gender is socially constructed. If you're given dolls to play with, you'll grow up differently than if you get to play around. Women should play with the same thing as men- no gender norm set-ups. Children of both sexes have a great many amusements in common; and so they ought; have they not also many such when they are grown up? Each sex has also its peculiar taste to distinguish in this particular. Boys love sports of noise and activity; to beat the drum, to whip the top, and to drag about their little carts: girls, on the other hand, are fonder of things of show and ornament; such as mirrours, trinkets, and dolls: the doll is the peculiar amusement of the females; from whence we see their taste plainly adapted to their destination. The physical part of the art of pleasing lies in dress; and this is all which children are capacitated to cultivate of that art. 1792

India's "third way"

He believed that the workers, by contributing their labor to the business, should be entitled to become shareholders and thereby should be given participation in the ownership of the industries. Ecology is given a lot of importance in his writings. He believed that Nature should be "milked" but not "exploited" or "killed". The 'Third way' believes that education, ecology, economics and ethics--all four must be taken into consideration in an integrated manner for any economic activity. Rooted in Gandhi. 1995

Milton's Paradise Lost

In Frankenstein, the monster reads this book. One particularly parallel between Frankenstein and Paradise Lost is the idea of humans defying God and/or believing that they are as wise (or wiser than) as God and that they have the capacity to do things that only God does. In Paradise Lost, the reason Adam and Eve get booted out of Eden is that they believe they know better than God, by eating the fruit, even though they've been warned against it. It is the idea of taking on a "God" role -- believing that one knows more than God and defying the laws of God as a result. Original: 1674. Frankenstein: 1818

Nehru

Indian statesman. He succeeded Mohandas K. Gandhi as leader of the Indian National Congress. He negotiated the end of British colonial rule in India and became India's first prime minister. 1947-1964

Salieri

Italian rival of Mozart's and court composer of Vienna. 1750-1825

On Liberty

John Stuart Mill, essay, plead for the practical and moral value inherent in safe guarding individual differences and popular opinion., He advocated the education of the working class as a means of raising their standard of living. He urged the formation of labor cooperatives. He supported the cause of women's rights. Progress comes through clash of ideas in marketplace of ideas. Society cannot lose this. also talks about how ideals shape world, and progress comes through rational interest. cannot have gov't interfere with freedom of speech. 1859

Locke: social contract

Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would be bound morally, by The Law of Nature, not to harm each other in their lives or possession, but without government to defend them against those seeking to injure or enslave them, people would have no security in their rights and would live in fear. Locke argued that individuals would agree to form a state that would provide a "neutral judge", acting to protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it. 1689

Copernican "assumptions"

Main 3: 1) Universe is spherical but very large in size 2) All orbital motions are circular 3) Sun-centered; all planets orbit about the Sun. 1543

ideological superstructure

Marx's metaphor for the set of beliefs, ideas, and ideals that justifies or legitimizes the social arrangements that constitute the foundation of society. Laws, values, beliefs, arts, institutions that are shaped by the ruling class. the base comprehends the forces and relations of production — employer-employee work conditions, the technical division of labour, and property relations — into which people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life. These relations determine society's other relationships and ideas, which are described as its superstructure. Argues that all other components of soceity (arts, religions, laws etc,) are thus based of the modes of production. 1844

Marriage of Figaro

Mozart turned original play into most famous Opera.Class struggle, on the eve of the French Revolution. Banned in Austria. 1786

Universal law of gravitation

One of Newton's 3 laws. "Every object in the universe was attracted to every other object with a force (gravity) that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them. " key things that got rid of geocentric theory, because sun is so much larger than the earth it does not make sense for universe to rotate around sun. also explains why the moon rotates around the earth. 1687

Pangloss' philosophy

Optimism. The best of all possible worlds. Doesn't actually believe it. Based on Leibniz. 1759

