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WHY WAS PART OF THE BIBLE WRITTEN IN GREEK?

"The sacred pronouncements of God" were entrusted to the Jews, stated the apostle Paul. (Romans 3:1, 2) Hence, the first part of the Bible was written mostly in Hebrew, the Jews' language. Yet, the Christian Scriptures were written in Greek (ftn - Brief portions of the Hebrew Scriptures were written in Aramaic. The Gospel of Matthew was apparently first written in Hebrew and then may have been translated into Greek by Matthew himself). Why so? In the fourth century B.C.E., the soldiers who served under Alexander the Great spoke various dialects of classical Greek, which were in the process of being blended to form Koine, or common Greek. Alexander's conquests contributed to Koine becoming the international language of the day. By the time of those conquests, the Jews had become widely dispersed. Many never returned to Palestine from their Babylonian exile, which had ended centuries earlier. As a result, many of the Jews eventually lost their grasp of pure Hebrew and used Greek instead. (Acts 6:1) For their benefit, the Septuagint, a Koine, or common Greek, translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, was produced. The Dictionnaire de la Bible notes that no other language had "the richness, the flexibility, and the universal and international character of Greek." With its extensive and exact vocabulary, detailed grammar, and verbs that aptly expressed subtle shades of meaning, it was "a language of communication, of circulation, of propagation—precisely the language needed by Christianity." Is it not fitting that Greek was the language in which the Christian message was penned?

APART FROM WINE, WHAT KINDS OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES WERE MADE IN BIBLE TIMES?

"Wine and intoxicating liquor" are frequently mentioned together in the Bible. (Deuteronomy 14:26; Luke 1:15) The term "liquor" should not be understood to mean that these beverages were the product of distillation, since that process was invented centuries later. Alcoholic beverages were made not only from such fruits as grapes, dates, figs, apples, and pomegranates but also from honey. In fact, the term "intoxicating liquor" could also refer to beer. The Hebrew word translated "intoxicating liquor" is related to an Akkadian word that can refer to the common barley beer of Mesopotamia. That beverage was low in alcohol but potentially intoxicating if drunk in excess. (Proverbs 20:1) Clay models of breweries and paintings of brewers have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. In Babylon, beer was an everyday drink both in palaces and in the homes of the poor. The Philistines enjoyed a similar brew. Throughout Palestine, archaeologists have found jugs equipped with strainer spouts. Those vessels strained the beer, preventing drinkers from swallowing husks of the barley from which it was brewed.

IN JESUS' DAY, WHY WAS READING FROM A SCROLL QUITE AN UNDERTAKING?

A common size of the sheets that were used in making scrolls was from 9 to 11 inches [23 to 28 cm] long and from 6 to 9 inches [15 to 23 cm] wide. A number of these sheets were joined together side by side with paste or sewn together with linen thread. In some cases, longer sheets were used. The Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah was made of 17 parchment strips, totaling approximately 24 feet [7 m] in length in its present state of preservation. The scroll of Isaiah that Jesus used in the synagogue in Nazareth may have been of a similar length.—Luke 4:16, 17. With regard to this account, Alan Millard says in his book Discoveries From the Time of Jesus: "The reader held the book [scroll] and unrolled it with his left hand, taking the outer edge in his right and rolling it again as he read, column by column. To reach Isaiah 61, the chapter he read in the synagogue, Jesus would have unrolled most of the scroll and re-rolled it again." At that time, there were no chapter and verse divisions for the book of Isaiah as we know them today. When the scroll of Isaiah was handed to Jesus in the synagogue in Nazareth, he had to locate the passage that is now marked as Isaiah 61:1, 2 in our Bibles. Jesus easily "found the place," showing how familiar he was with God's Word.

WHY WAS THE PERFUMED OIL USED BY MARY SO EXPENSIVE?

A few days before Jesus' death, Mary, the sister of Lazarus, "came with an alabaster case of perfumed oil, genuine nard, very expensive," and poured the oil on Jesus. (Mark 14:3-5; Matthew 26:6, 7; John 12:3-5) Mark and John's accounts say that this perfume was worth 300 denarii—about a year's wages for an ordinary laborer. What was the origin of this expensive perfume? The source of the nard, or spikenard, mentioned in the Bible is generally considered to be a small aromatic plant (Nardostachys jatamansi) found in the Himalaya Mountains. Costly nard was often adulterated and even counterfeited. However, both Mark and John use the expression "genuine nard." The fact that this perfumed oil was so expensive suggests that its source may have been distant India. Why does Mark's account describe Mary as "breaking open the alabaster case"? An alabaster case was usually fashioned with a narrow neck that could be effectively sealed to prevent the escape of the precious scent. Alan Millard in his book Discoveries From the Time of Jesus says: "It is easy to see how the excited woman would break [the neck of the case] off, not stopping to unseal the top, releasing all the perfume at once." This would explain why "the house became filled with the scent of the perfumed oil." (John 12:3) A very expensive gift, indeed, but an appropriate one. Why? This appreciative woman had recently seen Jesus resurrect her beloved brother, Lazarus.—John 11:32-45.

WHAT EVIDENCE EXISTS OUTSIDE THE BIBLE THAT JESUS WAS A REAL HISTORICAL FIGURE?

A number of secular writers who lived close to the time of Jesus made specific mention of him. Among them was Cornelius Tacitus, who recorded the history of Rome under the emperors. Regarding a fire that devastated Rome in 64 C.E., Tacitus relates that it was rumored that Emperor Nero was responsible for the disaster. Nero, says Tacitus, tried to place the blame on a group whom the populace called Christians. Tacitus writes: "Christus, from whom their name is derived, was executed at the hands of the procurator Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius."—Annals, XV, 44. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus also mentions Jesus. In discussing events that took place between the death of Festus, the Roman governor of Judea about 62 C.E., and the arrival of his successor, Albinus, Josephus says that High Priest Ananus (Annas) "convened the judges of the Sanhedrin and brought before them a man named James, the brother of Jesus who was called the Christ, and certain others."—Jewish Antiquities, XX, 200 (ix, 1).

WHAT KIND OF HOUSE MIGHT ABRAM (ABRAHAM) HAVE LIVED IN?

Abram and his wife lived in the prosperous Chaldean city of Ur. But at God's direction, they left that city and began dwelling in tents. (Genesis 11:31; 13:12) Consider what a sacrifice this change may have involved for them. Ur, in modern-day Iraq, was excavated by Leonard Woolley between 1922 and 1934. Among the buildings he found were some 73 houses built of brick. The rooms of many of these houses were arranged around a paved central courtyard. The courtyard sloped gently toward its center, where a drain eliminated waste water. In the larger houses, guest rooms had their own lavatories. Other rooms on the ground floor included kitchens with fireplaces and slaves' sleeping quarters. The family lived on the upper level, which was accessed by a staircase. The stairs led to a wooden balcony that ran around the courtyard and permitted access to the doors of the upper rooms. "A house . . . , with its paved court and neatly whitewashed walls, its own system of drainage, . . . of a dozen rooms or more, implies a standard of life of a really high order," wrote Woolley. "And these are the houses . . . of the middle class, shopkeepers, petty merchants, scribes, and so on."

WHY DID JOSEPH CONTEMPLATE GIVING MARY A CERTIFICATE OF DIVORCE WHEN THE TWO WERE ONLY ENGAGED?

According to Matthew's Gospel, Joseph learned that Mary was pregnant while she "was promised in marriage to Joseph" but before they were united. Not knowing that Mary was pregnant "by holy spirit," Joseph must have thought that she had been unfaithful to him, and thus he intended to divorce her.—Matthew 1:18-20. Among the Jews, engaged couples were viewed as already married. The two, however, did not begin living together as husband and wife until the wedding formalities had been completed. Engagement was so binding that if—because of a change of heart on the part of the bridegroom or for some other compelling reason—the marriage did not take place, the young woman was not free to marry until she had obtained a divorce certificate. If an engaged woman's husband died before the wedding, she was considered a widow. On the other hand, if she committed fornication during her engagement, she was considered an adulteress and was sentenced to death.—Deuteronomy 22:23, 24. Joseph evidently pondered the consequences of Mary's becoming a public spectacle. Though he felt obligated to bring the matter to the proper authorities, he wanted to protect her and avoid scandal. Thus, he decided to divorce her quietly. A single mother's possession of a divorce certificate would, after all, indicate that she had already been married.

WHO WERE THE "DAGGER MEN" MENTIONED IN CONNECTION WITH PAUL'S ARREST BY THE ROMANS?

According to the Acts account, during a tumult at the temple in Jerusalem, a Roman military commander took the apostle Paul into custody, believing that he was the leader of a seditious band of "four thousand dagger men." (Acts 21:30-38) What is known about these dagger men? The Greek word for "dagger men" is derived from the Latin sicarii, which means "users of the sica," or dagger. First-century historian Flavius Josephus describes the Sicarii as a band of fanatic Jewish patriots, unrelenting enemies of Rome, who engaged in organized political killings. Josephus recounts that the Sicarii "slew men in the daytime, and in the midst of the city; this they did chiefly at the festivals, when they mingled themselves among the multitude, and concealed daggers under their garments, with which they stabbed those that were their enemies." When their victims fell down dead, the Sicarii feigned indignation at the killings and escaped detection. Josephus adds that the Sicarii later played a leading role in the Jewish revolt against Rome in 66-70 C.E. Thus, the Roman commander would be anxious to detain the supposed leader of such a group.

WHAT IS THE "COCCUS SCARLET MATERIAL" OFTEN REFERRED TO IN THE BOOK OF EXODUS?

According to the Bible account, the tent cloths forming the walls and gate of the tabernacle, Israel's ancient center of worship, were made of "blue thread and wool dyed reddish purple and coccus scarlet material and fine twisted linen." (Exodus 26:1; 38:18) "The holy garments" of the priests were also to be made using "coccus scarlet material."—Exodus 28:1-6. Coccus scarlet, also known as kermes, was a dye that yielded a brilliant-red, or scarlet, color. The dye was extracted from the bodies of female insects of the Coccidae family. These wingless insects live on the kermes oak tree (Quercus coccifera), native to the Middle East and the Mediterranean Coast. The scarlet color is contained in the eggs carried inside the body of the female. In that state, the insect resembles a berry, about the size and form of a pea, attached to the leaves and twigs of the kermes oak. After being handpicked and crushed, the insects yield a scarlet color, soluble in water and suitable for dyeing cloth. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder mentioned coccus scarlet and counted it among the highly esteemed colors of his day.

WHAT WAS THE CENSUS THAT LED TO JESUS' BIRTH IN BETHLEHEM?

According to the Gospel of Luke, when Caesar Augustus decreed a census throughout the Roman Empire, "all people went traveling to be registered, each one to his own city." (Luke 2:1-3) The city of Joseph, Jesus' adoptive father, was Bethlehem, and the journey that Joseph and Mary undertook to comply with the decree resulted in Jesus' being born in Bethlehem. Such registrations served to facilitate tax collection and conscription for military service. When the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 B.C.E., the census was already a tried and tested feature of Egyptian bureaucracy. Scholars believe that the Romans adopted the Egyptian census system and applied similar procedures to the rest of their empire. Evidence for one such registration is provided by an edict of the Roman governor of Egypt in 104 C.E. A copy of that edict, now conserved in the British Library, reads: "Gaius Vibius Maximus, Prefect of Egypt (says): Seeing that the time has come for the house to house census, it is necessary to compel all those who for any cause whatsoever are residing out of their districts to return to their own homes, that they may both carry out the regular order of the census, and may also attend diligently to the cultivation of their allotments."

WERE THERE BEEKEEPERS IN ANCIENT ISRAEL?

According to the Hebrew Scriptures, God promised to bring the ancient Israelites into "a land flowing with milk and honey." (Exodus 3:8) It appears that most Scriptural references to honey describe the food produced by wild bees. The Bible says nothing about beekeeping in ancient Israel. However, a recent find in Israel's Bet She'an Valley reveals that in ancient times its inhabitants practiced "beekeeping on an industrial level." At Tel Rehov, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Institute of Archaeology unearthed an apiary dating from the tenth to the early ninth centuries B.C.E.—the early period of Israel's monarchy. This is the first time that ancient beehives were discovered in the Middle East. It is thought that the apiary originally contained some one hundred beehives arranged in rows and stacked at least three tiers high. Each hive, says the university's report on the find, was "a cylinder composed of unbaked clay . . . around 80 centimeters [30 inches] long and 40 centimeters [15 inches] in diameter. . . . Experienced beekeepers and scholars who visited the site estimated that as much as half a ton of honey could be culled each year from these hives."

WHO WERE THE MAGI WHO CAME TO VISIT THE INFANT JESUS?

According to the account of Jesus' birth in the Gospel of Matthew, visitors from "eastern parts" who had seen the star of a new king presented gifts to young Jesus. The Greek text of the Gospel calls these visitors ma′goi, that is, "magi." (Matthew 2:1, footnote) What do we know about them? The earliest substantial source of information about the Magi is the Greek historian Herodotus. Living in the fifth century B.C.E., Herodotus recorded that the Magi belonged to a Persian priestly class who specialized in astrology, interpretation of dreams, and casting of spells. In Herodotus' time, the religion of Persia was Zoroastrianism. Hence, the Magi he spoke about were likely Zoroastrian priests. "In a more general sense," says The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, "a mágos in the Hellenistic world had supernatural knowledge and ability and was sometimes a practitioner of magic." A number of early "Christian" commentators, such as Justin Martyr, Origen, and Tertullian, described the Magi who visited Jesus as astrologers. For example, Tertullian wrote in his book On Idolatry: "We know the mutual alliance of magic and astrology. The interpreters of the stars, then, were the first . . . to present Him [Jesus] 'gifts.'" In harmony with this understanding, many Bible translations render ma′goi "astrologers."

WHO IS THE PERSIAN KING AHASUERUS MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE BOOK OF ESTHER?

