Developement chapter 2

reinforcement

The process by which a behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person.

selective adaptation

The process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment. Genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, over the generations, to become more prevalent.

guided participation

The process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations.

assimilation

The reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas.

accommodation

The restructuring of old ideas to include new experiences.

How does a theory differ from a fact?

Theories explain facts. Facts are known and observable, whereas theories are concepts and ideas that attempt to organize facts to help them make sense. Theories raise questions or suggest hypotheses, and they lead researchers to gather facts, which may suggest conclusions. Conclusions may verify or refute a theory.

What limitations do Freud, Erikson, Watson, Skinner, and Piaget share?

They were all men from Western Europe or North America and were born at least 100 years ago. Their backgrounds make their perspectives limited. Of course, all theorists' perspectives are limited by their backgrounds, but the fact that all grand theorists share a similar background makes the group of theories less generalizable.

apprenticeship in thinking

Vygotsky's term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of society.

Operant Conditioning result

Weak or rare responses becomes strong, frequent responses—or, with punishment, become extinct.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

1-3 years Children either become self-sufficient in many activities, including toileting, feeding, walking, exploring, and talking, or doubt their own abilities.

Anal Stage

1-3 years The anus is the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby's body, and toilet training is the most important activity.

Initiative vs. Guilt

3-6 years Children either try to undertake many adultlike activities or internalize the limits and prohibitions set by parents. They feel either adventurous or guilty.

Phallic Stage

3-6 years The phallus, or penis, is the most important body part, and pleasure is derived from genital stimulation. Boys are proud of their penises; girls wonder why they don't have them.

Industry vs. Inferiority

6-11 years Children busily practice and then master new skills or feel inferior, unable to do anything well.

Latency

6-11 years Not really a stage, latency is an interlude. Sexual needs are quiet; psychic energy flows into sports, schoolwork, and friendship.

cognitive theory

A grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

behaviorism

A grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

developmental theory

A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.

sociocultural theory

A newer theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces.

humanism

A theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.

information-processing

theory A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output.

conditioning

According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. The word conditioning is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete conditions his or her body to perform well by training for a long time.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence Adolescents task themselves "Who am I?" They establish sexual, political, religious, and vocational identities or are confused about their roles.

Genital Stage

Adolescence The genitals are the focus of pleasurable sensations, and the young person seeks sexual stimulation and satisfaction in heterosexual relationships.

Formal operational characteristic of period

Adolescents and adults use abstract and hypothetical concepts. They can use analysis, not only emotion.

norm

An average, or standard, measurement, calculated from the measurements of many individuals within a specific group or population

social learning theory

An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people

Your kindergartners are talkative and always moving. They almost never sit quietly and listen to you. what would a behaviorist recommend?

Behaviorists believe that anyone can learn anything. If your goal is quiet, attentive children, begin by reinforcing a moment's quiet or a quiet child, and soon all the children will be trying to remain attentive for several minutes at a time.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Birth to 1 year Babies either trust that others will satisfy their basic needs, including nourishment, warmth, cleanliness, and physical contact, or develop mistrust about the care of others.

Oral Stage

Birth to 1 year The lips, tongue, and gums are the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby's body, and sucking and feeding are the most stimulating activities.

How is Pavlov similar to Freud in appearance, and how do both look different from the other theorists pictured?

Both are balding and have white beards. Note that none of the other theorists in this chapter have beards—a cohort difference, not an ideological one.

Concrete operational Major gains during period

By applying logic, children grasp concepts of conservation, number, classification, and many other scientific ideas

Preoperational characteristic of period

Children think symbolically, with language, yet children are egocentric, perceiving from their own perspective.

Concrete operational characteristic of period

Children understand and apply logic. Thinking is limited by direct experience.

Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development 6-11

Concrete operational

Your kindergartners are talkative and always moving. They almost never sit quietly and listen to you. What would Erik Erikson recommend?

Erikson would note that the behavior of 5-year-olds is affected by their developmental stage and by their culture. Therefore, you might design your curriculum to accommodate active, noisy children.

Formal operational Major gains during period

Ethics, politics, and social and moral issues become fascinating as adolescents and adults use abstract, theoretical reasoning.

Teen pregnancy is destructive of adolescent education, family life, and sometimes even health. According to evolutionary theory, what can be done about this problem?

Evolutionary theory stresses the need for reproduction, which gives teenagers a powerful sex drive. Thus, informing teenagers of the difficulty of newborn care is unlikely to stop the sex drive. Better methods would make pregnancy impossible—for instance, with constant supervision or excellent, available contraception.

Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development 12 years - Adulthood

Formal operational

Freud Adulthood

Freud believed that the genital stage lasts throughout adulthood. He also said that the goal of a healthy life is "to love and to work."

cognitive equilibrium

In cognitive theory, a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas.

Sensorimotor Major gains during period

Infants learn that objects still exist when out of sight (object permanence) and begin to think through mental actions.

Sensorimotor characteristic of period

Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active, without reflection.

Erikson Adulthood

Intimacy vs. IsolationYoung adults seek companionship and love or become isolated from others, fearing rejection.Generativity vs. StagnationMiddle-aged adults contribute to future generations through work, creative activities, and parenthood or they stagnate.Integrity vs. DespairOlder adults try to make sense of their lives, either seeing life as a meaningful whole or despairing at goals never reached.

Does development occur in stages, or more gradually, day by day?

It depends on which grand theory one adopts. Freud, Erikson, and Piaget said that development occurs in stages, whereas behaviorists (learning theorists) and information processing theorists argue that development occurs gradually.

Why is it better to use several theories to understand human development rather than just one?

It is beneficial to be eclectic because each theory has shortcomings, and another theory might be able to fill in the gaps. Taking an eclectic approach produces a more well-rounded view of development.

Classical Conditioning Learning process

Learning occurs through association.

Social Learning Learning Process

Learning occurs through modeling what others do

Operant Conditioning Learning Process

Learning occurs through reinforcement and punishment.

Classical Conditioning result

Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned response.

Does the importance of genetics mean that adopted children will not bond securely with nonbiological caregivers?

No. Attachment is the result of a relationship between one person and another, not biology. In some cultures, many children are adopted from infancy, and the emotional ties to their caregivers are no less strong than are the ties of other children.

Social Learning Result

Observed behaviors become copied behaviors.

Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development 2-6

Preoperational

Maslow's hierarchy is often taught in health sciences because it alerts medical staff to the needs of patients. What specific hospital procedures might help?

Reassurance from nurses (explaining procedures, including specifics and reasons) helps with the first two of Maslow's needs; and visitors, cards, and calls might help with the next two. Obviously, specifics depend on the patient, but everyone needs respect as well as physical care.

Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development Birth-2years

Sensorimotor

modeling

The central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them. (Modeling is also called observational learning.)

Preoperational Major gains during period

The imagination flourishes, and language becomes a significant means of self-expression and social influence.

operant conditioning

The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated). (Also called instrumental conditioning.)

classical conditioning

The learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a tone) that had no special meaning before conditioning. (Also called respondent conditioning.)