Locke: state of nature

Original condition preceding the development of society. Sate of nature is a state of equality in which no one has power over another, and all are free to do as they please. He notes, however, that this liberty does not equal license to abuse others, and that natural law exists even in the state of nature. Each individual in the state of nature has the power to execute natural laws, which are universal. We are in a state of nature until we commit to a special compact. 1680

Jacques-Louis David's Death of Marat

Possibly first modernist painting, The Death of Marat is a painting by Jacques-Louis David of the murdered French revolutionary leader Jean-Paul Marat. It is one of the most famous images of the Revolution. 1793

"to work to one's calling"

Protestent Work Ethic. Result of Luther and the Protestant Reformation It is argued that Protestants, beginning with Martin Luther, had reconceptualized worldly work as a duty which benefits both the individual and society as a whole. Thus, the Catholic idea of good works was transformed into an obligation to consistently work diligently as a sign of grace. Whereas Catholicism teaches that good works are required of Catholics as a necessary manifestation of the faith they received, and that faith apart from works is dead (James 2:14-26 ) and barren, the Calvinist theologians taught that only those who were predestined (cf. the Calvinist concept of double predestination) to be saved would be saved. Since it was impossible to know who was predestined, the notion developed that it might be possible to discern that a person was elect (predestined) by observing their way of life. Hard work and frugality, as well as social success and wealth, were thought to be two important consequences of being one of the elect; thus, Protestants were thus attracted to these qualities and supposed to strive for reaching them. Often credited with helping to define the societies of Northern Europe and other countries where Protestantism was common. helped to introduce capitalism. "if you profited in your calling, that might be a blessing from god, so go ahead and work hard"-Calvinists

Boxer Rebellion

Rebellion in Beijing, China started by a secret society of Chinese who opposed the "foreign devils". The rebellion was ended by British troops but fought with german, russian, italian, american, japenese, austrian, and french as well.The great powers stopped short of finally colonizing China. From the Boxer rebellions, they learned that the best way to deal with China was through the Chinese dynasty, instead of direct dealing with the Chinese people (as a saying "The people are afraid of officials, the officials are afraid of foreigners, and the foreigners are afraid of the people" 1899

"I think therefore I am"

Rene Descartes said this. The only think that you know is that you can doubt you know. This is the basis for proving that your mind exists. While other knowledge could be a figment of imagination, deception or mistake, the very act of doubting one's own existence arguably serves as proof of the reality of one's own existence, or at least of one's thought. Comes from Human Reasoning. Cogito ergo sum. 1644

"I call him Friday"

Robinson Crusoe, gave a name to a slave. Hypocritical because Crusoe hated his time as a slave, yet chooses to enslave Friday. 1719

"I am very seldom idle"

Robinson Crusoe, spends months making a shelf for his abode. During the rainy months he plants his crop of rice and grain but is angered to discover that birds damage it. He shoots several of the birds and hangs them as scarecrows over the plants, and the birds never return. Crusoe finally harvests the grain and slowly learns the complex process of flour grinding and bread making. Determined to make earthenware pots, Crusoe attempts to shape vessels out of clay, failing miserably at first. Eventually he learns to shape, fire, and even glaze his pots. 1719

Emile

Rousseau. Treatise on the nature of education and on the nature of man, served as the inspiration for what became a new national system of education. 1762

bad faith

Sartre, a denial of your freedom, treating yourself as if you have as much free will as inanimate objects. Living an inauthentic life, like not taking responsibility for our choices and just giving up in general. individuals choose in anguish: they know that they must make a choice, and that it will have consequences. For Sartre, to claim that one amongst many conscious possibilities takes undeniable precedence (for instance, "I cannot risk my life, because I must support my family") is to assume the role of an object in the world, not a free agent, but merely at the mercy of circumstance. One convinces himself, in some sense, that he is bound to act by external circumstance, in order to escape the anguish of freedom. Sartre says that man is condemned to be free: whether he adopts an 'objective' moral system to do this choosing for him, or follows only his pragmatic concerns, he cannot help but be aware that they are not - fundamentally - part of him. Moreover, as possible intentional objects of one's consciousness, one is fundamentally not part of oneself, but rather exactly what one, as consciousness, defines oneself in opposition to; along with everything else one could be conscious of. Fundamentally, Sartre believes mankind cannot escape responsibility by adopting an external moral system, as the adoption of such is in itself a choice that we endorse, implicitly or explicitly, for which we must take full responsibility. Sartre argues that one cannot escape this responsibility, as each attempt to part one's self from the freedom of choice is in itself a demonstration of choice, and choice is dependent on a person's wills and desires.1946