According to the book of Esther, Ahasuerus chooses the Jewish maiden Esther to be his queen, and she proceeds to save her people from an attempted genocide. For a long time, opinions differed widely as to which Persian king Ahasuerus might have been. However, the problem appears to have been settled by the deciphering of trilingual inscriptions on Persian monuments. These leave little doubt that Ahasuerus was Xerxes I, the son of Darius the Great (Hystaspis). The way the name Xerxes appears in the Persian inscription, when transliterated into Hebrew, is almost identical to the way it appears in the Hebrew text of the book of Esther. Everything said in the book of Esther regarding Ahasuerus agrees with this identification. From his capital at Susa (Shushan), in Elam, the Persian monarch also ruled over Media, and his domain extended from India to the islands of the Mediterranean. (Esther 1:2, 3; 8:9; 10:1) "This is all true of Xerxes, but of no other Persian monarch," says scholar Lewis Bayles Paton. "The character of Ahasuerus, as portrayed in the Book of Est[her], also agrees well with the account of Xerxes given by Herodotus and other Greek historians."

WHAT ROAD DID THE APOSTLE PAUL TRAVEL DURING HIS FIRST JOURNEY TO ROME?

Acts 28:13-16 states that the ship on which Paul sailed to Italy arrived at Puteoli (modern-day Pozzuoli), on the Bay of Naples. He then traveled to Rome on the Via Appia, the city's main highway. The Via Appia was named after Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman statesman who began building it in 312 B.C.E. This road, some 18 to 20 feet [5-6 m] wide and paved with large blocks of volcanic rock, eventually extended 362 miles [583 km] southeast from Rome. It linked Rome with the port of Brundisium (modern Brindisi), the gateway to the East. Wayfarers broke their journey at stopover points—spaced 15 or so miles [24 km] apart—to buy supplies, to sleep, or to change horses or vehicles. Paul, however, was probably walking. The section of the Via Appia he traveled was 132 miles [212 km] long. Part of this stretch crossed the Pontine Marshes, a swampy area that caused one Roman writer to complain about the mosquitoes and foul smell. Just north of those marshes were the Marketplace of Appius—about 40 miles [65 km] from Rome—and Three Taverns, a rest stop some 30 miles [50 km] from the city. At these two stops, Christians from Rome were waiting for Paul. Upon seeing them, "Paul thanked God and took courage."—Acts 28:15.

WHAT WAS A "SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY"?

After witnessing the ascension of Jesus to heaven from the Mount of Olives, his disciples returned to Jerusalem, which was "a sabbath day's journey away." (Acts 1:12) A traveler could walk perhaps 20 miles [30 km] or more in a day. However, the Mount of Olives is close to Jerusalem. So, what is meant by "a sabbath day's journey"? The Sabbath was a day on which the Israelites were to rest from their normal activities. They were not even to light a fire in their homes on that day. (Exodus 20:10; 35:2, 3) "Keep sitting each one in his own place," Jehovah commanded. "Let nobody go out from his locality on the seventh day." (Exodus 16:29) This law would allow the Israelites opportunity to rest from normal activities and to give increased attention to spiritual aspects of life. Not content with the principles laid down by Jehovah's Law, legalistically minded rabbis set about establishing exactly—and somewhat arbitrarily—how far a person could walk on the Sabbath, for example, to attend worship. In this regard, the Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature states: "In consequence of the rigorous laws about the observance of the Sabbath . . . , it was enacted that no Israelite is to walk on the Sabbath beyond a certain distance, called a Sabbath-day's journey." That distance was set at 2,000 cubits, which corresponds to somewhere between one half and seven tenths of a mile.

WHAT CRIMES DID BARABBAS COMMIT?

All four Gospels mention Barabbas, the man whom Roman ruler Pontius Pilate freed in place of Jesus. Barabbas is called "a notorious prisoner" and "a robber." (Matthew 27:16; John 18:40) He was in Roman custody in Jerusalem "with the seditionists, who in their sedition had committed murder."—Mark 15:7. Although no secular evidence of Barabbas' crimes exists, the fact that he is grouped with the seditionists leads some scholars to associate him with subversive groups active in first-century Israel. Historian Flavius Josephus records that bands of outlaws figured prominently in the social struggles of the day; such criminals claimed to seek justice for oppressed Jewish peasants. The rebellion against the perceived injustices of the Romans and of the Jewish nobility reached epidemic proportions by the middle of the first century C.E. Bands of outlaws later made up a large part of the Jewish forces that chased the Romans from Judea in 66 C.E. "Barabbas may have belonged to one of the rural brigands," says The Anchor Bible Dictionary. "These brigands were popular with the common people because they preyed upon the wealthy establishment of Israel and created havoc for the Roman government."

WHO WAS "THE CAPTAIN OF THE TEMPLE," AND WHAT WAS HIS ROLE?

Among the Jewish religious leaders who had the apostles Peter and John arrested while they were preaching was "the captain of the temple." (Acts 4:1-3) The Bible gives no description of the temple captain's responsibilities, but some historical sources provide interesting background. It seems that by the time of Jesus, that official position was held by a priest who was second in authority to the high priest. The temple captain maintained order in and around the temple in Jerusalem. He supervised temple worship as well as what may be called a temple police force. Subordinate captains under his command oversaw the watchmen who opened the temple gates in the morning and closed them at night, ensured that no one entered restricted areas, and guarded the temple treasury. The priests and Levites who worked at the temple were organized into 24 divisions, each of which served for one week at a time in rotation, twice a year. Each division likely had its own captain.—1 Chronicles 24:1-18. These temple captains were men of influence. They are mentioned along with the chief priests who conspired to have Jesus put to death, and they also employed the forces under their command to have Jesus arrested.—Luke 22:4, 52.

WHY DID ZECHARIAH FORETELL THE DESTRUCTION OF TYRE LONG AFTER IT HAD BEEN DESTROYED BY THE BABYLONIANS?

Ancient Tyre, situated on the Mediterranean Coast, actually consisted of two parts. One was on the mainland, and the other was on an island. At one time, inhabitants of Tyre were friendly to the Israelites. Later, though, Tyre became prosperous and began to defy Jehovah God, to the point of stealing the gold and silver from his people and selling some of them into slavery. (Joel 3:4-6) This brought Jehovah's adverse judgment. Through his prophets, Jehovah foretold that Tyre would fall at the hands of Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar, who brought his forces to Tyre after he destroyed Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E.—Isaiah 23:13, 14; Jeremiah 27:2-7; Ezekiel 28:1-19. Facing defeat, the people of Tyre escaped with their possessions to the island city. The Babylonians left the mainland city in ruins. Nearly 100 years later, Jehovah inspired his prophet Zechariah to pronounce His judgment against Tyre: "Look! Jehovah himself will dispossess her, and into the sea he will certainly strike down her military force; and in the fire she herself will be devoured."—Zechariah 9:3, 4. In 332 B.C.E., the island city met destruction at the hands of Alexander the Great, thus fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy. To accomplish that, Alexander constructed a half-mile-long [800 m] causeway from the mainland to the island, using the wood and stones from the ruins of old Tyre. This, too, was foretold by Ezekiel.—Ezekiel 26:4, 12.

HOW DID GOD VIEW THE PRACTICE OF ASTROLOGY AMONG THE ISRAELITES?

Astrology, according to one dictionary, is "the study of the movements of the planets, sun, moon, and stars in the belief that these movements can have an influence on people's lives." As the earth orbits the sun each year, constellations of stars change position from the vantage point of the earth. Since ancient times, people observed these changes and attributed great meaning to them. Astrology probably originated with the early Babylonians, who made the stars and constellations objects of worship. This form of worship came to be practiced by the Israelites when they deviated from true worship. By the time of Judean King Josiah, astrology was widely practiced in the land. God's view of matters was clear. Centuries earlier, the Mosaic Law had prohibited star worship on pain of death.—Deuteronomy 17:2-5. Among the measures taken by King Josiah to reform the religious practices of the Judeans was a ban on sacrifices "to the sun and to the moon and to the constellations of the zodiac and to all the army of the heavens." The king took this step, says the Biblical account, because he wanted "to walk after Jehovah and to keep his commandments." (2 Kings 23:3-5) That set a pattern even for people today who want to worship God "with spirit and truth."—John 4:24.

WHY DID JESUS HEAL A BLIND MAN GRADUALLY?

At Mark 8:22-26, we read of Jesus' healing a blind man at Bethsaida. The account says that Jesus first put saliva on the man's eyes and then asked him what he could see. The man's response showed that he was somewhat confused: "I see men, because I observe what seem to be trees, but they are walking about." Jesus then touched the man's eyes again, with this result: "The man saw clearly, and he was restored, and he was seeing everything distinctly." Evidently, Jesus healed the man gradually, or in stages. Why? The Bible does not fully answer, but we might consider a possible explanation in this particular case. Beginning to see for the first time after being blind for years—or even for life—is a major adjustment. To illustrate: Pit ponies were once kept in mines to work there. They became so accustomed to the dark that when they came above ground, they needed as much as a full day to adjust to daylight. With blindness, the adjustment would be even greater. In modern times, surgeons have in a few instances been able to repair mechanical problems in the eyes of blind people, restoring the eyes' ability to see. However, the patients have often been overwhelmed by the flood of information coming from their eyes to the brain. Baffled by a world of color, shape, and perspective, they have found themselves confused and unable to recognize even familiar objects. Over time, the brain learns to interpret what the eyes see. Jesus' healing the blind man in stages in this instance may have been a reflection of loving concern for the man. Finally, the man "was seeing everything distinctly," making sense of all that he saw.

WHY DID IT TAKE JESUS FOUR DAYS TO ARRIVE AT THE TOMB OF LAZARUS?

Basically, it seems that Jesus arranged matters that way. Why can we say that? Consider the account recorded in John chapter 11. When Lazarus, a resident of Bethany and a friend of Jesus, fell seriously ill, his sisters sent word to Jesus. (Verses 1-3) At the time, Jesus was a two-day journey or so from Bethany. (John 10:40) Lazarus evidently died about the time that the news reached Jesus. What did Jesus do? He "remained two days in the place where he was," and then he left for Bethany. (Verses 6, 7) Hence, by waiting two days and then traveling two days, he arrived at the tomb four days after Lazarus' death.—Verse 17. Earlier, Jesus had performed two resurrections—one right after the death of the person and the other likely sometime later on the day of death. (Luke 7:11-17; 8:49-55) Could he raise up someone who had been dead for four days and whose body had already begun to decompose? (Verse 39) Interestingly, one Bible reference work says that among the Jews, there was a belief that no hope was possible "for a person who had been dead for four days; by then the body showed recognizable decay, and the soul, which was thought to hover over the body for three days, had left." If any of those gathered at the tomb had doubts, they were about to witness Jesus' power over death. Standing before the open tomb, Jesus cried out: "Lazarus, come on out!" Then, "the man that had been dead came out." (Verses 43, 44) The resurrection, not the false notion of many that the soul lives on after death, is the real hope for the dead.—Ezekiel 18:4; John 11:25.

IN THE APOSTLE PAUL'S DAY, WHY WAS IT PARTICULARLY HAZARDOUS TO SAIL DURING CERTAIN TIMES OF THE YEAR?

Because of unfavorable winds, a ship on which the apostle Paul was sailing spent considerable time trying to make its way westward along the coast of Asia Minor. At a certain point, says the Bible account, it became "hazardous to navigate because even the fast of atonement day had already passed." Paul told his fellow travelers that any attempt to continue the voyage would be accompanied by the risk of loss "not only of the cargo and the boat but also of [their] souls."—Acts 27:4-10. The fast of Atonement Day fell in late September or early October. Roman mariners knew that voyages were generally safe from May 27 to September 14. Between this latter date and November 11, sailing was thought uncertain, and from November 11 through March 10, the sea was considered closed to general navigation. One reason, as Paul's subsequent experience graphically illustrates, was the instability of the weather. (Acts 27:13-44) Sailors faced the risk of violent storms as well as greater difficulty when navigating. Clouds obscured the sun by day and the stars by night. Mist and rain also decreased visibility and hid potential hazards.

SINCE ISRAEL HAS A LONG DRY SEASON, WHAT STRATEGIES DID ITS INHABITANTS IN ANCIENT TIMES ADOPT TO ENSURE THEIR WATER SUPPLY?

Between October and April, rain falls in Israel and at times gushes down torrent valleys. In the summer, however, most of these "rivers" dry up, and there may be no rain for months. How did people in Bible times maintain a steady supply of water? They resolved this problem by cutting channels into hillsides and directing winter rains into underground cavities, or cisterns. Rooftops were sufficiently sloped to direct rainwater into these cisterns. Many families had their own cistern, from which they could draw water to quench their thirst.—2 Kings 18:31; Jeremiah 6:7. The Israelites also took advantage of natural springs. In the highlands, winter rain seeps into the ground until it reaches impermeable layers of rock, along which it runs until it reappears in springs. That villages were often built near a spring (Hebrew, en) is suggested by such place-names as En-shemesh, En-rogel, and En-gedi. (Joshua 15:7, 62) At Jerusalem, a conduit was quarried through solid rock to bring springwater into the city.—2 Kings 20:20. Where there were no natural springs, a well (Hebrew, beʼer′), such as the one at Beer-sheba, was sunk to tap underground water. (Genesis 26:32, 33) Author André Chouraqui notes that "the technical solutions [the Israelites] found command admiration even today."

WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NAME CAESAR AS USED IN THE BIBLE?

Caesar was the Roman family name of Gaius Julius Caesar, who was appointed dictator of Rome in 46 B.C.E. Several subsequent Roman emperors laid claim to the name Caesar, including three mentioned by name in the Bible—Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius.—Luke 2:1; 3:1; Acts 11:28. In 14 C.E., Tiberius became emperor and ruled for the entire period of Jesus' ministry. He thus was the Caesar in power when Jesus, in answering a question about paying taxes, said: "Pay back Caesar's things to Caesar, but God's things to God." (Mark 12:17) Evidently, Jesus did not intend for his response to be limited to Tiberius. Rather, "Caesar" symbolized the civil authority, the State. In about 58 C.E. when facing the threat of a miscarriage of justice, the apostle Paul exercised his right as a Roman citizen to appeal to Caesar. (Acts 25:8-11) By so doing, Paul asked to be judged, not specifically by Nero, emperor at the time, but by the highest court of the empire. The family name Caesar became so closely tied with sovereign rule that even after the end of the Caesarean dynasty, the name was retained as a regal title.

