Cultural Anthropology Exam #3

Fortress conservation vs community conservation for guarani?

"Fortress Conservation": Set aside protected areas and restrict usage by local peoples • Ecotourism $$$, but who really benefits? "Community Conservation": enlist local people as managers of conservation areas • Allows indigenous peoples continuing access to their lands (e.g., agroforestry) • Potential to spread benefits more equitably • Viewpoint of Richard Reed- let the indigenous people work on the land and make a profit off of it

What was key to success of good roots?

"Identifying and understanding the errors in application and the errors in assessment were fundamental to the success of Good Roots."

Guarani Kinship?

Relatives = all those with whom one shares blood relations • Consanguineal kin • bilateral descent Cognatic Descent Group: derived from a recognized common ancestor Kin group exogamy (affines belong to other cognatic descent groups) Preference for uxorilocal (matrilocal) residence

What is the major point of Cultural Ecology? Who came up with it?

Julian Steward. Concern with grand theories (rejected since time of Boas) Economic and social organization results from using specific technology to exploit particular environment Importance of the natural environment in shaping core features of culture

Critical reflections on Applied Anthropology?

o Applied Anthropology: Shortcomings Anthropologists have long engaged in development projects Success and failure only assessed retrospectively Purpose: show how anthropological insights can be used to adapt projects in an ongoing manner • To figure out what is and isn't working

What is medical anthropology? What are the approaches?

o Applies the tools of anthropology (holistic approach, participant observation, focus on culture) to study human illness, suffering, disease, and well-being o Basic Approaches: Biological, Ecological (Brown), Ethnomedical, Experiential (Lockhart), Critical, Applied, Anthro of Biomedicine (Frieds

Proximate determinants of fertility?

o Biological Components: Onset of menarche and menopause, lactational amenorrhea, male impotence, infecundity o Social Components: Age at entry into sexual union, voluntary abstinence, coital frequency, use of contraception

Why does USAID persist? How do the tanzanians benefit? The americans? Vested interest? economic? Political?

"There is something in it for a lot of people." Vested economic interests • Tanzanians (Elites) o free vehicles, salaried jobs (low level), new buildings, scholarships to USA • Americans o Salaried jobs (high level) with many perks (housing allowance, servants) o Contracts for US institutions like companies, contractors, and universities Vested Interest • Economic - Profitable for those who get contracts (universities, corporations) • Good jobs for USAID officials • Benefits to powerful members of recipient nations Vested Interest: Political - Make allies • Thwart terrorism • Political agenda

What does Kottak say about development?

"to maximize social and economic benefits, [development] projects must..." • be culturally compatible • respond to locally perceived needs • involve men and women in planning and carrying out changes locally

How does brundtland define sustainable development?

A concept first articulated in 1980 Defined in 1987 Brundtland report as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

Cocacola and cultural imperialism. How is the ad an agent of cultural change in India? What about China? Are the agents of culuture change, or just reflections?

Ad as Agent of Culture Change? • Traditional arranged marriage: meeting the potential groom. Transnational context (Non-Resident Indian) • Disrespectful of elders. Disrespectful of customs (refuses food and tika). "I'm allergic to traditions." • What role does Coca-Cola play? Ad as Agent of Culture Change? • Reflecting increasing spatial and economic mobility of China's youths (value of modernity) • Yet, emphasizing importance of family and filial piety (respect for elders, a traditional value) • What role does Coke play? Points to Ponder • Are ads and ad agencies promoting culture change as agents of culture change? • Or are they drawing upon important cultural themes to sell their products and reflecting processes of culture change that are already underway?

What is the indigenous model of sustainable development of guarani? How does this fit into reed's model?

Agroforestry can be sustainable and profitable Commodities from intact forest can generate income year by year Hardwoods, rubber, yerba mate Environmental Perpetuity? • Long-term maintenance of biodiversity Economic Rationality? • Can generate better long-term profits than monocrop agriculture and ranching Social Justice? • Allow indigenous people opportunity to make a living and maintain their society and culture

Anthropological Authority? Eroding this?

Anthropologists (e.g., Malinowski) at the forefront of debunking ethnocentric portrayals of others (by colonial admins. and missionaries) Through fieldwork anthropologists established the authority to represent different peoples, and the ability to act as intermediaries between vulnerable/marginalized people and outsiders Nowadays NGO workers, tourists, students (study abroad) and modern media are "encroaching on the 'sacred' territory of anthropology - the 'noble savage' who inhabits 'out of the way places.'" While anthropologists strive to make others seem less exotic, the media (and tourists, etc) strive to make them seem more exotic

Whither the anthropologist? What doe sthis have to do with the entertainment advantage? Incompatibility?

Anthropologists have failed to popularize ethnographic knowledge How many anthropologists are visible public intellectuals? How many books written by anthropologists are widely read by a non-academic audience? Ethnographic Film: Slow pace, deep intellectual content, academic "actors", making less exotic Reality TV: Fast pace, light intellectual content, everyday "actors", emphasizing the exotic Can anthropology co-exist with reality TV on 'exotic' and 'isolated' indigenous peoples? Anthropologists lack financial resources to compete with 'pulp anthropology.' Should anthropologists: offer criticism from afar? Or engage in production to temper portrayals?

Roots of development?

Began at the end of colonialism (post WWII) New form of political-economic interaction between core and periphery Like colonialists, developers envision themselves as agents of progress

How did McDonalds survive in china? Who talked about it?

Cultural Imperialism? No stealth advertising Did not create a new market Responded to the changing family system Localization Localization of McDonalds. Strategy is to become part of local culture. "Multilocal, not multinational." Local suppliers, local entrepreneurs as franchise owners Changing Family System From patrilocality to neolocality: couple lives alone, but prefers to live near wife's mother (for childcare)Small family norm, spoiled 1 child. Children as Consumers McDonalds captures the little emperors through birthday parties (a new phenomenon in China) and play areas with Uncle and Aunt McDonald Localizing McDonalds in China Adapting to changing demographic trends: urbanization, small families, "little emperors" Adapting to changing socioeconomic trends: more women work outside the home, rising middle-class affluence, disposable income Converting Private to Public Space Fast food = fast service only Teens use as after-school hangout Elders use as mid-morning hangout Whose Culture Is It, Anyway? Is McDonalds a leader in creating a homogenous, global culture? Need to consider consumers' perspectives. Process of localization forces us to ask: Where does the transnational end and the local begin?

Professional duties emotional responses?

Editor pesters her to finish reviewing article for publication The article is about Langtang (wiped away by a landslide) • Caused by earthquake • Destroyed the village • Langtang Village gewa ceremony the night before the landslide o Marking the moment when a soul of a dead person is released after 90 days Langtang survivors in Kathmandu, gewa ceremony 49 days after the landslide • Completely different experience Langtang • Buddhist emptiness is not nothingness, even when things are gone • Have a website with images of everyone who died in the landslide

According to Regi, what is a popular theme in ethnic or cultural tourism?

Encountering the "exotic" other - a popular theme in adventure tourism What disruptions in work and leisure routines occur when the tourist wants to see locals at work (authentic, naturalistic setting)? The tourist wants to imitate the work of locals (enhancing the experience)? The locals want to earn cash by being "authentic"?

Guarani Balanced exchange?

Giving entails expectation that something of equal value will be returned (immediately or delayed) Practiced with distant kin in other tapyí Practiced with other tapyí- not your own

Allan Holmberg's Vicos project? Goal? Where? HAciendas? PAtron? Campesinos? Vicos outcome? Results. Full success? Long term impact?

Goal: reduce socioeconomic stratification, integrate indigenous population into market economy Peruvian Andes Contextual background • Haciendas: land grants to the elite (legacy of Spanish colonialism) • Patrón: owner of a hacienda, member of elite land-owning class • Campesinos: peasants, people who worked the land and paid portion of produce to the patrón • Viscos judged to be "highly qualified success" according to USAID assessment report (1982) o Less exploitation, more upward mobility and education, yet more internal stratification Descendants of Inca Submit to the Spaniards • If they did not, they starved and moved to the slums Was not a full success and did not have long term impacts • However, they have envisioned with international development

Guarani indigenous knowledge?

Guaraní understand interdependence of species and fragility of system Food production mimics forest ecosystem: plants intercropped to help each other grow

What is the ecological approach of medical anthropology? Cultural adaptation?