"Condemned to be free"

Sartre. Two possible reactions: happiness or nihilism; "without g-d, everything is permitted and we are free". Existence precedes essence so we have complete control over our decisions. Feeling of anguish knowing there is no objective value and too many choices. 1946

Henry Drummond/Clarence Darrow

Scopes trial. In a highly publicized trial in rural Tennessee, a teacher was put on trial by the state for teaching Darwin's theory of evolution in the class room. While the defense, lead by Clarence Darrow (renamed Henry Drummond in the movie), argued for evolution from apes, the prosecution argued that God's word was final. The defense was found guilty and fined $100 after Darrow argued that he had not been allowed enough evidence in the court room to possibly prove Scopes' innocence. 1925

March to the sea for salt

Symbolic march- Indians joined Gandhi in walking from his home to the sea to make salt. Peaceful resistance against the British control over Indian goods. Got more Indians to join the independence movement, and also heavily publicized the independence movement abroad. 1930

Walton

The Arctic seafarer whose letters open and close Frankenstein. Walton picks the bedraggled Victor Frankenstein up off the ice, helps nurse him back to health, and hears Victor's story. He records the incredible tale in a series of letters addressed to his sister, Margaret Saville, in England. Walton functions as the conduit through which the reader hears the story of Victor and his monster. However, he also plays a role that parallels Victor's in many ways. Like Victor, Walton is an explorer, chasing after that "country of eternal light"—unpossessed knowledge. Victor's influence on him is paradoxical: one moment he exhorts Walton's almost-mutinous men to stay the path courageously, regardless of danger; the next, he serves as an abject example of the dangers of heedless scientific ambition. In his ultimate decision to terminate his treacherous pursuit, Walton serves as a foil (someone whose traits or actions contrast with, and thereby highlight, those of another character) to Victor, either not obsessive enough to risk almost-certain death or not courageous enough to allow his passion to drive him. 1818

Glorious Revolution of 1688

The bloodless revolution of the 1680's in England that dethroned Catholic King James and put Protestant William III and his wife Mary on the throne. 1688

Vautrin

The character is built on the quality of strength capable of breaking all obstacles. With this attribute, Vautrin becomes the symbol of a fighter, rebelling against a society which has created and degraded him. But physical power means for Balzac mental power as well, and he endows Vautrin with the latter, thus creating a character of incomparable magnitude, capable of dominating everyone. He cuts a deal with Rastignac- I will kill Victorine's brother so you can marry her and become rich for money. He kills the brother, but is caught by another tenant as an escaped convict. 1835

the dervish

The group consults a famous dervish (Muslim holy man) about questions of good and evil. The dervish rebukes them for caring about such questions and shuts the door in their faces. the dervish rebukes them for foolishness, for caring about such questions, for trying to strenuously philosophize their way into answers, for trying to make sense out of what is beyond human comprehension. Voltaire uses the dervish to criticize the philosophical optimism of Leibniz (who Pangloss represents by maintaining that this is the best of all possible worlds), and by slamming the door in the faces of the three men, the dervish expresses his view that all this theorizing that Candide and his friends engage in, is fruitless and unworthy of attention. 1759