WHO WERE THE SCRIBES WHO OPPOSED JESUS?

During his ministry, Jesus encountered scribes not only in Jerusalem but also in smaller towns and villages. Outside of Jerusalem—and even in Jewish communities outside of Palestine—such men were minor officials, learned in the Law, who may have served as copyists or local judges.—Mark 2:6; 9:14; Luke 5:17-21. In Jerusalem, scribes were closely associated with Jewish government. (Matthew 16:21) Their role there, says The Anchor Bible Dictionary, "seems to be as associates of the priests, both in judicial proceeding and enforcement of Jewish custom and law, and ongoing business in the Sanhedrin." As high-ranking teachers of the Law, some of these scribes were actually members of the Sanhedrin, or Jewish high court. They served along with the chief priests and Pharisees. Most often, the scribes appear as Jesus' religious opponents. However, some did not oppose him. For example, one scribe told Jesus: "I will follow you wherever you are about to go." Jesus said to another: "You are not far from the kingdom of God."—Matthew 8:19; Mark 12:28-34.

WHY DID GOD CHOOSE QUAIL TO FEED THE ISRAELITES IN THE WILDERNESS?

Following the Israelites' Exodus from Egypt, God twice provided them with an abundance of meat in the form of quail.—Exodus 16:13; Numbers 11:31. Quail are small birds, about 7 inches (18 cm) in length and weighing about 3.5 ounces (100 g). They breed in many parts of western Asia and Europe. Being migratory birds, they winter in North Africa and Arabia. During their seasonal passage, vast flocks traverse the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea and fly over the Sinai Peninsula. According to The New Westminster Dictionary of the Bible, quail "fly rapidly and well, and take advantage of the wind; but if the wind changes its course, or the birds become exhausted from long flight, the whole immense flock is apt to fall to the ground, where the birds lie stunned." Before continuing their migration, they have to rest on the ground for a day or two, thus becoming easy catch for hunters. In the early 20th century, Egypt was exporting some three million quail annually for food. Both times that the Israelites fed on quail were in the spring. Although quail regularly flew over the Sinai area during that time, it was Jehovah who caused 'a wind to burst forth' to drive these birds into the Israelite encampment.—Numbers 11:31.

WHAT REALLY HAPPENED TO THE ARK OF THE COVENANT?

For the Israelites, God's very presence was associated with the ark of the covenant. (Exodus 25:22) This was a sacred chest of wood overlaid with gold in which Moses placed the two stone tablets of the Law. While the Israelites dwelled in the wilderness, the Ark was kept in the Most Holy compartment of the tent of meeting. (Exodus 26:33) The Ark was eventually placed in the Most Holy compartment of Solomon's temple.—1 Kings 6:19. The Ark is last mentioned at 2 Chronicles 35:3 when King Josiah in 642 B.C.E. returned it to the temple. The Ark may have been removed by Josiah's apostate predecessor, Manasseh, who put an image in the temple. Or perhaps the move had been for safekeeping during Josiah's temple renovations. (2 Chronicles 33:1, 2, 7; 34:1, 8-11) What became of the Ark thereafter is a mystery, for it is not listed among the objects taken from the temple when the Babylonians conquered Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E.—2 Kings 25:13-17. The Scriptures do not say that the Ark was returned to the Most Holy of the temple rebuilt by Zerubbabel; nor does it seem that a replacement was ever made.—Ezra 1:7-11.

WHAT PRIVILEGES AND RESPONSIBILITIES CAME WITH THE BIRTHRIGHT OF A FIRSTBORN SON?

From as far back as patriarchal times, God's servants accorded special rights to a man's firstborn son. Upon the death of the father, his eldest son assumed the responsibilities of family head. He would care for the family and exercise authority over those members of his household who continued to dwell there. The firstborn also represented the family before God. While all sons received an inheritance, the firstborn received the principal inheritance. Compared to the amount of property the other sons might inherit, the firstborn received a double portion. In the days of the patriarchs, the eldest son could forfeit his right as firstborn. Esau, for example, sold the birthright to his younger brother. (Genesis 25:30-34) Jacob transferred the birthright from his firstborn son, Reuben, to Joseph. Reuben lost the privilege because of his immoral conduct. (1 Chronicles 5:1) However, under the Mosaic Law, a man with more than one wife could not transfer the benefits of the birthright from the first son of one wife to the first son of another wife just because the latter was particularly beloved. The father was to respect the right that naturally belonged to his firstborn.—Deuteronomy 21:15-17.

DID KING HEZEKIAH REALLY BUILD A TUNNEL INTO JERUSALEM?

Hezekiah was a king of Judah in the late eighth century B.C.E., a time of conflict with the mighty Assyrian power. The Bible tells us that he did a great deal to protect Jerusalem and to secure its water supply. Among the works he undertook was the construction of a 1,749-foot-long [533 m] tunnel, or conduit, to bring springwater into the city.—2 Kings 20:20; 2 Chronicles 32:1-7, 30. In the 19th century, just such a tunnel was discovered. It became known as Hezekiah's Tunnel, or the Siloam Tunnel. Inside the tunnel, an inscription was found that described the final phases of the tunnel's excavation. The shape and form of the letters of this inscription lead most scholars to date it to the time of Hezekiah. A decade ago, however, some suggested that the tunnel was built about 500 years later. In 2003, a team of Israeli scientists published the results of their research aimed at fixing a reliable date for the tunnel. What conclusion did they reach? Dr. Amos Frumkin of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem says: "The carbon-14 tests we carried out on organic material within the plaster of the Siloam Tunnel, and uranium-thorium dating of stalactites found in the tunnel, date it conclusively to Hezekiah's era." An article in the scientific journal Nature adds: "The three independent lines of evidence—radiometric dating, palaeography and the historical record—all converge on about 700 BC, rendering the Siloam Tunnel the best-dated Iron-Age biblical structure thus far known."

WHAT DID JESUS MEAN WHEN HE SAID TO SAUL: "TO KEEP KICKING AGAINST THE GOADS MAKES IT HARD FOR YOU"?—ACTS 26:14.

In Bible times, farmers used goads to guide their draft animals while plowing. The goad was a pointed stick, perhaps eight feet (2.5 m) long. One end of the stick contained a sharp metal spike. If the animal pushed against the goad, it would injure itself. The other end often held a chisellike blade that could be used to remove dirt, clay, or vegetation from the plowshare. At times, goads served as weapons. The Israelite judge and warrior Shamgar slew 600 Philistines "with a cattle goad."—Judges 3:31. The Scriptures also mention this instrument in a metaphoric sense. For example, King Solomon wrote that the words of a wise person can be "like oxgoads," prodding a companion to make the right decision.—Ecclesiastes 12:11. The resurrected Jesus painted a similar word picture. He advised Saul, a persecutor of Christians, to stop "kicking against the goads." That expression evokes the image of a stubborn animal that resists the proddings of its owner. Wisely, Saul responded to Jesus' counsel and changed his course of life, becoming the apostle Paul.

WHAT WAS THE CITY GATE SO OFTEN MENTIONED IN BIBLE ACCOUNTS?

In Bible times, most cities were surrounded by protective walls. Inside many gates, there were open areas where people gathered to meet others, to trade, and to share news. Here public announcements were made, and here prophets might pronounce their messages. (Jeremiah 17:19, 20) The publication The Land and the Book says that "nearly every public transaction took place at or near the city gates." In ancient Israel, the city gates were much like the community centers of modern-day towns. Abraham, for example, purchased property for a family burial site from Ephron "before the eyes of the sons of Heth among all those entering the gate of his city." (Genesis 23:7-18) And Boaz asked ten elders of Bethlehem to sit at the city gate while, in their presence, he made arrangements for Ruth and her deceased husband's inheritance, in compliance with the law regarding levirate marriage. (Ruth 4:1, 2) When the older men of a city acted as judges, they would sit at the city gate to hear cases, render decisions, and execute judgments.—Deuteronomy 21:19.

WHY DID JESUS AND PETER PAY THE TEMPLE TAX WITH JUST ONE COIN?

In Jesus' day, every Jewish male over 20 years of age was required to pay a yearly temple tax of two drachmas, or a didrachma. This was the equivalent of about two days' wages. When a question arose about paying this tax, Jesus instructed Peter: "Go to the sea, cast a fishhook, and take the first fish coming up and, when you open its mouth, you will find a stater coin. Take that and give it to them for me and you."—Matthew 17:24-27. Many scholars believe that the stater coin mentioned here was, in fact, the tetradrachma. This coin was worth four drachmas, or the equivalent of the temple tax for two persons. The tetradrachma was far more common and more readily available than the didrachma. The New Bible Dictionary thus comments: "It would appear that Jews frequently united to pay the Temple tax in pairs." Additionally, any individual who wanted to pay the tax for just one person was liable for an agio, a fee for changing money. This charge could be as high as 8 percent. However, those who paid for two people at the same time were exempt from this charge. So even in this minor detail, the account recorded by Matthew agrees with what is known about common practices in Jesus' time.

WHEN DID THE ASTROLOGERS VISIT JESUS?

In Matthew's Gospel, we are told that "astrologers from eastern parts" visited Jesus, bringing him gifts. (Matthew 2:1-12; footnote) How many of these astrologers, or "magi," visited the child Jesus is not disclosed, and there is no firm basis for the traditional notion that there were three; neither are they named in the Biblical account. The New International Version Study Bible makes this comment on Matthew 2:11: "Contrary to tradition, the Magi did not visit Jesus at the manger on the night of his birth as did the shepherds. They came some months later and visited him as a 'child' in his 'house.'" This is verified by the fact that Herod, when seeking to have the young child killed, ordered the slaughter of all boys two years of age and under throughout Bethlehem and its districts. He targeted that age group by calculating "according to the time that he had carefully ascertained from the astrologers."—Matthew 2:16. Had these astrologers visited Jesus on the night of his birth and brought gold and other valuable gifts, it is unlikely that Mary would have offered only two birds 40 days later when she presented Jesus at the temple in Jerusalem. (Luke 2:22-24) This was a provision in the Law for poor people who could not afford a young ram. (Leviticus 12:6-8) However, these valuable gifts may have been timely and useful in financing the stay of Jesus' family in Egypt.—Matthew 2:13-15.

WHAT WAS THE LEVIRATE MARRIAGE MENTIONED IN THE MOSAIC LAW?

In ancient Israel, if a man died sonless, it was expected that his brother marry the widow in order to produce offspring to continue the dead man's family line. (Genesis 38:8) The arrangement, later incorporated into the Mosaic Law, was known as brother-in-law, or levirate, marriage. (Deuteronomy 25:5, 6) The actions of Boaz, described in the book of Ruth, show that this duty extended to other male relatives of the dead man's family if none of his brothers survived.—Ruth 1:3, 4; 2:19, 20; 4:1-6. The fact that brother-in-law marriage was practiced in Jesus' day is shown by the Sadducees' reference to it, recorded at Mark 12:20-22. The first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus said that the practice not only preserved the family name but also kept property in the family and provided for the welfare of the widow. Back then, a wife had no hereditary right to her husband's property. However, a child born from a levirate union would have retained the hereditary possession of the deceased man. The Law did permit relatives to refuse to perform brother-in-law marriage. But refusal by a man to "build up his brother's household" was considered disgraceful.—Deuteronomy 25:7-10; Ruth 4:7, 8.

WHY DID JESUS WASH THE FEET OF HIS APOSTLES?

In ancient Israel, many ordinary people would have gone about their daily business barefoot. Footwear, for those who did use it, consisted of sandals, which were little more than a sole strapped to the foot and ankle. Since roads and fields were dusty or muddy, people's feet would inevitably get dirty. It was the custom, therefore, for a person to remove his sandals upon entering a home. Hospitality required that a guest's feet be washed. This task would be performed either by the householder or by a servant. The Bible contains a number of references to this common practice. For example, Abraham said to visitors to his tent: "Let a little water be taken, please, and you must have your feet washed. Then recline under the tree. And let me get a piece of bread, and refresh your hearts."—Genesis 18:4, 5; 24:32; 1 Samuel 25:41; Luke 7:37, 38, 44. This background information throws light on Jesus' washing of his disciples' feet during his last Passover with them. On that occasion, there was no householder or servant to perform this service, and evidently none of the disciples volunteered to do it. So by taking a basin of water and a towel to wash and dry his apostles' feet, Jesus gave those men a lesson in love and humility.—John 13:5-17.

HOW DO NAMES ON ANCIENT CLAY SEALS COMPARE WITH NAMES MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE?

In antiquity, those who handled official documents rolled and tied them with a cord and then placed a lump of wet clay on the knot and stamped it with a seal. They used seal impressions to sign, witness, and authenticate the documents. Seals were sometimes incorporated into signet rings and were considered precious objects. (Genesis 38:18; Esther 8:8; Jeremiah 32:44) Often, the seal carried the name of the owner, his official title, and the name of his father. Researchers have found hundreds of ancient seal impressions, known as bullae. Some of these carry the names of people mentioned in the Bible. For example, archaeologists have found impressions made from what are believed to be the personal seals of two Judean kings. One text reads: "Belonging to Ahaz [son of] Yehotam [Jotham], King of Judah." Other texts read: "Belonging to Hezekiah [son of] Ahaz, King of Judah." (2 Kings 16:1, 20) Ahaz and Hezekiah reigned during the eighth century B.C.E. Scholars have examined a number of other bullae impressed with seals believed to have been owned by Bible characters. Among these are people mentioned in Jeremiah's writings, such as Baruch (Jeremiah's secretary), Gemariah ("son of Shaphan"), Jerahmeel ("son of the king"), Jucal ("son of Shelemiah"), and Seraiah (Baruch's brother).—Jeremiah 32:12; 36:4, 10, 26; 38:1; 51:59.