How do cultural beliefs and practices shape human behaviors (e.g., residence patterns) that then alter the ecological relationship between host and pathogen? • What adaptations do humans make that result in an increased or decreased risk of exposure to illness? Cultural Adaptation (Brown): "culture traits or social institutions which function to increase the chances of survival for a society in a particular ecological context."

Life and death of a street boy in east africa lockhart. Family situation? How did the political economy contribute to this? What is structural violence's role in this situation? How does Juma survive? In which ways is he a victim of violence? In which ways does he perpetrate it? What is the experiental approach?

Juma's family was doing okay Uncle's family moves in with them Father needs to go out and make more of a living in the mines, father dies Uncle kicks them out and they are forced into poverty in the city o Political Economy Constraints on making a living for rural to urban migrants made family socially and economically vulnerable o Structural Violence Widows easily dispossessed of land despite laws permitting them to inherit • Happens easily because women are uneducated Rural migrants lack skills and connections to make a living Mother relies on "survival sex" to make ends meet (contracts HIV) • Sex for food and money • Mom dies of HIV Poverty, mom's death force Juma to the streets o Street kids form their own social groups complete with hierarchies of power, rules of conduct, and initiation rituals (remember Sterk and Bourgois) o Juma's Everyday Violence Street children enact violence on a regular basis Membership in a group (Nyenga Dog) is necessary for survival • Social network to survive Being raped = membership initiation • victim of violence Raping = to display and maintain hierarchy • Perpetrator of violence Fighting to protect territory and economic assets • Perpetrator of violence Being beaten by vigilantes and the police as reality of street life • Victim of violence By focusing on an individual's experiences the author can analyze the interplay between political economic forces and individual agency • Not purely a victim of circumstance, he can shape his life in some sort of way How structural and everyday violence shapes illness and mortality at the individual level The environment of risk that shapes people's perceptions of certain illnesses (HIV)

Guarani negative exchange?

Low level of trust, not very close (acquaintances) Guaraní Producers and Mestizo Patrons: inter-ethnic exchanges Hope that gift given in transaction will yield something of greater value Try to make a profit; assume trading partners is trying to do the same Asymmetrical relationship: mestizo trader has power and authority of the state to defend his business (close with the state and will call them in for help) Guaraní at disadvantage; mestizo profits the most • Exchange among Guaraní based on equality and trust • Exchange across ethnic lines characterized by power and suspicion

Development initiatives?

Major growth since 1950s • Multinational organizations (UNDP), 1950s • National organizations (USAID), 1961 • Non-Governmental Organizations (Gates Foundation; Save the Children), 1970s • Missionary Organizations, 1900s

What is the sustainability issues for paraguay forest development?

Monocrop (single specie) agriculture and grassland replace biodiversity If fertile top soil is exposed to sunlight and rainfall it becomes infertile and erodes Soil productivity becomes dependent on fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides Is economic development a short-lived phenomenon? • Some would argue yes but this has been going on for 50-60 years so yes sustainable Rain forest social profile • O horizon = litter (fallen leaves, decomposing matter) • A horizon = nutrient top soil o Eroding and this is critical

What do the murmi expect? Tourists?

Murmi expect balanced reciprocity. Tourists expect authenticity

Sol Tax's Fox project?

Native American settlement in Iowa Originally a field school for training Ph.D. students "You keep asking questions. But what's in it for us?" Turn toward proactive "action anthropology" • His students engage in developing projects that are beneficial to their society

Social impacts of paraguay forest development on guarani? Caciques? Poraea? Power of caciques? New leaders are agents of what? Economic status of the two? Political status of the two? Social aspect of the two?

New leaders (caciques) appointed and empowered by govt. undermine role of traditional kin leaders (poraéa) • Power of caciques derives from associations with institutions outside the community New leaders act as agents of the state • Intermediaries between programs (state, NGO) and local communities • Direct resources ("gifts") to community members • Result = socioeconomic stratification Poraea same economic level with others, can persuade, little power/authority, high respect by virtue of age and knowledge Caciques wealthier than others, power and authority backed by state, respect through patronage and debt

o Dynamics of Indigenous Demographic Fluctuations (Covey et al.) Thoughts about guarani population? Why less 10-14 year olds? Why so many 0-9?

Originally thought that there were epidemics and then population stabilization and that continued to happen over time but that is not actually what happened • What happened was that there were population declines and then the fertility rates skyrocketed and regenerated the population very quickly • Epidemics happened when there were small cohorts of women • Recovery possible, but offset by timing of subsequent epidemics Why is 10-14 age cohort so small? • Demographic stress 10-15 years ago? • Epidemics usually have disproportionate impact on infants and elderly o High infant mortality? • Socioeconomic disruptions that accompany epidemics (spousal loss, famine) affect reproduction. Low fertility? Why 0-4 and 5-9 cohorts so large? • High fertility (the only explanation) • TFR above 8 births/woman • Demonstrates potential for demographic recovery

- Participatory Development in Maragoli, Kenya (David McConnell et al.)

Participatory development is possible if fundamental principles are followed to ensure community involvement and ownership Facilitate rather than dictate direction and pace of development

Shielding the Mountains? Western approach to environmental health and individual well being? Tibetan approach? Origins of Tibetan approach?

Physical and cultural realms inter-connected Connection between environmental health and individual well-being Different Approach • Western: designate certain areas for protection, protect it aggressively and prevent humans from inhabiting it • Tibetan: all places worthy of protection, allow humans and the environment to coexist Indigenous concept promoted by Buddhist clerics for centuries: restrictions on cutting trees (protecting forests), restrictions on digging up the land (mining), hunting prohibitions (protecting wildlife), showing reverence to spirits associated with mountains, streams, and springs (water as essential resource) Tree planting and wildlife monitoring to help maintain the environment People like planting trees because they get to spend time together and also protect the environment Decimation of Tibetan antelope for fashion sparked more wildlife protection

Contemporary Issues: Land and Indigenous Rights, Ecological Footprint?Seal Hunts? Of parks and people? Fortress conservation? Community conservation? Ecological footprint?

Seal Hunts • Seal hunting integral part of Inuit culture and economy (but no longer for survival) • Animal Rights groups oppose seal hunts (cruelty to animals) Of Parks and People • Some of poorest nations devote vast tracts of land to environmental conservation areas • "Fortress Conservation": Set aside protected areas and restrict usage by local peoples. Ecotourism $$$ (but, who benefits?) • "Community Conservation": enlist local people as managers of conservation areas. Potential to spread benefits more equitably Ecological Footprint • The area of land that would be required to support a defined human population at its current material standard of living indefinitely • A measure of the load placed on the environment by using resources and disposing of wastes

What is the summary of impacts of paraguay forest development on guarani?

Shift from independent agroforestry to dependent commercial agriculture Necessitates levelling of forests, destruction of ecosystem on which Guaraní society depends "Guaraní communities are not simply beset by economic development, they are struggling against a particularly destructive type of development."

Guarani forest management?

Shifting horticulture ('slash and burn') Hunting, fishing, and gathering Agroforestry Commercial tree cropping Long term planning • Plant a tree to climb so you can have access to other fruit trees

o Nubri: Shall I Stay or Shall I Go?

The Internet has become a strange safety net, catching us as we fall into senses of connection (Sienna Craig, Savage Minds) More useful in the US than going there Response • Stay in the US: coordinate relief activities, disseminate information, and raise funds • Anthropological knowledge is locally situated • Anthropologist can act as knowledge broker and connect victims with relief efforts

Spiritual Ecology/Political ecology?

The state controls access to resources (forests, mining, wildlife). Big $$$ and power connected to resources. • Locals have little power to limit environmental destruction ("injuring the land") except through environmental activism. But indigenous knowledge devalued as "religious activity" (politically charged in China) The state can view environmental activism as ethnic activism Splitting the Motherland"

What is loftsdottir's caveat?

This is not a criticism of those who generously help others (providing they are motivated for right reason and they have the right skills to do so) This is anthropological critique f the messages about ethnic others that are continually deployed through a media of "development"

USAID in tanzania lifestyle?

USAID staff live in mansions with servants and guards, rarely speak the local language, have little (if any) understanding of local culture • Social contacts = local government elites • Job: envision and shepherd toward completion multi-million dollar projects Offices larger than many embassies Signs only in English (for educated elite) American employees with little connection to the locals Socioeconomic disconnect

Cold War and Development? Iron curtain? MAD? West's solution to cold war?