Condorcet on progress

The idea of progress goes back to linear view of history: humankind has unique, non-recurring events, we are heading toward something more dramatic. Progress cannot be reversed. progress comes from overcoming struggles agaisnt nature, ignorance, lack of communiation, and priestly and secular tyranny. Proponent of Women's rights. anticipated many advancements such as social insurance and education (key to progress); also saw possibilities of overpopulation. had a great deal of believe in the advancement of reason and science progressing society. not tied to religion whatsoever. Is a testament to Enlightenment's progress. 1793

heliocentrism

The idea that the sun is at the center of the universe. This became popular in the 1500s with Copernicus and others part of Scientific Revolution.

the de Lacey cottage and family

The monster observes the de Lacey family and notices they are unhappy, which is due in part, he realizes, to the fact that he had been stealing their food. His guilty conscious gets the best of him and he decides to stop stealing their food and to instead help them out (like when he gathers wood for them to use). By observing the family he also realizes the social significance of the family unit, which makes his own solitude more apparent. The cottagers devotion to each other contrasts with Victor's abandonment of the monster; the monsters lack of social interaction contributes to his lack of social identity and unhappiness. The monster's romanticization of the cottagers as kind and friendly reflects his desperate desire for companionship and affection. From observing the family he also acquires a basic knowledge of language and histor, which leads him to an understanding of human society and his position within it. With the help of his newly acquired knowledge he realizes his lonely position in society; the theme of the dangers of knowledge appears. 1818

The Starry Messenger

Treatise/ pamphlet written by Galileo that told of his findings when he observed the heavens with his telescope. Observations rejects geocentric, supports heliocentric theory. short, spread around and caused tons of problems, making claims. also talks about moon's surface. 1609

Judith Shakespeare

Virginia Woolf's fictional character (Shakespeare's sister) used to show that a women with the same skill as Shakespeare would still be denied same opportunities because she is a women. "A Room of Ones Own" 1929

Woolf and social history

Women are misrepresented as equal to men and perhaps greater throughout fictional history. In fact, Woolf sees them as forced into subordinate positions with no hope of freedom for creativity or expression since they "don't know how to read or spell." Woolf finds it important for women to understand their past and is frustrated with the lack of social history on women, so she tries to piece together history through Parish books. They also need money and a room for themselves to write and be free. 1929

Discourse on the Origin of Inequality

Written by Rousseau, this blamed much of the evil in the world on the uneven distribution of property. Natural inequality involves differences between one man's physical strength and that of another - it is a product of nature. Rousseau is not concerned with this type of inequality and wishes to investigate moral inequality. He argues moral inequality is endemic to a civil society and relates to, and causes, differences in power and wealth. This type of inequality is established by convention. Rousseau appears to take a cynical view of civil society, where man has strayed from his "natural state" of isolation and consequent freedom to satisfy his individual needs and desires. In the work, Rousseau concludes that civil society is a trick perpetrated by the powerful on the weak in order to maintain their power or wealth. humans in early stage were happier. nature is benevolent. when faced with obstacles they were strengthened, nature state of equality and happiness. establishment of family state of happiness ends. in social beings humans have a dual character (comfort in new developments such as language and family, but sources of conflict and suffering associated with civilization. increase in comfort had as its price for humans their lose of innocence. The two fundamental principles of Rousseau's natural man are his natural, non-destructive love of self, and pity/compassion for the suffering of others . Pity and self-love, acting together, contribute to preserving the human species through time. 1755

The Second Sex

Written by Simone de Beauvior, teacher, novelist, and writer; distinguished sex from gender; challenged marriage, the basic unit of modern society; challenges freud; also includes a huge social history on women from the history of female trade unions to tracing the history of birth control from Egypt; advocates for abortion; talks about sexuality, stating that women should enjoy sex; theorized that marriage held women back because of male-dominated societies; recognized females as the "Other" and as second-class citizens. 1949

Freud on Marx

addresses socialists who claim that society can be peaceful if we don't have an inequality of property. Human nature will always be aggressive and sexual, oppressed and restrained for society to work. 1923

"As your means, so your ends"

basically a response to the "ends justify the means". "I feel that our progress towards the goal will be in exact proportion to the purity of our means" must fight with love to end up in a place of goodness.