WAS JERUSALEM EVER SURROUNDED BY POINTED STAKES, AS JESUS FORETOLD WOULD HAPPEN?

In his prophecy concerning the destruction of Jerusalem, Jesus said of that city: "Days will come upon you when your enemies will build around you a fortification with pointed stakes and will encircle you and distress you from every side." (Luke 19:43) Jesus' words came true in the year 70 C.E. when the Romans, commanded by Titus, erected a siege wall, or palisade, around the city. Titus' objective was threefold—to prevent the Jews from fleeing, to encourage their surrender, and to starve the inhabitants into submission. According to Flavius Josephus, a first-century historian, once the decision to build this palisade was made, the various legions and lesser divisions of the Roman army competed with one another to see which could complete its assigned section of the siege wall first. The countryside to a distance of some ten miles [16 km] around the city was stripped of trees, and the palisade, which proved to be about four and a half miles [7 km] long, took a mere three days to complete. At that, says Josephus, "all hope of escaping was now cut off from the Jews." Reduced to famine and to murderous struggles among its various armed factions, the city fell to the besiegers some five months later.

WHAT DID IT MEAN FOR A PERSON TO BE ANOINTED?

In the Middle East in Bible times, greasing a person's head with oil was a sign of favor toward him or an act of hospitality toward a guest. Generally, the oil used was olive oil with perfume added to it. The Hebrews also poured oil on a person's head, or anointed him, when he was officially appointed to a special position of authority. Aaron, for example, was anointed upon being appointed to serve as high priest. (Leviticus 8:12) In the case of King David, "Samuel took the horn of oil and anointed him . . . , and the spirit of Jehovah began to be operative upon David from that day forward."—1 Samuel 16:13. In the Hebrew language, the term used for such anointing is ma•shach′, from which the word ma•shi′ach, or Messiah, is derived. The corresponding Greek word is khri′o, from which comes khri•stos′, or Christ. Thus, Aaron and David each can be referred to as a messiah, or an anointed one. Moses too is called a christ, or an anointed one, in the sense that God appointed him to serve as His representative.—Hebrews 11:24-26. Jesus of Nazareth was personally appointed by God to a position of great authority. Rather than being anointed with literal oil, Jesus was anointed with God's holy spirit. (Matthew 3:16) As Jehovah's chosen Anointed One, Jesus is properly referred to as the Messiah, or Christ.—Luke 4:18.

DID THE CITIES OF REFUGE IN ANCIENT ISRAEL BECOME SANCTUARIES FOR CRIMINALS?

In the ancient pagan world, many temples served as asylums for fugitives or criminals. In medieval Christendom, abbeys and churches served the same function. The rules governing ancient Israel's cities of refuge, however, ensured that they did not become sanctuaries for criminals. The Mosaic Law stated that cities of refuge protected only the unintentional manslayer. (Deuteronomy 19:4, 5) He could flee to the nearest city of refuge, out of reach of the victim's nearest male relative, who could otherwise avenge the shed blood. After stating his case to the city's older men, the fugitive was taken to stand trial in the city having jurisdiction over the location where the death occurred. There he had opportunity to prove his innocence. The elders reviewed the relationship between the fugitive and the victim, noting if prior hatred existed.—Numbers 35:20-24; Deuteronomy 19:6, 7; Joshua 20:4, 5. If found innocent, the fugitive returned to the city of refuge and had to remain in its immediate vicinity. These cities were not prisons. The refugee worked and served as a useful member of society. Upon the death of the high priest, all refugees could leave the cities of refuge in safety.—Numbers 35:6, 25-28.

HOW MUCH WERE THE WIDOW'S TWO COINS WORTH?

In the first century C.E., the annual temple tax paid by the Jews was "two drachmas," worth about two days' wages. (Matthew 17:24) By contrast, Jesus said that two sparrows sold "for a coin of small value," the equivalent of 45 minutes' wages. In fact, five sparrows could be obtained for double this price, or the wages for about 90 minutes' work.—Matthew 10:29; Luke 12:6. The temple contribution made by the needy widow whom Jesus observed was worth far less than that. These two coins, or two lepta, were the smallest copper coins used in Israel at that time. They were the equivalent of a mere 1⁄64 of a day's wages, or less than 12 minutes' wages if based on an average workday of 12 hours. Jesus Christ valued the widow's gift as being greater than that of all those who had donated more "out of their surplus." Why? The account mentions that she had "two small coins," so she could have contributed one and kept the other for herself. Yet, she gave "all of what she had, her whole living."—Mark 12:41-44; Luke 21:2-4.

HOW DID JEWISH RELIGIOUS LEADERS OF JESUS' DAY VIEW THE COMMON PEOPLE?

In the first century C.E., the social and religious hierarchy of Israel despised those who had little or no learning. The Pharisees are quoted as saying: "This crowd that does not know the Law are accursed people."—John 7:49. Extra-Biblical sources show that the privileged classes contemptuously called the uneducated masses ʽam ha·ʼa′rets, or "people of the land." Originally, this was a term of respect for citizens of a specific territory. It embraced not only the poor and lowly but also the prominent.—Genesis 23:7, footnote; 2 Kings 23:35; Ezekiel 22:29. By Jesus' day, however, the term was used to brand those who were considered ignorant of the Mosaic Law or who failed to observe the minutiae of rabbinic traditions. The Mishnah (a collection of commentaries that became the foundation of the Talmud) warns against staying in the homes of ʽam ha·ʼa′rets. According to The Encyclopedia of Talmudic Sages, second-century scholar Rabbi Meir taught: "When a man marries his daughter to an am ha'aretz it is as if he bound her and placed her in front of a lion who steps on his victim before devouring her." The Talmud quotes another rabbi as stating that "uneducated people will not be resurrected."

AT EPHESIANS 2:11-15, WAS THE APOSTLE PAUL REFERRING TO A PHYSICAL BARRIER WHEN HE SPOKE OF A WALL SEPARATING THE JEWS FROM THE GENTILES?

In writing the letter to the Ephesians, the apostle Paul contrasts the Israelites with "strangers." There was a "wall," he said, that "fenced" the two groups off from each other. (Ephesians 2:11-15) Paul was referring to "the Law of commandments" given through Moses, but his use of the word "wall" might have reminded readers of a stone barrier that really existed. In the first century C.E., Jehovah's temple in Jerusalem had a number of courtyards with restricted access. Anyone could enter the Court of the Gentiles, but entry into any of the temple's courtyards was restricted to Jews and proselytes. Separating the reserved areas from those accessible to all was the Soreg, an elaborate stone balustrade, said to be about four feet [1.3 m] high. According to first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, inscriptions in Greek and Latin were posted on this barrier, warning Gentiles not to cross it so as not to set foot within the holy precincts. One complete Greek inscription from this partition wall has been recovered. It reads: "Let no foreigner enter inside of the barrier and the fence around the sanctuary. Whosoever is caught will be responsible for his death which will ensue." Paul apparently used the Soreg to represent the Mosaic Law covenant, which had long separated Jews and Gentiles. The sacrificial death of Jesus abolished the Law covenant and thus "destroyed the wall in between."

WHAT WERE THE URIM AND THE THUMMIM?

It appears that the Urim and the Thummim were used in ancient Israel to discern Jehovah's will in matters that concerned the nation or its leaders. These objects were entrusted to the high priest and were kept in the pouch of the "breastpiece of judgment." (Exodus 28:15, 16, 30) Although the Scriptures never describe these objects or their exact method of use, different passages seem to imply that they were employed as lots that would result in either a "yes" answer, a "no" answer, or no answer at all from God. One example of such use was when David had Abiathar bring to him what was apparently the high priest's ephod containing the Urim and the Thummim. David addressed two questions to Jehovah: 'Will Saul chase after me?' and 'Will the landowners of Keilah surrender me into his hand?' To both inquiries the answer was yes, enabling David to make appropriate decisions.—1 Samuel 23:6-12. Earlier, King Saul used the Urim and the Thummim to determine first, whether guilt lay with the people or with him and Jonathan and second, whether he or his son was the offender. (1 Samuel 14:40-42) Later when Saul had lost divine favor, God no longer gave him guidance "either by dreams or by the Urim or by the prophets."—1 Samuel 28:6. According to Jewish tradition, use of the Urim and the Thummim ceased when Jehovah's temple was destroyed in 607 B.C.E.

WHICH OF THE WRITERS OF THE CHRISTIAN GREEK SCRIPTURES WERE PRESENT AT PENTECOST 33 C.E.?

It is possible that six of the eight men who wrote this portion of the Scriptures were present. According to the Acts account, Jesus instructed his disciples: "Do not withdraw from Jerusalem, but keep waiting for what the Father has promised." (Acts 1:4) The same account indicates that the future Bible writers Matthew, John, and Peter obeyed this instruction and gathered "at the same place," with other disciples. Jesus' half brothers were also there. (Acts 1:12-14; 2:1-4) Two of them, James and Jude (Judas), later wrote the two Bible books that bear their names.—Matthew 13:55; James 1:1; Jude 1. In his Gospel, Mark speaks of a young man who fled on the night of Jesus' arrest. He was evidently referring to himself, since all the other disciples had already abandoned Jesus. (Mark 14:50-52) Therefore, Mark seems to have been an early disciple, and it is possible that he was present at Pentecost. The two remaining writers of the inspired Christian Greek Scriptures were Paul and Luke. At Pentecost 33 C.E., Paul was not yet a follower of Christ. (Galatians 1:17, 18) Apparently, Luke was not present either, since he excluded himself from the "eyewitnesses" of Jesus' ministry.—Luke 1:1-3.

WHY DID JESUS SAY THAT "NO ONE PUTS NEW WINE INTO OLD WINESKINS"?

It was common in Bible times to store wine in animal skins. (Joshua 9:13) Skin bottles were made of the complete hides of such domestic animals as kids or goats. To make a skin bottle, the dead animal's head and feet were cut off and the carcass was carefully skinned to avoid opening its belly. The hide was then tanned and all the openings were sewed up except the neck or a leg of the animal, which would be left unsewed to serve as the bottle's neck. This opening could be closed with a stopper or tied with a string. In time, the skin would become hard and lose its elasticity. Old wineskins, therefore, were inappropriate for storing new wine, which continues to ferment. Such fermentation would likely burst the hardened leather of old wineskins. New skins, on the other hand, were more supple and could withstand the pressure caused by continued fermentation of new wine. For this reason, Jesus stated a fact that was common knowledge in his day. He spoke of what would happen if anyone does put new wine in old bottles: "Then the new wine will burst the wineskins, and it will be spilled out and the wineskins will be ruined. But new wine must be put into new wineskins."—Luke 5:37, 38.

WHY DID THE SCRIBES AND PHARISEES WEAR "SCRIPTURE-CONTAINING CASES"?

Jesus criticized his religious opponents, the scribes and Pharisees, because they broadened "the scripture-containing cases that they [wore] as safeguards." (Matthew 23:2, 5) Adherents of those religious groups bound small, black, square- or rectangular-shaped leather boxes to their forehead. They also bound them to the inner side of the upper arm, close to their heart. Inside the boxes were passages of Scripture. The practice of wearing such scripture-containing cases, known as phylacteries, had its origin in a literal interpretation of God's direction to the Israelites, which says: "These words that I am commanding you today must prove to be on your heart . . . And you must tie them as a sign upon your hand" and "as a frontlet band between your eyes." (Deuteronomy 6:6-8) Exactly when the custom of wearing phylacteries was introduced is unknown, but most scholars date it to the third or the second century B.C.E. Jesus criticized this practice for two reasons. First, the scribes and Pharisees enlarged their phylacteries in order to impress upon others how pious they were. Second, these groups wrongly considered their scripture-containing cases to be charms, or amulets, that would protect them. The Greek word for these cases, phylakterion, as used in non-Biblical literature is rendered "outpost," "fortification," or "means of protection."

WHAT DID JESUS MEAN WHEN HE SAID THAT THE SCRIBES AND PHARISEES RESEMBLED "WHITEWASHED GRAVES"?

Jesus denounced the scribes and Pharisees as hypocrites and told them: "You resemble whitewashed graves, which outwardly indeed appear beautiful but inside are full of dead men's bones and of every sort of uncleanness." (Matthew 23:27) The Jews customarily made tombstones conspicuous by daubing them with whitewash, or lime, at the end of the rainy season, on the 15th day of Adar, a month before the Passover. The rains, in fact, tended to wash the whitening away. According to The Jewish Encyclopedia, the marking of graves was done to protect against defilement of "the numerous pilgrims who traversed the roads at the Passover festival." The law recorded at Numbers 19:16 stated that everyone who touched a dead body, a human bone, or a burial place would be unclean for seven days. Ceremonial uncleanness prevented the Israelites from participating in acts of pure worship, on pain of death. (Leviticus 15:31) Jesus spoke this illustration just days before the Passover; thus, annual tomb-whitewashing would have been fresh in the minds of his listeners. Jesus' point was that his religious opponents were not what they outwardly appeared to be and that contact with them was spiritually defiling.

WHO WERE "THE BANKERS" THAT JESUS MENTIONED IN ONE OF HIS ILLUSTRATIONS, AND HOW DID THEY OPERATE?

Jesus spoke of a master who reprimanded an unproductive slave, saying: "You ought to have deposited my silver monies with the bankers, and on my arrival I would be receiving what is mine with interest."—Matthew 25:27. Large-scale financial institutions as we know them today did not exist in Jesus' time. However, moneylenders had long paid interest on money deposited with them and had lent money at a higher interest rate. According to The Anchor Bible Dictionary, interest-bearing loans were common in Greece by the fourth century B.C.E. And during the period of peace established by the Romans, annual interest rates for credit throughout the Roman Empire fluctuated between 4 and 6 percent. The Mosaic Law forbade the lending of money on interest to needy Israelites. (Exodus 22:25) This rule seems to have applied primarily to loans to the poor. However, as indicated by Jesus' illustration, it was normal to receive interest on funds deposited with moneylenders, or "bankers." Thus, as usual, Jesus used what was familiar to his listeners.

WHAT SORT OF WORK WOULD JESUS HAVE DONE AS A CARPENTER?