Western and eastern blocks split by the "iron curtain" • No warfare the time because the political philosophy called "MAD" o Mutually assured destruction o Both had a lot of weapons so if you destroy one, then you both are destroyed Many parts of the world characterized by huge inequities Fear of peasant movements and Communism Solution = development • Bring people into capitalist system • Develop industries and markets • Make friends through development

According to Regi, how do locals react to tourists? What is simulated work?

Women and kids prepare for tourist arrival by decorating bodies to look "authentic" Competition for tourists' attention: photo opportunities and work activities = $$$ Tourists want "authentic" encounter. Simulate work activities: "moralize and imagine a production mode different from their own." Concepts of work and leisure become "blurred by performance." Place of kiibai ("non-active social activities") becomes place of simulated deshê ("physical work") Simulated work ≠ deshê, but iwa ("means of getting $$$") implying lack of social bonds

Guarani trade?

Yerba mate Bitter leafs high in caffeine, popular drink in S. America Extracted from forest for trade/sale Allows them to go beyond subsistence

Anthropology and development: Changing objectives?

anthropology academic vs. applied? Why not both! Previous Consensus: Role is to understand and describe other societies Today's Consensus: Anthropologists have the skills and knowledge to help solve problems

- "Forest Dwellers, Forest Protectors" (Richard Reed) research methods?

interviewing participant observation archival (history) demographic and economic surveys

What is anthropology of development?

- Critiquing motives, practices, and discourses of development

Ethnoecological Approach to Shifting Cultivation ("Slash and Burn")? Who came up with it? Myth? Reality?

Conklin o Context: development in the Philippines, denigration of swidden agriculture o Empirical research revealed detailed, nuanced environmental knowledge o Documented botanical knowledge (local knowledge of plants exceeds scientists' taxonomic knowledge) o Documented soil knowledge (10 basic and 30 derivative soil categories; plus familiarity with which crops grow best in different soil types) o Myth Swidden farming is a haphazard procedure involving little planning or knowledge Usually, and preferably, swiddens are cleared in virgin forest (rather than in areas of secondary growth). Result = tremendous loss of valuable timber. o Reality Swidden farming follows a locally determined, well-defined pattern and requires constant attention throughout most of the year When possible, people prefer to make swidden fields in second-growth forest (rather than in primary forests)

Political ecology?

Eric wolfe • Relationships between humans and their environment cannot be understood without considering inequalities of power and wealth produced by the global economy • Most widely used approach in environmental anthropology since the 1990s

What is ethnoecology? Ethnobotany? Ethnozoology? What is the methodology?

Ethnoecology: Study of knowledge and beliefs about nature that are held in a particular culture • Ethnobotany (indigenous knowledge of plants) • Ethnozoology (indigenous knowledge of animals) • Methodology focuses on taxonomies (ways people name and classify plants, animals, medicinal substances, soils, etc.)

Proyecto Caazapa example?

Proyecto Caazapa Govt. claim that only 10 families of Guaraní inhabit target area • Free reign to clear forest Willfully ignore anthropological knowledge • 730 families, 3,800 people World Bank (loan grantor) mandate: give indigenous peoples land title Mandate ignored, Guaraní left with nothing

What is Ecosystems Approach? Systemic Integration? Who came up with it? Critiques? lasting contribution?

Rappaport o Tracking flows of energy through the system o Isolated, closed feedback system in equilibrium o Self-regulating, sustainable Systemic Integration: o Human-environment equilibrium disrupted when pigs become too numerous o Human-environment equilibrium reestablished by slaughtering pigs (ecological dimension) o Temporary cessation of warfare for feasting and exchange (social dimension) o Coordinated through ritual activities (religious dimension) CRITIQUES: o Not most efficient means to distribute animal protein (nutritionists' perspective) o Closed system is unrealistic assumption (geographic perspective) o Homeostasis assumption problematic due to short time frame (historical perspective) o Response: Movement away from studying systems in equilibrium to systems in flux o Rituals have measurable material effects in ecosystems. They can regulate domestic animal populations, frequency of warfare, ratio of land to people, distribution of food, etc.

The Container and Its Contents

The Container (Environment) and Its Contents (Living Beings) Ensuring harmony between the environment and life forms it supports

The Ugly American Revisited (james brain). Book plot, cold war us aid, context? Ugly american revisited, sentiments twoards USAID, why does USAID reject small scale projects?

The Ugly American (1958): Book's Plot SE Asian country facing Communist insurrection (Cold War context). The "Ugly American": humble engineer who lives and works with villagers to develop low tech solutions (e.g., bicycle powered pumps). Efforts undermined by State Dept officials living in luxury amidst poverty. Cold War & US Aid Context: Vietnam (unstated). Foreign aid ("Freedom Road") as part of foreign policy (thwart Communism). Development to prevent insurrection. Support for the elite (the dictator) and development for the elite (military) causes popular resentment. The Ugly American Revisited Foreign aid is part and parcel of political policy. "Many of us felt guilty and even outraged that the ignorance and ethnocentrism of our aid administrators were getting us hated in the world." Why does USAID reject projects that are small-scale, cheap, technologically simple (e.g., water pumps powered by bicycles)? Not spectacular enough (US image issue). Small projects "too difficult to administer." No American institutions would make a profit (companies, contractors, universities).

- The Photographed Gift (Schorr and Warner) Key observation? Buddhist context?

This is the new participant-observation: observing an event from afar and participating in the moment through likes, shares, and comments, often drawn to do so by photographs and videos." o Key Observation The democratization and proliferation of visual communication influences how we... • experience a crisis from afar • position ourselves in relation to a crisis Importance of priest-patron relationship • Buddhist clerics depend on lay donors • Material donation reciprocated with spiritual blessing (protection from negativity) and benefits (merit for future rebirth) What happens when the priest is the donor? • Disaster relief inverts the equation • "From the holy hands" indicates . . . how the embodied act of hierarchical exchange . . . bestows protection from teacher to student." • Cultural twist Visible assurance that relief will be used responsibly • Dissemination (likes, shares, comments) can motivate others to express devotion or concern through further donations • Showing that their money is going to good causes snowball effect

Kottak's suggestions for development?

To maximize social and economic benefits, [development] projects must..." be culturally compatible (do not clash with cultural norms), respond to locally perceived needs (grassroots), involve men and women in planning and carrying out the changes that affect them (participatory development), harness traditional organizations (amplify current organizations), and be flexible (necessary, being able to adapt) o Avoid Over-Innovation Projects may fail because they are not economically or culturally compatible Can't assume that people are willing to make dramatic lifestyle changes for sake of "efficiency" according to the developer o Avoid Under-Differentiation Neglecting cultural variability and differences "Developing countries are all the same" big problem in development circles Uniform approach to problem solving "What works in Botswana must work in Bolivia." "What works in one part of this country must work in other parts of this country" o Wallace's article o Socioeconomic Disconnect Development officials can be socially and economically detached from 'targets' of development Disconnect in higher level organizations "the Ugly American"

What is anthropological demography according to Towensend?

While an ethnographer's census can be highly accurate, the small size of the population studied usually rules out using the statistical methods developed and used by demographers." (Townsend) o Childs rejects this • "[Anthropologists] leave the highly quantitative demographic research to be done by the demographers working for the national population census with their large-scale survey methods." (Townsend) o Child rejects this too because censuses mask regional variation

What is specific evolution? What is the trend of general evolution?

multilinear (each society takes unique course) rather than unilinear Came to be called "cultural adaptation", term still in use today. Focus on process rather than outcome, micro scale. Increase in scale and complexity macro scale.

What is the importance of ethnoecology?

o "Traditional environmental knowledge is a body of knowledge that is extensive, observationally grounded, and complementary to scientific knowledge." (Townsend p.20)

The Problem With Little White Girls (and Boys) and Why I Stopped Being a Voluntourist (Pippa Biddle) Is voluntourism benign? What can people sinsibly do? What does she argue?

o A Sensible Assessment: What she can do Raise money, collect items, coordinate programs, and tell stories o Is It Benign? Voluntourism takes jobs from locals, can hinder rather than help development, perpetuates the "white savior" complex, and is more about finding oneself than helping others o Arguing that her presence is hindering meaningful work

Agroforestry? High intensity? Low intensity?

o Agroforestry Stable production system that protects forest resources over time. Intensity varies • Variety of species • Species are interdependent • One or more plant/animal harvested for use or sale High intensity agroforestry • Clear land • intercrop bananas and coffee o bananas give food security and able to sell the excess o coffee provides the bulk of the income low intensity agroforestry • harvesting rubber and other products from intact forests • collect sap from the trees, cook it, and that creates rubber • engaging in world system

Guarani production?

o Agroforestry, hunting and gathering o Forest Management Areas thought to be 'natural' but actually managed by indigenous peoples Planting crops within existing forests rather than clearing tracts for planting Induce wildlife into grassland to make it easier for hunting • Intentionally cleared but naturally done

Invisible Colour: Landscapes of Whiteness and Racial Identity in International Development (Kristin Loftsdottir) Aid donor countries perspective? Wodaabe persepctive? her point? Examples of developscape?

o Aid Donor Countries Moral discourse about • donor nation ("we are generous and competent") • the recipient nation is not contrasting donors (saviors) with recipients (people in dire need) ex: receiver country - how are African's portrayed? • Miserable, sad people • "we need your help" ex: donor country • white people with power o WoDaaBe Perspective (local perspective) Development projects derive from and belong to 'white' people Development racialized because it is perceived as belonging to the realm of 'white' Europeans and Americans • Not something they have initiated or is for them all about racialized hierarchy o Loftsdottir's Point Continuous depictions of "Third World" peoples as impoverished and helpless, plus continuous portrayal of Whites as saviors, equals "A commentary on 'whiteness' created and recreated through the discourses and actions of development institutions." o Ads about developsape Global Parent's commercial • Fictive kinship - surrogate to those in need in Africa Act of changing a diaper and developscape • Buy pampers to donate money to children in need worldwide • Who is the benefactor? o How do kids instictvely know the white woman is the benefactor? • Very racialized Hungry children ad about domestic dogs eating better than a lot of children • Racialized - white woman feeding a black child on the floor • Woman did not say that she sees race which is obviously false

- Rethinking the Biological Clock (Friese, Becker, and Nachtigall) Anthropology of biomedicine?medicalization? Context of social change? Postponers and biological clocks?

o Anthropology of Biomedicine Critical approach to the study of biomedicine. Understanding biomedicine as a system of ethno-medicine that involves issues of power, gender, etc. biomedicine is not just about science- cannot leave the social dimension out. Studying processes of knowledge creation. How does knowledge acquire status of "fact" rather than "belief"? Emphasis on biotechnologies. Ex: How do reproductive technologies shape peoples' conceptions of the life course? o Medicalization The process by which human experiences are redefined as medical problems. Infertility formerly seen as social problem. Increasing demand for treatment and growth of industry leads to redefinition as medical problem. Medicalization process • Biomedical industry • Members of the public • Interplay between the above two o Context of Societal Change How can education and career aspirations affect a woman's reproductive years? Female life courses and reproduction is changing based on women's access to occupation and careers Baby = non reproductive, middle age = reproductive age, old age = non reproductive. Women are delaying entry into reproductive age. Postponers: postpone getting married and having a baby Biological clock: by the time that a postponer decides its time to have a baby, doctors say that its risky.

Caciques as power brokers? WHat is their source of power? How do they distribute assistance? What does this lead to?

o Caciques as Power Brokers Context: from self-sufficiency as forest dwellers to dependency as farmers/wage workers Source of caciques power = aid programs Cacique distributes assistance (e.g., cotton), recreates Guaraní-Mestizo patronage Asymmetrical relationship between new workers and people in the community • Go from very balanced to very unbalanced • Leads to social stratification Indebtedness to cacique repaid through cotton profits

Migration and social change in Nubri, Nepal? Demographic questions? Ethnograpic Questions? marital history survey? pregnancy survey? Contraception survey? Household survey? Combining methods?

o Demographic Questions: Document fertility changes over time Document the rate and magnitude of out-migration Project changes to the age-sex composition of the population o Ethnographic Questions: Investigate changing reproductive behavior in response to modern contraception and education Explore out-migration's role in long-term family management strategy. Study social and economic impacts of out-migration • Reproductive History Survey: Marital History Age at marriage. Type of marriage (monogamy, polyandry). Marital residence (nama, magpa). Marital decision (arranged, choice). Marital disruptions (divorce, death of spouse) • Reproductive History Surveys: Pregnancies Outcome (miscarriage, still birth, live birth). Date of birth (month, season animal year). Current status (infant/child death? still alive?) Verbal autopsy (details on death) Reproductive History Surveys: Contraception Ever used? Currently use? What type? Source? Not done by Childs or by another man or foreigner; only local women • Combining Ethnographic and Demographic Methods o Demographic Data: persistence of high fertility. Lack of birth control? o Survey and Interview Data: birth control usage has started. Recent, no large statistical effect yet o Interview Data: Gender dynamics. Who decides? Who has agency? Secretive actions? s • Household Survey Economic Data: land, animals, income, etc. Demographic Data: age, sex, marital status, education, current whereabouts • Combining Methods o Demographic Data: Scale and directions of migration Age-sex composition of migrants o Interview Data: Parental rationales for sending Networks that facilitate entrance into schools and monasteries Youth migration experiences and future aspirations o About 75% of young kids are away from the home (both boys and girls) Sent out at age 6 or 7 o Semi-structured interviewing: youth migrants

How is the guarani society destabilized by paraguay forest development?

o Destabilizing Guaraní Society Govt. sells land to outsiders • Guaraní become squatters on own land or pushed to marginal and shrinking forests Outsiders clear forests, hunt extensively • Sharp reduction in wildlife • protein lost from diet Forest reduction decimates yerba collection • Source of cash income lost - no trade • must sell labor for $$ never know when someone is going to be killed • live in constant fear • living on land that they used to own and practice agroforestry and they have a bad relationship with the people who claim to own it now

The price of progress John Bodley. Diseases of development? Benefit for indigenous people? What is progress really used for? How is quality of life measured? What question does Goldschmidt pose? Trobirans? Dusrupting environmental balance? Overpopulation urbanizatin and crowding?

o Diseases of development Development may not be as benign as we think it is negative effects o Benefits of progress for indigenous peoples are often illusory or even detrimental o Progress ("development") pushed on people as way of getting at their resources example, Ok Tedi Mine o Measuring Quality of Life Usual Means: GNP, per capita income, employment rates, literacy rates, consumption, doctors and hospital beds/1000, etc. Goldschmidt: "Does progress or economic development increase or decrease a given culture's ability to satisfy the physical and psychological needs of its population, or its stability?" • Nutritional status, mental health, crime, family stability, relationship to natural resource base Economists agree with the first example

- A gender issue (Chloe Karmin, 2015)

o Do NRTs contribute to gender roles and stereotypes? Do they perpetrate the womanhood = motherhood narrative? o Do new reproductive technologies increase pressure for women to have babies? No longer an excuse not to have children o What about male life course and reproduction? Do men also have a biological clock o One sense it is liberating for women because they are able to have kids later in life but at the same time it is enforcing gender stereotypes by saying there is no excuse not to have a kid

Guarani early report? relative wealth? Community size? Farming? Army status? Type of leadership?

o Early Report (1550s) "They are . . . the richest people of all the land." • Large, independent communities • Farming (maize, potatoes, etc.), livestock (geese), hunting and fishing • Ability to muster large armies • Egalitarian leadership

What is elite capture? What does it result in?

o Elite Capture Recognized as problem in development Community elites designated intermediaries between donors and recipients • Elites appropriate resources • Elites decide who will receive/be denied resources Can increase socioeconomic stratification • Elites + family and friends benefit most

Life and death of a street boy in east africa lockhart. What type of approach? Study site? Structural violence definition? was participant observation used? Historical context of political economy?

o Experiential Approach How do people experience illness? How do they express their experiences? o Study site: Mwanza, Tanzania Structural Violence (Farmer) • Institutionalized inequalities that deny marginalized individuals access to critical resources for their health and well-being • **disclaimer: when any topic becomes very popular people look for it more than they should be • macro perspective Everyday Violence (Scheper-Hughes) • Routinized experiences of violence in an individual's life • Micro perspective o Participant observation Establish trust and rapport while gaining empathic understating of street children Gathering data through first hand observations and informal conversations o Historical Context: Political Economy Colonial emphasis on cotton production • Cash crops for export • Transformed agriculture • Once they gained independence, their economy went downhill Post-Colonial economic mismanagement, stagnation, and decline Structural adjustment policies • Reducing subsidies and opening up to market forces as condition for IMF loans Result: rural farmers on the brink

cross-cultural understanding effects of voluntourism? Did you know (****ed up stuff about voluntourism?