Jesus' adoptive father was a carpenter. Jesus learned the same trade. When he began his ministry at the age of "about thirty," he was considered not only "the carpenter's son" but also a carpenter in his own right.—Luke 3:23; Matthew 13:55; Mark 6:3. In Jesus' hometown, there would have been a demand for such farming equipment as plows and yokes, which were primarily made out of wood. Among the carpenter's other regular products would have been pieces of furniture—tables, chairs, stools, and storage chests—as well as such items as doors, windows, wooden locks, and rafters. In fact, part of the carpenter's work involved construction. In an illustration, John the Baptizer mentioned the ax, a tool that Jesus and other carpenters would likely have used to fell trees. Thereafter, they would either fashion the timber into beams on-site or transport the timber to their workshops. This phase of the job doubtless required great physical strength. (Matthew 3:10) Isaiah lists other instruments used by carpenters in his day: "As for the wood carver, he has stretched out the measuring line; he traces it out with red chalk; he works it up with a wood scraper; and with a compass he keeps tracing it out." (Isaiah 44:13) Archaeological finds confirm the use of metal saws, stone hammers, and bronze nails in Biblical times. (Exodus 21:6; Isaiah 10:15; Jeremiah 10:4) It is reasonable to suppose that Jesus would have used such things.

HOW DID FIRST-CENTURY JEWS KEEP TIME AT NIGHT?

Jews living in the first century C.E. could use a sundial to track the passing of time on a clear day. However, when clouds blocked the sun or when night fell, they used a clepsydra, or water clock. Besides the Jews, the ancient Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans also used this device. According to The Jewish Encyclopedia, both the Mishnah and the Talmud mention the clepsydra "under various names, perhaps to distinguish different forms and designs, all, however, signifying one thing; namely, the slow escape—literally the stealing away—of the water, drop by drop, which is the meaning of 'clepsydra' in Greek." How did a clepsydra work? Water flowed out of one vessel through a small hole at the bottom and into another. An observer could measure the passing of time by noting the water level in either the upper or the lower vessel, both of which could be marked with degrees of measurement. Roman military camps used such clocks to determine the night watches. The changing of the watch was indicated by a trumpet blast. Anyone within earshot would have been aware of when each of the four night watches began and ended.—Mark 13:35.

WHY DID A BREACH EXIST BETWEEN JEWS AND SAMARITANS IN JESUS' DAY?

John 4:9 says that "Jews have no dealings with Samaritans." The roots of this separation seem to date back to when Jeroboam established idol worship in the northern ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. (1 Kings 12:26-30) Samaritans were from Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. When the ten tribes fell to the Assyrians in 740 B.C.E., the conquerors settled pagan foreigners in Samaria. Mixed marriages between these settlers and the local people evidently resulted in further corruption of the Samaritans' worship. Centuries later, the Samaritans opposed the efforts of Jewish returnees from the Babylonian exile to rebuild Jehovah's temple and Jerusalem's city walls. (Ezra 4:1-23; Nehemiah 4:1-8) Religious rivalry was heightened when the Samaritans built their own temple on Mount Gerizim, likely in the fourth century B.C.E. In Jesus' day, the term "Samaritan" carried more of a religious than a geographic connotation and referred to an adherent of the sect that flourished in Samaria. The Samaritans still worshipped on Mount Gerizim, and the Jews had a scornful, disrespectful attitude toward them.—John 4:20-22; 8:48.

WHAT KIND OF WRITING TABLET IS REFERRED TO AT LUKE 1:63?

Luke's Gospel records that friends of Zechariah inquired of him what his newborn son was to be named. Zechariah "asked for a tablet and wrote: 'John is its name.'" (Luke 1:63) According to one scholarly work, the Greek term here rendered "tablet" refers to "a small writing tablet normally made of wood with a prepared wax surface." Shallow recesses in hinged wooden panels were overlaid with smooth beeswax. Using a stylus, a writer could make notes on this surface. The writing could thereafter be erased and the newly smoothed surface be reused. The book Reading and Writing in the Time of Jesus says: "Paintings from Pompeii, sculptures from various parts of the Roman Empire and actual examples dug up at many sites scattered from Egypt to Hadrian's Wall [Northern Britain] display the widespread use of the tablets." A variety of individuals may have had such tablets at hand—traders, government officials, and perhaps even some of the first-century Christians.

JERICHO—ONE CITY OR TWO?

Matthew, Mark, and Luke all record a miraculous healing that took place near Jericho. (Matthew 20:29-34; Mark 10:46-52; Luke 18:35-43) Both Matthew and Mark say it was when Jesus was "going out" of Jericho that he performed this miracle. Luke, however, says that it occurred when Jesus was "getting near" to Jericho. In Jesus' day, was there just one city named Jericho or were there two? The book Bible Then & Now answers: "By New Testament times Jericho had been rebuilt about a mile (1.6 km) south of the old city. Herod the Great had established a winter palace there." This is verified by the book Archaeology and Bible History, which says: "Jericho of Jesus' time was a double city. . . . The old Jewish city was about a mile [1.6 km] away from the Roman city." So perhaps Jesus performed the miracle while leaving the Jewish city and approaching the Roman city or vice versa. Clearly, a knowledge of the circumstances that existed at the time of writing helps clear up what might appear to be a contradiction.

WHAT WAS INVOLVED IN BEING CUPBEARER TO THE KING?

Nehemiah was cupbearer to Persian King Artaxerxes. (Nehemiah 1:11) In the royal courts of the ancient Middle East, the king's cupbearer was no menial servant. On the contrary, he was a high-ranking official. Classical literature and a wealth of ancient pictorial representations of cupbearers allow us to draw a number of conclusions regarding Nehemiah's role at the Persian court. The cupbearer would taste the king's wine to protect him from poisoning. The cupbearer thus had the king's unreserved confidence. "The great need for trustworthy court attendants is underscored by the intrigues which were endemic to the Achaemenid [Persian] court," says scholar Edwin M. Yamauchi. The cupbearer was likely also a favorite official who had considerable influence with the king. His close proximity to the monarch on a daily basis may have enabled him to decide who had access to the king. Such a position may have had a bearing on the success of Nehemiah's request to be allowed to return to Jerusalem to rebuild its walls. Nehemiah must have been highly valued by the king. The Anchor Bible Dictionary observes: "The king's only reply was 'How soon will you come back?'"—Nehemiah 2:1-6.

WHY WERE OLIVE TREES PARTICULARLY APPRECIATED IN BIBLE TIMES?

Olive trees and vineyards were among the blessings that God promised his people for their faithfulness to him. (Deuteronomy 6:10, 11) To this day, the olive tree is highly esteemed in areas in which it grows. It can produce abundant fruit for hundreds of years with relatively little care. A cultivated tree can flourish even in rocky soil and can endure frequent droughts. If the tree is felled, the rootstock produces several shoots that can develop into new trunks. In Bible times, the bark and leaves of the tree were valued for their fever-reducing properties. The gum resin that seeps from old branches and has a vanilla scent was used to make perfume. Primarily, however, the tree was prized as a source of food—its berries and especially its oil. The pulp of a ripe olive is about half oil. One good tree could yield as much as 15 gallons (57 L) of oil a year. Olive oil was also used as lamp fuel, for ceremonial and religious purposes, as a cosmetic for the body and hair, and as a medicine to soften wounds and soothe bruises.—Exodus 27:20; Leviticus 2:1-7; 8:1-12; Ruth 3:3; Luke 10:33, 34.

WHAT DID THE APOSTLE PAUL HAVE IN MIND WHEN HE SPOKE OF "A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION"?

Paul wrote: "God . . . leads us in a triumphal procession in company with the Christ and makes the odor of the knowledge of him perceptible through us in every place! For to God we are a sweet odor of Christ among those who are being saved and among those who are perishing; to the latter ones an odor issuing from death to death, to the former ones an odor issuing from life to life."—2 Corinthians 2:14-16. The apostle was referring to the Roman practice of holding a celebratory procession to honor a general for his victory over enemies of the State. At such events, both the spoils and the prisoners of war were put on display and bulls were led to the sacrifice while the victorious general and his army received public acclaim. At the end of the procession, the bulls were sacrificed and many of the prisoners were likely executed. The metaphor of the "sweet odor of Christ" signifying life for some and death for others is "probably drawn from the Roman practice of burning incense along the way of the procession," says The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. "The fragrance that signified triumph to the victors reminded the captives of the execution that likely awaited them." (ftn - For an explanation of the spiritual meaning behind Paul's illustration, see The Watchtower, November 15, 1990, page 27.)

TO WHAT WAS THE APOSTLE PAUL REFERRING WHEN HE SAID THAT HE BORE ON HIS BODY "THE BRAND MARKS OF A SLAVE OF JESUS"?—GALATIANS 6:17.

Paul's words could have suggested a number of possible meanings in the minds of his first-century audience. For instance, a red-hot iron was used in ancient times to identify prisoners of war, robbers of temples, and fugitive slaves. When used on humans in this way, the brand mark was considered dishonorable. However, brand marks were not always viewed negatively. Many ancient peoples used them to denote membership of a specific tribe or of a particular religion. According to the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, for example, "the Syrians consecrated themselves to the gods Hadad and Atargatis by signs branded on the wrist or neck . . . An ivy leaf was branded on the devotee of Dionysus." Many modern-day commentators assume that Paul was referring to scars received in different episodes of physical abuse during his Christian missionary activity. (2 Corinthians 11:23-27) Perhaps, though, Paul meant that his way of life—not any literal marks—identified him as a Christian.

DO ANTS REALLY PREPARE THEIR FOOD IN SUMMER AND GATHER THEIR SUPPLIES IN THE HARVEST?

Proverbs 6:6-8 says: "Go to the ant, you lazy one; see its ways and become wise. Although it has no commander, officer or ruler, it prepares its food even in the summer; it has gathered its food supplies even in the harvest." Several species of ant do, in fact, store food. Likely, the species Solomon referred to—and the most common in Israel today—is the harvester ant (Messor semirufus). According to one source, "foraging harvester ants leave their nests during favorable weather to search for food . . . [and] collect seeds throughout the warmer months of the year." They may pick seeds from plants or collect them from the ground. The insects build underground nests close to fields, granaries, or threshing floors, where grain can be found. Within the nest itself, the ants store food supplies in a series of flat chambers connected by a network of galleries. Their granary chambers may measure up to five inches [12 cm] in diameter and half an inch [1 cm] in height. Well-supplied colonies of harvester ants are thus said to be capable of surviving "for over 4 months with no outside source of food or water."

WHAT LANGUAGE DID JESUS SPEAK?

Scholars disagree as to what language Jesus spoke. However, as a man on earth, it appears that Jesus could well have used a form of Hebrew and a dialect of Aramaic. When Jesus came to Nazareth in Galilee and entered the synagogue there, he read from the prophecy of Isaiah, evidently as written in Hebrew. Nothing is said about Jesus' translating this passage into Aramaic.—Luke 4:16-21. Concerning languages used in Palestine when Jesus Christ was on earth, Professor G. Ernest Wright states: "Greek and Aramaic were evidently the common tongues . . . Roman soldiers and officials might be heard conversing in Latin, while orthodox Jews may well have spoken a late variety of Hebrew with one another." No wonder the sign that Pilate had posted on Jesus' torture stake was written in three languages—Hebrew, Latin, and Greek.—John 19:20. Alan Millard in his book Discoveries From the Time of Jesus says: "In the course of their daily duties the Roman governors certainly spoke Greek, and Jesus may have answered Pilate's questions at his trial in Greek." Although the Bible does not indicate whether this was the case, it is interesting to note that there is no mention of an interpreter being used for this conversation.—John 18:28-40. According to Professor Wright, "we have no certain way of knowing whether [Jesus] could speak Greek or Latin, but in his teaching ministry he regularly used either Aramaic or the highly Aramaized popular Hebrew."—Biblical Archaeology, 1962, page 243.

WHY WERE THERE MONEY CHANGERS IN JERUSALEM'S TEMPLE?

Shortly before his death, Jesus addressed a gross injustice taking place in the temple. The Bible reports: "Jesus . . . threw out all those selling and buying in the temple, and overturned the tables of the money changers and the benches of those selling doves. And he said to them: 'It is written, "My house will be called a house of prayer," but you are making it a cave of robbers.'"—Matthew 21:12, 13. First-century Jews and Jewish proselytes traveled from many lands and cities to the temple in Jerusalem, bringing with them coins from their local area. Yet, they were required to use acceptable currency to pay the annual temple tax, to buy sacrificial animals, and to make other voluntary offerings. Thus, money changers would, for a fee, convert coins of different origins and denominations into the required currency. As Jewish festivals approached, these money changers would set up stalls in the temple's Court of the Gentiles. Jesus' criticism that the money changers were turning the temple into "a cave of robbers" evidently indicates that the charges for their services were exorbitant.

HOW WERE JESUS AND JOHN THE BAPTIZER RELATED?

Some believe that the two men were second cousins. This belief is based on an imprecise translation of Luke 1:36. In that verse, the King James Version, for example, states that John's mother, Elizabeth, and Jesus' mother, Mary, were cousins. In reality, however, the word used in the original Greek of this verse is not so specific. It indicates merely that the two women were related, not necessarily that they were cousins. As The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible puts it, "the term is too broad to be of help in determining their precise relationship." From where, then, does the idea come that Jesus and John were cousins? The Catholic Encyclopedia answers: "All our information concerning . . . the parents of Mary . . . is derived from apocryphal literature." Thus, Jesus and John were at least distantly related, though not necessarily second cousins.

MATTHEW 3:4 SAYS THAT JOHN THE BAPTIZER ATE "LOCUSTS AND WILD HONEY." WERE LOCUSTS A COMMON FOOD AT THAT TIME?

Some have doubted that John actually ate insects, claiming that Matthew was referring to pods of the locust tree, wild fruit, or even a variety of fish. However, the Greek word Matthew used designates a family of grasshoppers known today as Acrididae. The most common in Israel was the desert locust, known to form devastating swarms.—Joel 1:4, 7; Nahum 3:15. Locusts were considered a delicacy by such ancient peoples as the Assyrians and the Ethiopians and are still eaten today by certain Bedouins and Yemenite Jews. In Israel, locusts were considered a food of the poor. After the head, legs, and abdomen were removed, the thorax was eaten raw or roasted or after being dried in the sun. Sometimes the locusts were salted or soaked in vinegar or honey. Historian Henri Daniel-Rops says that they taste somewhat like shrimp. Since John preached in the wilderness, locusts would likely have been accessible to him. (Mark 1:4) As they contain about 75 percent protein, locusts, along with wild honey, made a highly nutritious meal.

WHY DID JESUS IN PRAYER ADDRESS JEHOVAH AS "ABBA, FATHER"?

The Aramaic word ʼab•baʼ′ can mean either "the father" or "O Father." On each of the three occasions that the expression appears in the Scriptures, it is part of a prayer and is used with reference to the heavenly Father, Jehovah. What significance does the word carry? The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia states: "In the colloquial speech of Jesus' time, ʼabbāʼ was primarily used as a term of informal intimacy and respect by children of their fathers." It was an endearing form of address and among the first words that a child learned. Jesus used the expression in a particularly fervent appeal to his Father. In the garden of Gethsemane, just hours before his death, Jesus in prayer addressed Jehovah with the words "Abba, Father."—Mark 14:36. "ʼAbbāʼ as a form of address to God is extremely uncommon in Jewish literature of the Greco-Roman period, doubtless because it would have appeared irreverent to address God with this familiar term," continues the above-mentioned reference work. However, "Jesus' . . . use of this term in prayer is an indirect attestation of His extraordinary claim to intimacy with God." The other two Scriptural occurrences of "Abba"—both in the writings of the apostle Paul—indicate that first-century Christians also used it in their prayers.—Romans 8:15; Galatians 4:6.

WHO WERE THE "SONS OF ZEUS" MENTIONED AT ACTS 28:11?

The Bible book of Acts records that en route to Rome, the apostle Paul sailed from Malta to Puteoli on a boat that bore the figurehead "Sons of Zeus." (Acts 28:11) Such an insignia was popular among ancient sailors and travelers. According to Greek and Roman mythology, Zeus (also known as Jupiter) and Leda had twin sons, Castor and Pollux. These "Sons of Zeus" were regarded, among other things, as skilled mariners with powers over the wind and waves. Thus, they came to be venerated as patron deities of sailors. Voyagers offered sacrifices to them and invoked their protection during storms. It was commonly believed that the twin deities manifested themselves and their protective powers in the form of St. Elmo's fire, an electric glow that sometimes appears on the masts of ships during a storm. The worship of Castor and Pollux was widespread among the Greeks and Romans, and one ancient source makes particular mention of it in the district around Cyrene, North Africa. The boat mentioned in Acts was from nearby Alexandria, in Egypt.

HOW IMPRESSIVE WERE THE BUILDING PROJECTS OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR, KING OF BABYLON?

The Bible book of Daniel records Nebuchadnezzar as saying: "Is not this Babylon the Great, that I myself have built for the royal house with the strength of my might and for the dignity of my majesty?" (Daniel 4:30) Was this ancient city truly great? Historians credit Nebuchadnezzar with the building of temples, palaces, city walls, and a magnificent terraced garden. The principal temple at the center of Babylon had a tower, or ziggurat, that was probably over 230 feet (70 m) high. However, "the most famous of [Nebuchadnezzar's] achievements are the Processional Way and the Ishtar Gate," says the book Babylon—City of Wonders. The Processional Way, which ran through the Ishtar Gate, was flanked by reliefs of striding lions. Of the gate itself, Babylon's grandest entrance, the same book states: "Clad entirely in deep blue glazed bricks and bedecked with relief images of hundreds of marching bulls and dragons, the sight greeting an ancient visitor to the capital must have been unforgettable." At the start of the 20th century, archaeologists excavated thousands of fragments of the Processional Way and the Ishtar Gate and then reconstructed many of them in the Pergamon Museum, in Berlin, Germany.

WHAT EVIDENCE IS THERE THAT BRICKS WEREMADE IN ANCIENT EGYPT?

The Bible book of Exodus states that the Egyptians put their Hebrew slaves to work making bricks. The slaves had to make a prescribed number each day, using clay mortar and straw.—Exodus 1:14; 5:10-14. The making of sun-dried bricks was an important occupation in the Nile Valley in Bible times. Ancient monuments built from this material still stand in Egypt. A wall painting in the 15th-century B.C.E. tomb of Rekhmire in Thebes, almost contemporary with the events recounted in the book of Exodus, illustrates the process. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia describes the scene in this painting as follows: "Water is brought from a pool; mud is mixed with a hoe and then carried to a spot convenient for the brickmaker. This mud is pressed into a wooden mold which the brickmaker holds to the ground. The mold is then lifted off, leaving a newly shaped brick to dry in the sun. Rows and rows of bricks are molded and, when dry, stacked preparatory to use. This procedure is still followed in the Near East." Different papyrus documents from the second millennium B.C.E. also refer to the making of bricks by serfs, to the use of straw and brick-clay, and to the daily production quota of bricks that workers had to meet.

WHAT WAS THE CRIME OF THE EVILDOERS WHO WERE EXECUTED ALONGSIDE JESUS?

The Bible calls these evildoers "robbers." (Matthew 27:38; Mark 15:27) Some Biblical lexicons point out that the Scriptures use different words to distinguish one type of criminal from another. The Greek word kleptes referred to a thief who acted secretly so as to escape detection. This word is applied to Judas Iscariot, who furtively stole from the disciples' money box. (John 12:6) The word lestes, on the other hand, usually referred to one who robbed using violence and could even refer to a revolutionary, an insurrectionist, or a guerrilla. Those executed with Jesus were of this second type. In fact, one of them is reported to have said: "We are receiving in full what we deserve for things we did." (Luke 23:41) That would suggest that they were guilty of more than just theft. Like those two robbers, Barabbas is called a lestes. (John 18:40) That Barabbas was certainly more than a simple thief is clear from Luke 23:19, which states that he "had been thrown into prison for a certain sedition occurring in the city and for murder." So while the evildoers executed with Jesus committed robbery, it is possible that they were also involved in sedition or even murder. Whatever the case, the Roman Governor Pontius Pilate considered them to be worthy of execution by impalement.

DID PEOPLE REALLY PLAY FLUTES AT FUNERALS IN JESUS' DAY?

The Bible speaks of flutes being played on festive occasions. (1 Kings 1: 40; Isaiah 5:12; 30:29) It also states that flutes were played at a funeral. In that instance, flutes were the only instruments mentioned. Matthew's Gospel says that a Jewish ruler asked Jesus to heal his daughter, who was near death. When Jesus arrived at the ruler's house, however, he "caught sight of the flute players and the crowd in noisy confusion," for the child had already died.—Matthew 9:18, 23. Is Matthew accurate when recording this custom? Bible translator William Barclay says: "Throughout most of the ancient world, in Rome, in Greece, in Phoenicia, in Assyria and in Palestine, the wailing of the flute was inseparably connected with death and tragedy." According to the Talmud, even the poorest Jew who had become a widower during the first centuries C.E. would engage two flute players and a wailing woman to mourn his dead wife. Flavius Josephus, a historian who lived in the first century, records that when news reached Jerusalem of the Roman conquest of Jotapata, in Galilee, and the massacre of its inhabitants in 67 C.E., "many of the mourners hired flute-players to accompany their funeral dirges."

WHY DOES THE BIBLE ASSOCIATE WORSHIP OF THE FALSE GOD BAAL WITH SEX ORGIES?

The Canaanite divinity Baal was essentially a fertility god. His worshippers believed that Baal was responsible for the productivity of their fields and their livestock. Thus, according to the reference work Manners and Customs in the Bible, "sexual activity at local shrines was designed to promote the fertility of the land by encouraging the storm god Baal and his consort Asherah to engage in divine intercourse, causing abundant harvests and herds." The Canaanites believed that Baal withdrew to the depths of the earth during the dry season when he was overpowered by Mot, god of aridity and death. The onset of the rains, however, was believed to mark Baal's return to power and a consequent return of abundant vegetation and life. The Canaanites celebrated this season with unrestrained orgies. This explains why the Israelites' attachment to the Baal of Peor resulted in their having "immoral relations with the daughters of Moab."—Numbers 25:1-3.

WHY WAS JESUS CALLED CHRIST?

The Gospel accounts relate that when the angel Gabriel appeared to Mary to announce that she would become pregnant, he told her that she should name her son Jesus. (Luke 1:31) This was a fairly common name among the Jews in Bible times. The Jewish historian Josephus wrote of 12 people, other than those mentioned in the Scriptures, who bore that name. Mary's son was called "the Nazarene," which served to identify him as the Jesus who came from Nazareth. (Mark 10:47) He also came to be known as "the Christ," or Jesus Christ. (Matthew 16:16) What does this mean? The English word "Christ" comes from the Greek Khri•stos′, the equivalent of the Hebrew Ma•shi′ach (Messiah). Both words literally mean "Anointed One." This term was properly applied to others before Jesus. For example, Moses, Aaron, and King David were all said to be anointed, meaning that they were appointed to God-given positions of responsibility and authority. (Leviticus 4:3; 8:12; 2 Samuel 22:51; Hebrews 11:24-26) Jesus, the foretold Messiah, was the preeminent representative of Jehovah. Hence, Jesus appropriately received the designation "Christ, the Son of the living God."—Matthew 16:16; Daniel 9:25.

HOW ARE DIFFERENT TIMES OF THE DAY IDENTIFIED IN THE BIBLE?

The Hebrew Scriptures use such expressions as "morning," "noon," "midday," and "evening." (Genesis 24:11; Deuteronomy 28:29; 1 Kings 18:26) The Hebrews divided the night into three watches of about four hours each but later adopted the Greek and Roman system of four night watches. Jesus evidently referred to this latter method of dividing time when he said: "Keep on the watch, for you do not know when the master of the house is coming, whether late in the day or at midnight or at cockcrowing or early in the morning." (Mark 13:35) The watch "late in the day" ran from sunset to 9:00 p.m. The next ended at midnight, and the third, the "cockcrowing," ran till about three o'clock in the morning. The last, the early morning watch, ran until sunrise. It was during "the fourth watch period of the night" that Jesus walked on the water of the Sea of Galilee.—Matthew 14:23-26. In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the term "hour" referred to one-twelfth of the period of daylight as counted from sunrise to sunset. (John 11:9) Since sunrise and sunset in Israel vary according to the season, only the approximate time of an event was usually given, such as "about the sixth hour."—Acts 10:9.

WHAT WAS THE CUSTOM OF GLEANING, AND WHO BENEFITED FROM IT?

The Mosaic Law prohibited farmers from stripping their land of all of its produce. Instead, those who harvested grain were not to reap the edges of the fields completely. Those who gathered grapes were not to pick up those that were scattered or go back again to harvest those that were immature the first time. And those who beat the boughs of the olive trees were to leave the fruit that did not fall. (Leviticus 19:9, 10; Deuteronomy 24:19-21) The poor, the orphans, the widows, and the alien residents could then glean—or pick up—the leftovers of the harvest. This law regarding gleaning benefited all Israelite society. In the landowner, it encouraged generosity, unselfishness, and reliance on God's blessings. In those who gleaned, it promoted industriousness, for gleaning was hard work. (Ruth 2:2-17) Gleaning ensured that the poor would not go hungry or become a burden on the community. It also spared them the indignity of having to beg or having to rely on handouts.

WHAT WAS THE "CERTIFICATE OF DIVORCE" MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE?

The Mosaic Law stated: "In case a man takes a woman . . . as a wife, it must also occur that if she should find no favor in his eyes because he has found something indecent on her part, he must also write out a certificate of divorce for her and put it in her hand and dismiss her from his house." (Deuteronomy 24:1) What was the purpose of this document? The Scriptures do not disclose the contents of such a certificate, but no doubt it would serve to protect the rights and interests of the rejected woman. In 1951-1952, a number of ancient objects were recovered from caves in the north side of Wadi Murabbaat, a dry riverbed in the Judean desert. Among the numerous manuscripts found there was a certificate of divorce written in Aramaic and dated 71 or 72 C.E. It stated what occurred on the first day of the month of Marheshvan, in the sixth year of the Jewish revolt against Rome. Joseph, son of Naqsan, living at Masada, divorced Miriam, daughter of Jonathan from Hanablata. She was then free to marry any Jewish man she liked. Joseph returned Miriam's dowry and reimbursed her fourfold for any damaged goods. The certificate was signed by Joseph himself and by three witnesses—Eliezer, son of Malka; Joseph, son of Malka; and Eleazar, son of Hanana.

WHY DID PONTIUS PILATE BECOME FEARFUL UPON HEARING THE CHARGE THAT JESUS HAD "MADE HIMSELF GOD'S SON"?—JOHN 19:7.

The Roman Senate had posthumously raised Julius Caesar to the rank of a god. His adopted son and successor, Octavian, was thereafter declared divi filius, that is, "Son of a Divine One," or "Son of God." This Latin designation became a solemn title of the emperors. This is verified by numerous inscriptions on Roman altars, temples, statues, and coins. When the Jews charged Jesus with making himself "God's son," they were, in effect, accusing him of assuming an official title, which was tantamount to treason. By the time of Jesus' trial, Tiberius had inherited the title of divi filius. This emperor had a fearsome reputation for killing any whom he considered to be his enemies. So when the Jews intimated that Pilate would be disloyal to Caesar if he did not condemn Jesus, the Roman governor became "more fearful." Eventually, he caved in under pressure and ordered Jesus' execution.—John 19:8, 12-16.

WAS JESUS RELATED TO ANY OF HIS 12 APOSTLES?