o For promotional purposes tour companies downplays challenges of navigating cultural differences. Promise of "positive, unproblematic cross-cultural encounters." Volunteers to be welcomed with open arms by people who are depicted as "needy cultural others, generic poor people eager and grateful for the assistance of benevolent Westerners." Researchers find that volunteers return home with pre-existing beliefs confirmed Reinforce the idea that if we do not help, they will die About you and self discovery or is it about helping others o Negative Effects Unskilled volunteers drive down demand for and wages of local unskilled workers Voluntourism fosters dependency and undermine sense of local project ownership Regular arrival of wealthy volunteers heightens sense of relative poverty • Young volunteers have a form of global mobility that is unthinkable in places where they volunteer o Short-Term Visits voluntourism popular in AIDS orphanages Instant bonding; continual abandonment Focus is changing their life o Did you know? Fake orphanages are common nowadays (Nepal) Supply of orphanages driven by rising voluntourism demand • Many kids taken from families with promise of education so voluntourists can have orphanage experience o Moving Forward Adopt position of openness and humility • Volunteer tourism is "frequently carried out by people with an almost total lack of prior knowledge about . . . the people they seek to assist." • Learn how problems came to be, don't assume you can solve anything Is your primary motivation career advancement? Social status (self-image as compassionate person)? Genuine desire to help others with needs? o Who created this situation? The system: institutions with competitive entrance criteria that distinguishes applicants The individual: individuals live in a world of "credentialing" - moving forward in a competitive world by collecting marks

Price of progress, but is there benefits?

o Qualification: this does not mean that people are invariably worse off than they used to be o Macro/Micro Macro Perspective: • There has been a worldwide increase in standard of living (wealth) and longevity (health) Micro Perspective: • Macro perspective veils rise in inequalities and marginalization that can occur with development • Not everybody benefits; those with power and wealth tend to benefit disproportionately - Critiques of development: go mainstream on SNL

Guarani generalized exchange?

o Generalized Exchange (Reciprocity) High level of trust, very close (kin) Giving something to another person without the expectation of an immediate return Exchange = expression of personal relationship Food, clothing, tools, and labor regularly exchanged among close relatives ("from each according to ability, to each according to need") Everyone can assume: "When I need something, someone will provide." Generalized exchange ensures perishables (meat, fruit) are consumed, everyone has access to diversity of food produced, everyone has sufficient labor to produce food, everyone has sufficient food and goods regardless of ability to produce (wounded hunter example) Outcome: minimal socioeconomic stratification Practice with your own tapyí

What is the summary of anthropologists critique development?

o Goal of development = improve people's lives Bodley: Development can have negative health and economic impacts Brain: development is often used to advance political goals which can have negative impacts Garland: Voluntourism can have negative impact on communities (taking jobs, creating dependency) and individuals (impact of revolving door volunteers on orphans o Goal of development = increase equity Brain: USAID, govt. graft, creation of local development elite. Perpetuates inequality Garland: "programs offer volunteers a means to improve their own marketability and socioeconomic power." Loftsdottir & Garland: Development can reinforce ethnic/racial stereotypes

- Intruders in Sacred Territory (Eindhoven, Bakker, and Persoon) . What do they mean by going native? What criticism do they level at it?

o Going Native? Finding the "most primitive and isolated tribes who have little/no contact with outsiders." Billed as anthropology for the masses or anthropology for dummies Why call it anthropology?!? o Criticism by Anthropologists Exploiting 'exotic' people for entertainment Providing minimal compensation while making a considerable profit (economic exploitation) One-sided, distorted representations • What is a tribe? Why use that term? • No mention that they live in nation-states Ethnocentrism • Promoting the assumption of Western cultural supremacy

Initial goals of good roots project? Mistakes and solutions?

o Good Roots Project: Initial Goals Quantify extent of deforestation • Hwat is happening Determine causes of deforestation • Why it is happening Establish system so that locals can reclaim denuded land • How to fix it In meetings, project team viewed as "experts" - they did not listen closely to locals (socioeconomic disconnect). Became more sensitive about power dynamics (foreign/local) and how they are perceived. Prioritize science or development? Project recipients chosen through random sampling (scientific endeavor), yet enthusiasm varied widely Shift to purposive sampling. Incorrect goals: Plan to plant forest trees did not generate local enthusiasm ("how do we benefit?") Shift from forestry to agro-forestry. Fast growing trees that can generate income (citrus for markets) and fuel wood. Under-differentiation: Assumption: project in north could be replicated with minimum change in south. Problems: cultural differences (need for intense social interactions to gain rapport) and land tenure differences (tenant farmers versus smallholders). Become flexible, pay attention to site-specific details and adjust accordingly. UNER_DIFFERENTIATION

Nubri and govt response to earthquake? Youth re-engagement? Eathquake narratives?

o Government's Response Government of Nepal announces funds to support individual families rebuilding houses Stipulation: rebuilding must conform to government approved designs so they are earthquake resistant As of today, funds still not released - almost a year later People rebuilt their homes • Why wait when we know it won't come? • Marginality helped them because they are not dependent on external resources o Youth Re-engagement Out migration of these youths from this area • They come back and do something Tsum Nubri Relief Center • Founded by young people • Coordinate relief and get help Taking the Initiative: Using language skills, social media, and connections to bring relief to natal villages • Raising money through crowdfunding (e.g., KickStarter, GoFundMe) • Documenting actions, raising awareness via social media (mainly Facebook) Competitive NGOs Nyima Samdrub • Point man for a German sponsored project to rebuild schools o Earthquake Narratives Intense, meaningful, on-site involvement ("great experience for us to learn about our own society.") Not just taking interviews; also giving knowledge

Guarani settlement?

o Guarani Settlement Individual family households Do not live in ringed protective communities, more dispersed pattern that are tied together through a leader Tapyí consists of several households

Guarani history 1700s to present?

o Guaraní History: 1700s to present Repeated threats (missionaries, exploitative labor practices, slave raiders from Brazil) 1812 Paraguay wins freedom from Spain, Guaraní find place in Paraguayan society Many settle in towns and assimilate Others remain in forest, continue agroforestry and yerba trade Vibrant communities forming once threats reduced

Guarani leadership?

o Guaraní Leadership Kinship-based social organization Leadership function of age and religious knowledge Influence legitimized through religious knowledge Lead through example and persuasion; little power and authority • Egalitarian

Guarani colonial history? Relative location to INca empire? Yerba mate? trade of it? Who had rights over Guarani? What happened?

o Guaraní and Colonial History Inca Empire was the big empire of the time • Guarani on the edges of the empire - commercial interest Formed alliances with Spanish to access trade with Inca • After Pizarro's conquest, trade in yerba mate develops Yerba Mate • Ilex paraguariensis • Shrub native to South America • Leaves used to make beverage that is a mild stimulant (effect of coffee but similar to tea) Conquistadors given rights over labor of Guaraní • Forced labor, exploitation, and disease lead to population decline • "They have carried off our brothers, sons, and subjects... Those máte forests remain full of the bones of our sons and vassals . . . It impoverishes us and annihilates us." (Guaraní leader, 1630) • 90% population decline from the 1550s-1650s

- Participant-Observation from a Distance (Craig)

o How does an anthropologist grapple with a natural disaster from afar? o How does one think "anthropologically in the midst of raw emotion"? o Thinking Anthropologically? "In what mode do I assess the political economy of disaster capitalism [theoretical question] when a son hopes to cremate his mother but is denied state relief because his citizenship papers are buried? [lived reality]." • How do you reconcile these two?

yartsa Gunbu in Nubri and Tsum, Nepal (Childs and Choedup. VIllage regs? Religious regs? Pros? Cons? Sustainable development? Procedural equity? Intra-Generational equity? Take home message?