The Scriptures do not provide a definitive answer to this question. However, circumstantial evidence and tradition suggest that some of the 12 were related to Jesus. The Gospel writers provide the names of the women who were looking on as Jesus was dying on the torture stake. John 19:25 identifies four of them: "His mother [Mary] and the sister of his mother; Mary the wife of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene." Comparison of this verse with Matthew's and Mark's descriptions of the same scene may lead to the conclusion that the sister of Jesus' mother was Salome. This Salome, in turn, seems to have been the mother of the sons of Zebedee. (Matthew 27:55, 56; Mark 15:40) Her sons, elsewhere identified as James and John, would thus be Jesus' first cousins. Jesus called these two brothers, who were fishermen, to be his disciples.—Matthew 4:21, 22. Extra-Biblical tradition claims that Clopas, or Alphaeus, the husband of one of the women mentioned at John 19:25, was the brother of Joseph, Jesus' adoptive father. If this tradition is based on fact, then James the son of Alphaeus, another of the 12 apostles, was also Jesus' cousin.—Matthew 10:3.

HOW MUCH GOLD DID KING SOLOMON OWN?

The Scriptures say that Hiram, king of Tyre, sent four tons [4 t] of gold to Solomon, the queen of Sheba gave him a similar amount, and Solomon's fleet brought over 15 tons [14 t] of gold from Ophir. "The weight of the gold that came to Solomon in one year," says the account, "amounted up to six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold," or more than 25 tons [22 t]. (1 Kings 9:14, 28; 10:10, 14) Is this plausible? How big were royal gold reserves in antiquity? An ancient inscription, which scholars judge as credible, states that Pharaoh Thutmose III of Egypt (second millennium B.C.E.) presented some 13.5 tons [12 t] of gold to the temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak. During the eighth century B.C.E., the Assyrian King Tiglath-pileser III received over 4 tons [4 t] of gold in tribute from Tyre, and Sargon II gave the same amount of gold as a gift to the gods of Babylon. King Philip II of Macedonia (359-336 B.C.E.) is reported to have extracted more than 28 tons [25 t] of gold each year from the mines of Pangaeum in Thrace. When Philip's son Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.E.) captured the Persian city of Susa, he is said to have taken some 1,180 tons [1,070 t] of gold from it and almost 7,000 tons [more than 6,000 t] from the whole of Persia. So when compared with these reports, the Bible's description of King Solomon's gold is not exaggerated.

WHY DID SOLOMON IMPORT TIMBER ALL THE WAY FROM LEBANON FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TEMPLE IN JERUSALEM?

The account at 1 Kings 5:1-10 describes an agreement made between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. According to that agreement, rafts of cedar and juniper logs were to be brought to Israel by sea from Lebanon and used in the construction of the temple. Cedar was an important trade item in the ancient Middle East. In Egypt and Mesopotamia, this timber was regularly used for the beams and paneling of temples and palaces. Royal archives, literary texts, and inscriptions attest to the continual importation of cedar to various southern Mesopotamian city-states, sometimes as booty or tribute. In Egypt it was used in the construction of royal barges, coffins, and other funerary items. The cedars of Lebanon were particularly renowned for the durability, beauty, and sweet fragrance of their wood, not to mention their resistance to attack by insects. Thus, Solomon was using the best of materials for the temple. Today, all that remains of the forests of cedars that once covered the Lebanese mountains are a few small, isolated groves.

WHAT WAS THE SIZE OF THE MOLTEN SEA AT SOLOMON'S TEMPLE?

The account at 1 Kings 7:26 refers to the sea as containing "two thousand bath measures" of water used by the priests, whereas the parallel account at 2 Chronicles 4:5 speaks of it as containing "three thousand bath measures." This has led to the claim that the difference is the result of a scribal error in the Chronicles account. However, the New World Translation helps us understand how these two texts can be harmonized. First Kings 7:26 reads: "Two thousand bath measures were what it would contain." Notice that 2 Chronicles 4:5 says: "As a receptacle, three thousand bath measures were what it could contain." So 2 Chronicles 4:5 refers to the maximum capacity of the temple basin, what it could contain, whereas 1 Kings 7:26 states the quantity of water that was usually put into the temple basin. In other words, it was never filled to maximum capacity. It appears that it was customarily filled to only two thirds of its capacity.

WAS IT OF SOME SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE THAT THE APOSTLE PETER IS MENTIONED AS HAVING LODGED WITH A TANNER BEFORE BEING TOLD TO GO TO CORNELIUS?

The account in Acts says that Peter stayed "for quite a few days . . . in Joppa with a certain Simon, a tanner," who had "a house by the sea." (Acts 9:43; 10:6) The work of a tanner was considered unclean and demeaning from a Jewish perspective. The Talmud put tanners on a level below dung collectors. Simon's work brought him into regular contact with the dead bodies of animals, meaning that he would be in a constant state of ceremonial impurity. (Leviticus 5:2; 11:39) According to different sources on the subject, Simon may well have used seawater in his work, and his workshop was likely located on the outskirts of the town because tanning was "a malodorous process." Despite this, Peter evidently had no objection to lodging with Simon. This shows that perhaps Peter had learned to reject prevailing Jewish prejudices toward people considered impure, just as Jesus had rejected such prejudices before him.—Matthew 9:11; Luke 7:36-50.

WHEN DID SAUL BECOME KNOWN AS PAUL?

The apostle Paul was born a Hebrew with Roman citizenship. (Acts 22:27, 28; Philippians 3:5) So it is likely that from childhood he had both the Hebrew name Saul and the Roman name Paul. Some of Paul's relatives likewise had Roman and Greek names. (Romans 16:7, 21) Additionally, it was not unusual for Jews of that time, particularly among those living outside Israel, to have two names.—Acts 12:12; 13:1. For over a decade after becoming a Christian, this apostle seemed to have been known mostly by his Hebrew name, Saul. (Acts 13:1, 2) However, on his first missionary journey, about 47/48 C.E., he might have preferred to use his Roman name, Paul. He was commissioned to declare the good news to non-Jews, and he might have felt that his Roman name would be more acceptable. (Acts 9:15; 13:9; Galatians 2:7, 8) He may also have used the name Paul because the Greek pronunciation of his Hebrew name, Saul, is very similar to that of a Greek word that has a bad connotation. Whatever the reason for the change, Paul showed that he was willing to "become all things to people of all sorts, that [he] might by all means save some."—1 Corinthians 9:22.

WHO WERE "THOSE OF THE HOUSEHOLD OF CAESAR" WHO SENT CHRISTIAN GREETINGS THROUGH PAUL TO THE PHILIPPIANS?

The apostle Paul wrote from Rome to the Philippian congregation in about 60 to 61 C.E., and the Caesar he mentioned was Emperor Nero. But who in Nero's household would be sending greetings to Christians in Philippi?—Philippians 4:22. It would be a mistake to assume that the term "household of Caesar" necessarily referred to the immediate relatives of the emperor. Rather, it encompassed all the people, including slaves and freedmen, both in Rome and in the provinces, who were in the emperor's service. "The household of Caesar" would therefore include thousands of servants. They would care for various responsibilities of a managerial or servile nature in the emperor's palaces and on his estates and properties. Some would even play a role in the administration of government. Some of the emperor's servants in Rome evidently became Christians. Whether that was a result of Paul's preaching in Rome is unknown. In any case, they apparently had a special interest in the Philippian congregation. Since Philippi was a Roman colony inhabited by many retired soldiers and government servants, it is possible that some Christians there were friends of those on whose behalf Paul conveyed greetings.

WHY DOES THE BIBLE BOOK OF 1 CORINTHIANS DISCUSS MEAT THAT HAD BEEN SACRIFICED TO IDOLS?

The apostle Paul wrote: "Everything that is sold in a meat market keep eating, making no inquiry on account of your conscience." (1 Corinthians 10:25) Where did such meat come from? Animal sacrifice was the principal ceremony in Greek and Roman temples, but not all the meat from the sacrificial animals was eaten during the ceremony. Excess meat from pagan temples found its way into public meat markets. The book Idol Meat in Corinth states: "Cult officials . . . are called in other contexts cooks and/or butchers. From their allotted portion for slaying the sacrificial animal, they sold meat in the market." Thus, not all the meat sold in the market was left over from religious ceremonies. Excavation in Pompeii's meat market (Latin, macellum) revealed the presence of entire skeletons of sheep. This suggests, says scholar Henry J. Cadbury, that "the meat may have been sold on the hoof or slaughtered in the macellum as well as sold already butchered or sacrificed in a temple." Paul's point was that, although Christians would not share in pagan worship, meat that had been sacrificed in a temple was not intrinsically contaminated.

WHERE WAS OPHIR, WHICH THE BIBLE REFERS TO AS A SOURCE OF GOLD OF SUPERIOR QUALITY?

The book of Job first mentions "gold of Ophir" and equates it with "pure gold." (Job 28:15, 16) About 600 years after Job's day, King David collected "gold of Ophir" for the construction of Jehovah's temple in Jerusalem. His son Solomon likewise imported gold from Ophir.—1 Chronicles 29:3, 4; 1 Kings 9:28. According to the Scriptures, Solomon had a fleet of ships constructed in Ezion-geber, on the Red Sea, that brought gold from Ophir. (1 Kings 9:26) Scholars locate Ezion-geber at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba in the general area of present-day Elat and Aqaba. From there, ships could reach any part of the Red Sea or more distant trading posts on the African or Indian coasts, possible locations of Ophir. Others believed, however, that Ophir lay in Arabia, where ancient gold mines have been found and deposits have been exploited even in modern times. As to whether Solomon's gold mines were merely legendary, as some would have it, Egyptologist Kenneth A. Kitchen writes: "Ophir itself is no myth. A Hebrew ostracon [or, earthenware fragment] of perhaps the eighth century [B.C.E.] is clearly inscribed with the brief note of account: 'Gold of Ophir for Beth-Horon—30 shekels.' Ophir here is a real source of gold, just as with 'Gold of ‛Amau,' or 'Gold of Punt' or 'Gold of Kush' in Egyptian texts—gold in each case, either derived from the land named or from that land's type or quality."

WHAT MADE JESUS' INNER GARMENT SO DESIRABLE TO THE ROMAN SOLDIERS?

The four soldiers who supervised Jesus' execution divided his clothes among themselves. "But," says John 19:23, Jesus' "inner garment was without a seam, being woven from the top throughout its length." The soldiers decided not to tear it but to cast lots over it. How was such a garment made? The inner garment appears to refer to a shirtlike tunic made out of linen or wool and reaching to the knees or ankles. These garments were usually made by sewing together two superimposed squares or rectangles of fabric, stitching along three of their sides. Holes were left for the head and arms. A more expensive type of tunic was made in a similar way but using "only one long piece of cloth, folded in two, with a hole cut in the middle for the head" and hemmed, says the book Jesus and His World. This kind of tunic needed to be stitched at the sides. Completely seamless garments, like the one Jesus wore, were unique to Palestine. They were woven on upright looms that used two sets of vertical warp threads, one at the front and one at the back of a crossbar. The weaver would alternate his shuttle, which carried the horizontal weft thread, from the front part of the web to the back, "thus creating a cylindric piece of fabric," says one reference work. A seamless tunic would likely have been a rare possession, and the soldiers considered it a desirable one.

IN ROMAN TIMES, WHAT CRIMES MERITED A DEATH LIKE THAT OF JESUS?

The means that the Romans used to punish subversives, outlaws, and other rebels was to fasten them to an instrument of torture and leave them there to die. This punishment was considered the worst form of death possible. "It was public, demeaning, and painful," says the book Palestine in the Time of Jesus, "and it was designed to strike fear into the hearts of any who would dare pose a threat to the status quo." One Roman writer in ancient times noted regarding the execution of criminals: "The most crowded roads are chosen, where the most people can see and be moved by this fear." According to Josephus, one prisoner of war captured by Titus' troops during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. was executed in this manner before the city walls in an attempt to intimidate the defenders into submission. When the city finally fell, many others met the same death. The largest mass execution of this type that history records took place at the end of a revolt led by Spartacus (73-71 B.C.E.), when 6,000 slaves and gladiators were executed along the road leading from Capua to Rome.

WAS THE LEPROSY DESCRIBED IN THE BIBLE THE SAME AS THE DISEASE KNOWN BY THAT NAME TODAY?

The medical term "leprosy" as used today refers to a human bacterial infection. This bacteria (Mycobacterium leprae) was first identified by Dr. G.A. Hansen in 1873. Researchers have discovered that the bacteria can survive outside the body in nasal secretions for up to nine days. They have also found that people in close association with leprosy patients have a greater chance of contracting the disease and that contaminated clothing is a possible source of infection. According to the World Health Organization, more than 220,000 new cases of leprosy were reported in 2007. There is no doubt that leprosy afflicted people in the Middle East in Biblical times, and the Mosaic Law required that a person with leprosy be quarantined. (Leviticus 13:4, 5) However, the Hebrew word tsa•ra′ʽath translated "leprosy" was not confined to a medical condition. Tsa•ra′ʽath also affected clothing and houses. This kind of leprosy could appear in woolen or linen garments or in anything made of leather. In some cases, it could be eliminated by washing, but if a "yellowish-green or reddish plague" persisted, the garment or leather was to be burned. (Leviticus 13:47-52) In houses, the plague manifested itself as "yellowish-green or reddish depressions" in a wall. Affected stones and mortar were to be removed and discarded—away from human habitation. If the leprosy returned, the building was to be demolished and the materials disposed of. (Leviticus 14:33-45) Some suggest that the leprosy in garments or houses might have described what is now called mildew or mold. However, this cannot be stated with certainty.

WHY DID MATTHEW ATTRIBUTE WORDS FROM THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH TO THE PROPHET JEREMIAH?

The passage in question is found at Matthew 27:9, 10, where the Gospel writer commented on the money given to Judas Iscariot for the betrayal of Jesus. The verses read: "Then what was spoken through Jeremiah the prophet was fulfilled, saying: 'And they took the thirty silver pieces, the price upon the man that was priced, . . . and they gave them for the potter's field.'" The source of the prophecy concerning the 30 pieces of silver is Zechariah, not Jeremiah.—Zechariah 11:12, 13. It appears that Jeremiah, rather than Isaiah, was sometimes placed first in the collection of books called "the Prophets." (Matthew 22:40) Hence, when Matthew here spoke of "Jeremiah," he was referring to an entire section of Scripture called by the name of its first book. This section of Scripture included Zechariah. In a similar way, Jesus designated as "Psalms" several Bible books also known as the Writings. Thus, when he said that all things written about him "in the law of Moses and in the Prophets and Psalms" had to be fulfilled, he was referring to the prophecies contained in the entire Hebrew Scriptures.—Luke 24:44.