o Village Regulations (yul khrims) All households have equal access (pastureland is communal property) Designated starting date • Every adult must check in for roll call four times per day prior to that date Tax generates fund for communal use • $1 for first HH member • $53 for each addition HH member o Religious Regulations (chos khrims) Concept of sacred geography (recall "Shielding the Mountains" video) Sealing decrees (shag rgya) • Certain areas are "sealed" off from human activities like farming, cutting timber, and gathering yartsa gunbu o Pros: Income improves lives Housing improvements Investment in jewelry • Bank account Purchase food (less reliance on farming) Buffer against funeral expenses • Funerals usually send families into huge debts Funds for communal rituals o Cons: Instant income creates problems Increase in drinking Increase in gambling Binge spending Inter-generational strife o Sustainable Development? Intergenerational Equity • Does it meet needs of present without compromising future? • Closure to outsiders limits harvest • Sealing decrees ensure spore production Procedural Equity • Is there regulatory transparency whereby all are treated equally? • Regulations decided by village consensus Every adult must check in prior to harvest • Everybody starts gathering on the same day Intra-Generational Equity • Does it reduce the economic gap between rich and poor? • Perhaps, due to procedural equity • Larger households = wealthier household o more members = more potential income o The Authors' Agenda Most who write about yartsa gunbu (scholars and popular press) focus on negatives • Unsustainable harvest, environmental destruction, social decay Assumptions • Locals incapable of managing the resource • External management required Why do we assume that external intervention is needed? Who would benefit? o Take home message "development" does not necessarily require outside influence

- The Problem With Little White Girls (and Boys) and Why I Stopped Being a Voluntourist (Pippa Biddle) How does early stereotypeing start? Conditioned to intervene, but are people qualified to intervene?

o How early does stereotyping start? 1st grade - idea lab in class to learn about different countries and they were taught that in Africa the theme is development and that we can go in and help them enculturation: the social process by which culture is learned and transmitted high school students in Maloui • "if they do not get this help they will die" o conditioned to intervene, but are people qualified to Intervene? Are you a doctor? A nurse? A teacher? An engineer? A carpenter? A sanitation expert? Do you know their language? Their culture? Their society? Going in with not much skill or knowledge If it takes skill to build a brick wall, why would you send 13 kids to build it? They would knock it down in the middle of the night and rebuild it

- Haiti Disaster Tourism—A Medical Shame (van Hoving et al.) Humanitarian aid vs disaster tourism? Disaster volunteer help or hinderance?

o Humanitarian Aid vs. Disaster Tourism Disaster tourist: "a person heading to the site of a disaster to see the destruction, take pictures, obtain bragging rights, and get the shoulder badge." Problem: how to discern intentions? Can one clearly distinguish a disaster volunteer from a disaster tourist? Disaster volunteer lacks cultural understanding, language skills, operational competence in new society Disaster volunteer needs translator, food and shelter, guidance (social, political, and physical landscape) Better off not going

- Dots on the Map (Sara Shneiderman)? What is it? Major questions raised? What determines getting aid? What was Dolakha portrayed as?

o In this essay, I reflect upon what not "being there" at a time of crisis means for an anthropologist o Significance of Dots on the Map Why do maps show Everest (far from epicenter)? • And has nothing to do with the current earthquake Why is densely populated Dolakha portrayed as a "remote forest"? • Even when it is the epicenter • Has no media focus Why can't relief workers find their way to, or get data from, Dolakha? Geographical remoteness or marginalization? • No media images = no visible problem = no relief? • Marginalized effects how much aid they get o Whither the Anthropologist Anthropological knowledge is locally situated Anthropologist can act as knowledge broker, connect local victims with non-local relief efforts • Had local knowledge that other agencies could not provide "The experience was alienatingly unethnographic, and yet deeply anthropological in its reliance on context-specific knowledge."

What are as idigenous people stereotyped as? Do the guarani fit that stereotype?

o Indigenous peoples Stereotyped as people who avoid contact with outsiders, resist inclusion into world system Guaraní do not fit that stereotype; history of engagement with world system

Intervention philosophy? Today's intervention policy?

o Intervention Philosophy An ideological justification for outsiders to guide native peoples in specific directions Today's intervention philosophy = development • Guiding Principles: industrialization, modernization, Westernization, and individualism are desirable advances ("progress") Colonialism development • 1800s was colonialism, change in the 1940s-1960s, today is development

Stephen Lansing: Balinese Agriculture. Complex Adaptive system? Agricultural development? Benefits of the indigenous system?

o Like Rappaport, recognition that rituals can have regulatory functions o Focus on a how a resource (water) is regulated o Analysis of how multiple actors coordinate activities in mutually beneficial ways • A Complex Adaptive System o Temples regulate planting, irrigation, and harvesting cycles of surrounding fields (subak) o Cycles coordinated with upstream and downstream subaks o Network of interacting agents [farmers] o Each agent [individual farmer] seeks to maximize something [crop yield] o Self-Organizing System: by following behavior of more successful farmers, all eventually coordinate activities • Agricultural Development o Development workers and policy makers failed to appreciate indigenous system o Green Revolution (top-down approach) increased crop yield, but only temporarily o Required massive pesticide input. Led to rise in crop-eating pests • Making the System Visible o Indigenous knowledge of local conditions accumulated over centuries. • Hydrological system coordinated through temple system (cultural/ecological symbiosis) o Ritual regulation of a critical resource (water) results in Global Optimum o Collective: control pests. Individual: every farmer able to maximize yields

Lowland s american tropical ecosystems?

o Lowland S. American Tropical Ecosystems Biodiversity (75% of known plant species) Inhospitable resource base: thin top soil • Nutrients depleted by direct sunlight • Harsh rains wash away top soil • Clay soils lack fertility, hard and impenetrable Interdependence of plant species: "woven together in tightly integrated ecosystem" Very fragile: loss of one element disrupts nutrient flow

- Tourism, Leisure and Work in an African Pastoral Society. Who wrote it? Mursi? What is rijo? Kiibai? su? Deshe?

o Mursi Terms and Concepts rijô: tree shade (culture), creating sociality kiibai: sitting, cultural work • Non-active, non-mobile social activities su: sun (nature), uncontrollable power deshê: working = physical work like fetching wood, grinding grain, etc.

- How Should Anthropologists Be Thinking About Volunteer Tourism? (Elizabeth Garland) How has volunteer tourism grown? What are the convergent interests of this phenomenon? The optimists? The pessimists?

o NGOs o Volunteer Tourism: Growth of an Industry Outgrowth of "traveler" phenomenon (1970s) Related to concept of "gap year" (1990s) Coincides with NGO growth Tour companies meld "off-the-beaten-track" tourism with safe educational experiences that parents will support Today 1.6 million annual participants o Convergent Interests NGOs: need cash and labor (get both) • Volunteerists pay for their experience Tour Companies: profitable niche in competitive global tourism market Volunteers: way for students to distinguish themselves from peers while pursuing educational/career goals o The Optimists "Pain-free mechanism for redistributing global resources" (from wealthier to poorer nations) • money from wealthier countries and putting it in poorer countries Brings development benefits to places that would otherwise be excluded Expands cross-cultural awareness • promotes transnational connections and understanding o The Pessimists Programs reinforce existing inequalities, preconceptions, and stereotypes • What Developscape is evident in voluntourism? • How are the other people portrayed? Ethical Issue: "one person's impoverishment is another's opportunity for adventure and personal growth" (and career advancement) • Doing it to put on a resume - is that ethical? • Doing it to help others or yourself?

- Invisible Colour: Landscapes of Whiteness and Racial Identity in International Development (Kristin Loftsdottir) REsearch focus? What is a developscape?

o NGOs and government development programs o Research focus How is racial identity constructed through development encounters? "How do images of dark-skinned people in developing countries as an almost objective reality perpetuate a certain image of 'whiteness'?" reinforce stereotypes about other people and uplift image of white person in wealthy country o Developscape Lived practices and visual representations of development in countries that give and receive aid Tangible and intangible elements associated with progress that are embedded in ideas about modernization• signs advertising projects • cars marked with logos of development organizations • exclusive spaces for development officials

What are the new exchange relations for the guarani? Health impacts?

o New Exchange Relations Guaraní acquire land, plant cash crops • Incur debt (seed, equipment, pesticides, etc) • Debt renders Guaraní dependent on lenders. Lose bargaining power, must sell crops at lender's price • High risk of failure (crop failure, too much debt) Engage in wage labor economy • Less risky • But, low wages (HH needs to send many workers); time lost for other subsistence activities Health Impacts? Less diverse diet, more dependence on high fat and starch diet • Poor nutrition = more vulnerable to disease Increased population density • Settlement promotes infectious disease transmission Wage labor and commercial farming • Intense exposure to herbicides and pesticides (see Prof. Benson on tobacco workers in USA) Diseases of development: in bodily terms

How can ethnographic research contribute to demographic survey?

o Observation + Conversation Observing, conversing, and listening, can lead you to develop informed and sensible survey questions o Participation: But, what interests the anthropologist is often least accessible and most difficult to participate Get married to gain empathic understanding of marriage? Have a tryst to gain empathic understanding of illicit sexuality? Get pregnant to gain empathic understanding of childbearing? van der Geest's affair • Long-term fieldwork often leads to intense social interactions • Intense interactions can lead to deeper level of understanding • Being vulnerable can lead to being more accepted

Ok Tedi Mine. Immediate local impacts? Downstream impacts? Political ecology?

o One of world's largest open pit copper mines o Joint effort: international corporations and PNG government. Lifespan: 1980s - 2025 • Immediate Local Impacts o Economic Benefits: land lease, employment, skills, infrastructure development o Social Detriments: dietary changes, drinking and fighting, prostitution, sexually transmitted infections • Downstream Impacts o Chemical pollutants destroy fish and wildlife (Ok Tedi creates biologically "dead" river) o Chemical pollutants cause health problems o Mine tailings and excess sedimentation overflows banks, destroys forests and agricultural land • Political Ecology o How do inequalities of power and wealth threaten the sovereignty and livelihoods of indigenous peoples? o Why are international companies allowed to engage in harmful practices in PNG that are strictly prohibited in their own countries? Wouldn't be allowed in the U.S.

Paraguay development? Political agenda? Economic agenda? Who benefits?

o Paraguay: State Initiated Development Achieving economic growth (national agenda) by clearing forests to facilitate commercial farming and ranching An economic and a political strategy "It is not market contact or interethnic relations that destroy indigenous society. It is undermined by a new and unique type of economic development" o Political Agenda Paraguay cannot defend forested eastern border: fear of Brazilian encroachment 1963-1973: land distribution to poor peasants Relieves political pressure • Livelihood to potentially unrestful peasantry • Secures border through settlement o Economic Agenda Improve national economy by exporting commodities to wealthy nations 1963-1973: land sold to commercial agriculture consortiums Forests cleared for farming and ranching Impressive national-level economic growth through exports (soy beans, meat) o Who Benefits? Government officials who control land distribution, exports, etc. Landless peasants from other areas • No longer landless peasants - get land that they can subsist on Commercial agricultural consortiums Problem: Guaraní manage land communally, no concept of private ownership • Easily dispossessed of land • What do they get?

Rethinking the Biological Clock (Friese, Becker, and Nachtigall). Posponers? 11th hour moms? miracle moms? Ovarian reserve? Rethinking the biological clock?

o Postponers Expect to have children at some point, but delay through series of postponements 11th hour moms conceiving using donated eggs when age defines them as "potentially reproductive" (before menopause). biological clock narrative shifts from "menopause" to "old eggs" miracle moms conceive using donated eggs when age defines them as "non reproductive" (very close to or after menopause) menopause used to be the breaking point o Key Terms and Concepts Ovarian Reserve: the diminishing quantity (and quality) of ova-Biomedical concept that breaks connection between reproductive capacity and menstruation. In other words, reproductive capacity ends prior to menopause but also it can extend beyond o Video Women have only 12% of their eggs left when they are 30. 12% of eggs still work. by the time you get to 40, they do not work very well o Rethinking the Biological Clock New reproductive technologies influence how we view the life course. Menopause no longer marks transition from reproductive to post-reproductive • Medical discourse on eggs truncates reproductive years (ends prior to menopause) • New reproductive technologies extend reproductive years (can reproduce after menopause) o Freezing your eggs/biological clock

Guarani Pre history? Who were they, what did they produce? What did they develop?

o Pre-History (500 - 1500 CE) Forest peoples begin to produce corn and beans (imported from Andes?) Development of Guaraní form of agroforestry Population growth; expansion into new areas

What is the Tamang Marriage System? What is the analysis of this?

o Preference for cross-cousin marriage o Mainly patrilocal; some neolocal o Mainly arranged marriages; some love marriages o Women have the power to refuse marriage o What factors establish conjugal intimacy? Woman has role in choosing husband Woman marries a cross-cousin Woman has ability to visit natal family o "The results ... support the argument that the transition to family building within marriage pivots on the familiarity between couples and on a woman's comfort in the marital environment." o I.e., comfort in marital home increases coital frequency and decreases first birth interval o Comfort (and birth interval) influenced by woman's role in spousal choice, marriage to a relative, and/or ability to visit natal home o Social variables proximate determinant of fertility (coital frequency) demographic variable (first birth interval)

Who are the guarani? What is the UN criteria for indigenous people?

o Roughly 80,000 people living in Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina Span to a larger area as well but mainly in the above areas o Indigenous Peoples: UN Criteria - Guarani fit these Descended from the pre-colonial/pre-invasion inhabitants of a region Maintain close cultural and economic ties to the land Suffer economic and political marginalization as a minority group in a nation-state • Guaraní threatened by land encroachment: logging, agriculture, ranching (in the name of development) • Very vulnerable o Do not have land rights and some

Sardinia malaria peak? Geographic distribution of malaria? Social distribution? Human ecology? Nucleated settlement pattern? Social orginization Eradication?

o Sardinia Peak of malaria is in the warmest months (400 in the winter months to 6000-8000 in summer months) o Geographic Distribution of Malaria Less prevalent in highlands Cooler temps and less standing water disrupt breeding cycle More prevalent in rural areas "Sylvatic nature of the Sardinian malaria vector" Sylvatic: pathogens that only affect wild (forest-dwelling) animals o Social Distribution of Malaria - not everyone effected equally Men more than women Working class more than wealthy elite Agro-pastoral workers more than urban-based occupations (merchants, artisans) Farmers more than shepherds Why does malaria prevalence vary by gender, social class, and occupation? o Human Ecology - relationship between humans and their environment Landscape variations (altitude) influence economic practices (transhumance) Inverse transhumance permanent settlements in highland temporary grazing grounds in lowlands in winter Nucleated settlement pattern (HHs concentrated rather than being dispersed) Settlements on higher, drier ground - protection against invaders Mosquitoes in/around agricultural land where there is standing water so more chance of exposure to mosquitos Settlements concentrated in the village which is far away from the fields where the men work during the day and women/elites/urban occupations do not leave the village Men have higher exposure to where the mosquites are o Social Organization Men engage in agricultural labor: more exposed to mosquitoes Women confined to nucleated settlements and domestic domain: less exposed to mosquitoes Land-owning class did not engage in acultural labor: less exposed to mosquitoes o Insights Ecological approach to Medical Anthropology Unit of analysis = population of Sardinia (contrast with Lockhart's life story of a street boy) Evidence that settlement pattern and social organization reduced risk of infection for women, aristocracy, artisans, and that inverse transhumance reduced risk of infection for shepherds o Eradicating Malaria in Sardinia Children had enlarged spleens Eradication through DDT • Sprayed on buildings and animal houses • Dated the buildings based on when they were sprayed • Some large buildings used aerosol machines for an immediate effect rather than a residual one • Spraying caused a lot of other public health issues but it did successfully eradicate malaria

What is significant about the Shoshone of the Great Basin (Nevada)?

o Socially fragmenting effect of cultural ecology o Family level of social organization due to pursuit of highly dispersed food source (pine nuts) o "First come, first served" rights to resources o Cooperation and leadership emerge only in limited contexts (communal hunts) • From Nuclear Family to Band. o Shoshone predatory bands rise in response to white encroachment • From Band to Nuclear Family o Trappers and Tappers

What is the approach of cultural ecology? What is the general progression outlined by cultural ecology?

o Study the organization of subsistence production, including division of labor, organization and timing of work o Study how economic behavior and social organization are shaped by and adapted to specific ecological conditions o Subsistence strategy social/economic organization kinship system, religion, etc.

Survey research vs Ethnographic fieldwork?

o Survey research alone insufficient to understand complex demographic phenomena o Ethnographic fieldwork can provide a more nuanced and culturally attentive dimension o Qualitative anthropology + quantitative demography deeper and more robust analysis (complementary, not contradictory)

Sacred/Spiritual Ecology? Natural environmentalists?

o Terms used to describe research on the connection between religious beliefs/practices and the environment Indigenous peoples often have beliefs, practices, and cultural mechanisms that help protect the environment

What specifically is the paraguay forest development process?

o The Development Process Road cut through forest (transportation, military purposes to secure the border) Loggers come first: cut paths to trees • Cut high value trees with large value on the international market Forest divided into plots, given to settlers who use logging trails to establish farms on more fertile lands and ranches on less fertile lands Pace of clearing forests accelerates Makes it harder to get food for the Guariní • An island of forest in an ocean of agriculture fields

- Competitive Humanitarianism Relief and the Tsunami in Sri Lanka (Stirrat) The issue? Sirrat's thesis? Sirrat's point?

o The Issue Ineffective disaster response often attributed to "lack of coordination." Better coordination seen as remedy Is coordination possible given the competitive nature of humanitarian relief agencie Srrat's thesis: Competition among NGOs "is inherent in the structure of humanitarian relief" (and development interventions) Organization and individual interests can undermine supposedly altruistic endeavors Photegenic opporutunities lots of NGOs in competition, funding depends on being seen as effective.

What is demography?

o The scientific study of human populations, primarily with respect to their size, their structure and their development. A set of statistical techniques to analyze data collected in censuses, surveys, vital registrations, and other population data sets Migration, fertility, mortality are three main demographic processes

What is anthropological demography?

o The simultaneous usage of ethnographic (participant observation) and demographic (survey; statistical analysis) methods. Focus on a small-scale population; culture as an important variable o Three Examples: Van der Geest on participant observation in Ghana. Fricke and Teachman on 1st birth timing in Nepal. Prof. Childs on education and outmigration in Nepal

What is first birth interval? Hypothesis around it?

o The time that elapses from marriage or co-habitation to birth of first child o In non-contracepting population "coital frequency" is the primary candidate to explain variation in first birth interval o Hypothesis: Higher initial coital frequency (and shorter first birth interval) if spouses are familiar and comfortable with each other (choice marriage, neolocal residence, conjugal family)

Theoretical dimension? Applied dimensions?

o Theoretical Dimension: Critiquing assumptions, practices, and discourses of development o Applied Dimension: Working with people to design culturally appropriate and socially sensitive projects

Big Mac attack? Transnational coroporations? Who talks about what they do?

o Transnational Corporations Are they the "shock troops" of today's cultural imperialism? The march of Western pop culture (including fast food) will transform youths and create a homogenous global culture (i.e., culture loss) Watson

- Yartsa Gunbu in Nubri and Tsum, Nepal (Childs and Choedup) What is Yartsa Gunbu? Market for it? Environmental destruction? Economic importance?

o What Is It? Yartsa (summer grass) gunbu (winter worm) Ophiocordyceps sinensis: fungus parasitizes and mummifies larva of ghost moth to form a fungus-caterpillar complex o Huge market growth in China Traditional Chinese medicine (health, longevity, libido) Important in the gift economy Hot commodity in China price keeps increasing Profits from most natural resources (timber, mining) captured by the state Yartsa gunbu income directly to households • Requires no capital • Requires little skill (other than a good eye) • Found on territories inhabited by Tibetans • Does not interfere with other economic activities Today, the mainstay of household economies in places where other income earning opportunities are scarce • Tsum: 83% of all household income • Nubri: 77-92% of all household income

What is Wilk's Theorem?

o Wilk's Theorum If anthropologists only criticize development and offer no positive solutions then nobody will want to work with them

Define diseases of development?

o Work and dietary changes increase incidence of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, hearth problems Dietary changes • Voluntary: Adopting "prestige" foods (e.g., white rice) o White rice has become a staple because people have more money and are able to eat it but it is not as healthy as their local barley • Voluntary/Involuntary: More time devoted to earning cash, less time to growing/procuring traditional foods o Increased consumption of processed foods (see Weatherford) • Forced: Elimination of traditional foods by powerful groups (e.g., forming National Parks) o Forcing dietary changes Example: Malinowski in the Trobrians • Used to be really muscular • Now one of the fattest nations on earth o 94% of adult population is seen as overweight o Disrupting environmental balance increase in bacterial and parasitic diseases and pollutants Dams as breeding ground for snails that transmit schistosomiasis Uzbekistan/Kazakhstan Soviet Development plan: irrigated farming for cotton production • Soviet cotton production, demise of the Aral Sea, and agricultural pollutants • Aral Sea disappeared o Toxic dust: salt and fertilizer residue o Overpopulation, urbanization, and crowding increase in bacteria and parasitic diseases Urbanization as prime measure of development • End up in chanty towns and slums towns with poor services • Poverty + crowding + overpopulation But, urban crowding, impoverishment, lack of infrastructure = ?

How did McDonalds adapt to survive (and thrive) in Brazil? What did they initially try to do? What happened with that strategy?

• Ad campaign centered on McD's as take-out food to eat elsewhere o Grab-and-go (drive through US model) not feasible in urban Rio where parking is difficult • "Enjoy it at the beach." But, "hot" food inappropriate at beach where "cold" food is cultural preference • "Lunch at the office." Midday meal is main meal (leisurely), not a rushed meal (fast food) • Once McDonald's realized that more money could be made by fitting in with, rather than trying to Americanize, Brazilian meal habits, it started aiming its advertising at that goal

What are the three interrelated characterisics in reed's model of sustainable development?

• Environmental Perpetuity • Economic Rationality • Social Justice

What does William Durham say in Political Ecology?

• IPAT is too simplistic • Need to account for structural causes of environmental destruction • "The impact of human populations upon environments is mediated by cultural and political economic forces that do not act as simple multipliers and multiplicands."

What is Townsend's IPAT?

• Impact = Population x Affluence x Technology • The impact of any human group on the environment is the product of three factors: the number of people (population size), a measure of average person's consumption of resources (more affluence = more consumption), and the environmental disruptiveness of the technologies that produce the goods consumed

What are complex societies?

• Increasing recognition of interdependence through markets, resource sharing, state interventions, etc. • Local communities need to be analyzed in relation to larger systems

Outmigration issues?

• Labor force and household subsistence? o Outmigration puts a lot of strain on subsistence agriculture • Who will take care of the elderly? • Is the phenomenon a massive "brain drain"? Or, will those with education return? • How will marital practices change?

Frederik Barth's Plural Society? What concept did he come up with?

• Niche concept: the place of a group in the total environment, its relations to resources and competitors • Different ethnic groups can fill specialized economic roles within the same ecosystem • Groups remain separate yet inter-dependent

What is the Pathan Niche? Kohistani Niche? Gujar Niche? How are they related? Barth's observations?

• Pathan Niche (Iranian language, dense population) o Multi-cropping (producing two crops/year) essential to support social organization o Surplus required for specialization. Occupational groups exchange services for food o Surplus required for organizing men's houses with potlatches to attract followers o Niche limited to relatively low lying areas where multi-cropping is possible • Kohistani Niche (Dardic language, agro-pastoral) o Driven from lower valley by Pathans. Single annual crop plus transhumance o Exploit both agricultural land and highland pastures • Gujar Niche (Indic language, pastoralists) o Transhumance in symbiotic relationship with Pathans o Use Pathans' crop residues to feed animals o Herd Pathans' animals since Pathans consider herding a low status activity o Distribution of ethnic groups related to ecological niches that each group exploits o Different ethnic groups can co-exist in stable relationships. If they exploit different ecological niches, then they can (and often do) establish symbiotic economic relationships.

Summary of Environmental anthropology?

• Problem-oriented, social scientific approach • Engagement with key environmental topics • Collaboration across disciplines (biologists, ecologists, economists, demographers) • Potential to contribute important insights about human-environmental interactions.

Participant Observation in Demographic Fieldwork (Sjaak van der Geest)? The paradox? Surveys? Demographic survey problem (3)?

• The Paradox o Birth: a cold statistic for the demographer, yet a subject of human emotions for the anthropologist • Surveys: A Critical Appraisal o Survey responses often treated as objective, truthful statements Defies social conventions, it's not natural to have prompt and response interactions • Usually conversation is back and forth o Questions can be confusing, leading, value laden, and "double-barreled" • Demographic Survey Problem o Close-ended survey questions • Demographic Survey Problem o If the question "Are you married" cannot be easily answered "yes" or "no", any statistic derived from asking the question is meaningless • Demography Survey Problem o "Will you vote for Trump or someone else?" Respondent may lie for fear of judgment Deference effect • Demographic Survey Problem o The more sensitive the question, the more likely the respondent is to lie

What is the ecosystems approach?

• The study of interactions within a community of species (including humans) and the biophysical environment • Goal is to map flows of information, energy, and matter

What is environmental anthropology?

• The use of anthropology's methods and theories to contribute to the understanding of local or global environmental problems • Mostly a social science, not humanities

Tom Fricke?

• Tom Fricke: Major proponent of anthropological demography (1990s) o Collaboration with demographers