WHY DID THE APOSTLE PAUL'S PREACHING IN EPHESUS CAUSE AN UPROAR AMONG THE SILVERSMITHS?

The silversmiths of Ephesus prospered by making "silver shrines of Artemis," patroness of Ephesus, a goddess of hunting, fertility, and childbirth. (Acts 19:24) Her image was reputed to have fallen "from heaven" and was housed at the temple of Artemis in Ephesus. (Acts 19:35) This temple was viewed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Crowds of pilgrims flocked to Ephesus during March/April each year to attend festivals honoring Artemis. The influx of visitors generated demand for cult objects, used either as souvenirs, amulets, or offerings to the goddess or for family worship once the pilgrims returned home. Ancient inscriptions from Ephesus speak of the manufacture of gold and silver statues of Artemis, and other inscriptions specifically mention the silver-worker's guild. Paul taught that images "made by hands are not gods." (Acts 19:26) Thus, the silversmiths saw their livelihood threatened and fomented a riot to protest Paul's preaching. Demetrius, one of the silversmiths, summed up their fears, saying: "The danger exists not only that this occupation of ours will come into disrepute but also that the temple of the great goddess Artemis will be esteemed as nothing and even her magnificence which the whole district of Asia and the inhabited earth worships is about to be brought down to nothing."—Acts 19:27.

WHAT WAS "THE FESTIVAL OF DEDICATION" MENTIONED AT JOHN 10:22?

The three seasonal festivals that God commanded the Jews to observe—the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, the Festival of Pentecost, and the Festival of Ingathering—were held in early spring, late spring, and fall respectively. The festival mentioned at John 10:22, however, was held in "wintertime" and commemorated the rededication of Jehovah's temple in 165 B.C.E. It was held for eight days, beginning on the 25th day of the month of Chislev, close to the winter solstice. What led to its institution? In 168 B.C.E., the Syrian Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), in his effort to eradicate Jewish worship and customs, had a pagan altar erected atop the altar in Jehovah's temple in Jerusalem. Upon it, he had sacrifices offered to the Greek god Zeus. This incident sparked the Maccabean uprising. The Jewish leader Judas Maccabaeus recovered Jerusalem from the Seleucids and then had the defiled altar demolished and a new one built in its place. Exactly three years after the altar had first been desecrated, Judas rededicated the cleansed temple to Jehovah. This "festival of dedication" (Hebrew, chanuk•kah′) has been celebrated in December by the Jews ever since. Today, the festival is known as Hanukkah.

WHY IS REFERENCE GENERALLY MADE TO THE 12 TRIBES OF ISRAEL WHEN THERE WERE ACTUALLY 13 TRIBES?

The tribes, or families, of Israel descended from the sons of Jacob, whose name was changed to Israel. This patriarch had 12 sons—Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph, and Benjamin. (Genesis 29:32-30:24; 35:16-18) Eleven of these brothers had tribes named after them, but no tribe was named after Joseph. Instead, two tribes were named after his sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, who received full status as tribal heads. So the number of tribes in Israel amounted to 13. Why, then, does the Bible usually speak of 12 tribes? Among the Israelites, the men of the tribe of Levi were set apart for service at Jehovah's tabernacle and later at the temple. Hence, they were exempted from military service. Jehovah told Moses: "Only the tribe of Levi you must not register, and the sum of them you must not take in among the sons of Israel. And you yourself appoint the Levites over the tabernacle of the Testimony and over all its utensils and over everything that belongs to it."—Numbers 1:49, 50. The Levites did not receive a territorial allotment in the Promised Land either. Rather, they were assigned 48 cities scattered throughout the territory of Israel.—Numbers 18:20-24; Joshua 21:41. For these two reasons, the tribe of Levi was not generally included when the tribes were listed. The tribes of Israel were thus usually numbered as 12.—Numbers 1:1-15.

HOW WERE THE SERVICES AT JEHOVAH'S TEMPLE IN JERUSALEM FINANCED?

The various temple services were maintained through taxation, mainly obligatory tithing. But other forms of taxation were also used. For example, at the time of the construction of the tabernacle, Jehovah instructed Moses to collect half a silver shekel from every registered Israelite, as a "contribution to Jehovah."—Exodus 30:12-16. Apparently, it became customary for each Jew to contribute this fixed amount as an annual temple tax. It was this tax that Jesus instructed Peter to pay with a coin taken from a fish's mouth.—Matthew 17:24-27. Several years ago, two silver coins of types used to pay the temple tax were discovered in Jerusalem. One coin, minted in Tyre in 22 C.E., was found in a first-century drainage channel. This shekel bears the head of Melkart, or Baal, the chief deity of Tyre, on one side and an eagle perched on a ship's prow on the other. The second coin, found in rubble removed from the temple mount, dates to the first year of the Jewish revolt against Rome, 66-67 C.E. It bears a chalice and three budding pomegranates, as well as the inscriptions "Half Shekel" and "Holy Jerusalem." Regarding this find, Professor Gabriel Barkay says that the coin has "signs of having been damaged by fire, most likely the fires that destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE."

WHY DO PEOPLE SAY "AMEN" AT THE END OF A PRAYER?

The word "amen," in both English and Greek, is a transliteration of the Hebrew ʼa•men′. The expression, usually uttered in unison by listeners to a prayer, oath, blessing, or curse, basically means "so be it," or "surely." Saying it serves to indicate agreement with the sentiments just expressed. According to one reference work, "the word connotes certainty, truthfulness, faithfulness, and absence of doubt." In Bible times, the expression also legally obliged its user with regard to an oath or covenant and its consequences.—Deuteronomy 27:15-26. In his preaching and teaching, Jesus introduced some of his statements with the word "amen." By so doing, he underlined the absolute reliability of what he was about to say. In these cases, the Greek word a•men′ is translated "truly" or "verily." (Matthew 5:18; 6:2, 5; King James Version) When doubled, as is the case throughout the Gospel of John, Jesus' expression is translated "most truly." (John 1:51) Jesus' use of amen in this way is said to be unique in sacred literature. In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the title "Amen" is applied to Jesus to indicate that his witness is "faithful and true."—Revelation 3:14.

WHO WERE THE DIFFERENT MEN IN THE BIBLE CALLED JAMES?

There were four altogether, and it is easy to be confused (ftn - James is the English equivalent of Jacob. The phrase "Abraham, Isaac and Jacob" appears many times in the Bible, and Matthew 1:16 names Jacob as "father to Joseph the husband of Mary"). One was the father of the apostle Judas (not Iscariot), and nothing more is known of him.—Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13. Then we have a son of Zebedee. This James was brother of John, both being Jesus' apostles. (Matthew 10:2) His mother, it seems, was Salome, the sister of Jesus' mother. (Compare Matthew 27:55, 56 with Mark 15:40, 41 and John 19:25.) If so, James was Jesus' first cousin. He was a fisherman, who along with his brother was in partnership with Peter and Andrew.—Mark 1:16-19; Luke 5:7-10. Next comes James the son of Alphaeus, also one of Jesus' apostles. (Mark 3:16-18) He is described as "James the Less" at Mark 15:40. He may have been called "the Less" because of being physically smaller or younger than James, the son of Zebedee. Last comes Joseph and Mary's son, brother of Jude and half brother of Jesus. (Mark 6:3; Galatians 1:19) During Jesus' ministry, James was not one of his disciples. (Matthew 12:46-50; John 7:5) However, before Pentecost 33 C.E., James prayed with his mother, his brothers, and the apostles in an upper chamber in Jerusalem. (Acts 1:13, 14) James later became a prominent member of the Jerusalem congregation and wrote the Bible book bearing his name.—Acts 12:17; James 1:1.

DID PONTIUS PILATE HAVE REASON TO FEAR CAESAR?

To pressure the Roman Governor Pontius Pilate into executing Jesus, the Jewish leaders said: "If you release this man, you are not a friend of Caesar." (John 19:12) The "Caesar" mentioned here was Roman Emperor Tiberius. Would Pilate have had any reason to fear this Caesar? What kind of person was Tiberius Caesar? Years before Jesus' trial, Tiberius had already become "a man who seemed interested only in his own satisfactions and the increasingly perverse ways to find them," says The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Paranoia moved him to torture and execute anyone who was even suspected of treason. "If the near-contemporary historians are to be believed," reports the same reference work, "his favourite entertainments were cruel and obscene. Even under the most favourable interpretation, he killed ferociously and almost at random." Therefore, Tiberius' reputation may well have figured in Pilate's decision to bow to the pressure from the Jewish leaders and order the execution of Jesus.—John 19:13-16.

WHY DID THE JEWS BEGIN THEIR SABBATH OBSERVANCE IN THE EVENING?

When Jehovah gave his people the law concerning the Day of Atonement, he said: "You must do no sort of work on this very day . . . It is a sabbath of complete rest for you . . . From evening to evening you should observe your sabbath." (Leviticus 23:28, 32) This command reflected the view that each day began in the evening, after sunset, and ended at the subsequent sunset. For the Jews, the day thus ran from evening to evening. This method of counting days followed the pattern set by God himself. The account concerning the first figurative day of creation states: "There came to be evening and there came to be morning, a first day." The successive "days" are also counted in the same way, beginning in the "evening."—Genesis 1:5, 8, 13, 19, 23, 31. The Jews were not the only people to reckon days in this way. The Athenians, the Numidians, and the Phoenicians did likewise. The Babylonians, on the other hand, considered sunrise to be the beginning of each new day, while the Egyptians and the Romans reckoned their days from midnight to midnight, as is the modern custom. Present-day Jews, however, still begin and end their Sabbath observance at sundown.

WHY WERE THE JEWS SO WIDELY SCATTERED BY THE TIME OF JESUS?

When Jesus told a group of listeners that where he was going they could not come, the Jews asked themselves: "Where does this man intend going . . . ? He does not intend to go to the Jews dispersed among the Greeks . . . does he?" (John 7:32-36) Not long after, Christian missionaries preached the good news among Jews dispersed throughout the Mediterranean basin.—Acts 2:5-11; 9:2; 13:5, 13, 14; 14:1; 16:1-3; 17:1; 18:12, 19; 28:16, 17. This dispersion, or Diaspora, arose because the Jews were exiled from their homeland by conquering nations—first by the Assyrians, in 740 B.C.E., then by the Babylonians, in 607 B.C.E. Only a remnant of the exiles ever returned to Israel. (Isaiah 10:21, 22) The rest remained scattered. Hence, in the fifth century B.C.E., Jewish communities were found in the 127 jurisdictional districts of the Persian Empire. (Esther 1:1; 3:8) Jewish efforts to win converts to Judaism meant that, in time, a large number of people came to have some knowledge of Jehovah and of the Law that he gave to the Jews. (Matthew 23:15) Jews from many lands were present in Jerusalem for the Festival of Pentecost in 33 C.E., at which they heard the good news about Jesus. Therefore, the dispersion of Jews throughout the Roman Empire contributed to the rapid spread of Christianity.

WHY WAS JUDAS OFFERED 30 PIECES OF SILVER TO BETRAY JESUS?

When Judas Iscariot met the chief priests to see how much they would give him to betray Jesus, they offered him "thirty silver pieces." (Matthew 26:14, 15) This sum appears to show the contempt that they felt for Jesus and how little they valued him. The coins in question may have been silver shekels, the standard monetary unit among the Jews. What was the buying power of 30 shekels? The Mosaic Law established this as the price of a slave. Thirty shekels could also buy a plot of land.—Exodus 21:32; Matthew 27:6, 7. When the prophet Zechariah called for his wages from the unfaithful Israelites for his work as shepherd of God's people, they weighed out to him "thirty pieces of silver." This was a demeaning and deliberate gesture toward God's prophet, suggesting that they valued him as no more than a slave. Hence, Jehovah ordered Zechariah: "Throw it to the treasury—the majestic value with which I have been valued from their standpoint." (Zechariah 11:12, 13) Zechariah's action in obedience to this command reminds us of what Judas would do with the sum obtained for betraying the One whom Jehovah had designated as Israel's shepherd.—Matthew 27:5.

WHAT IS THE MEANING OF JESUS' WORDS "YOU YOURSELF SAID IT"?

When charged by Caiaphas, the Jewish high priest, to declare openly whether he was Christ, the Son of God, Jesus answered: "You yourself said it." (Matthew 26:63, 64) What did he mean? Jesus was not trying to evade Caiaphas' question. The expression "you yourself said it" was apparently a common Jewish idiom affirming that a statement was true. For example, the Jerusalem Talmud, a Jewish religious work compiled in the fourth century C.E., tells of a Jewish man who when asked if a rabbi had died, replied: "You said it." This was taken as confirmation that the rabbi was, in fact, dead. Jesus recognized the high priest's authority to put him under oath to state the facts. Moreover, to remain silent could have been construed as a denial that Jesus was the Christ. So Jesus' response: "You yourself said it" was an affirmative reply to the high priest. In Mark's parallel account, when directly challenged by Caiaphas to reveal if He was the Messiah, Jesus courageously replied: "I am."—Mark 14:62; see also Matthew 26:25 and Mark 15:2.

HOW LARGE WERE THE TEMPLE STONES IN JERUSALEM?

When talking to Jesus about the temple in Jerusalem, the disciples said: "Teacher, see! what sort of stones and what sort of buildings!" (Mark 13:1) Just how large were some of those stones? By the time that Jesus was on earth, King Herod had doubled the size of the Temple Mount as compared to that of Solomon's time. It was the largest man-made platform in the ancient world, measuring about 1,575 feet [480 m] by 910 feet [280 m]. Some of the building stones, or ashlars, reportedly were 35 feet [11 m] long, 15 feet [5 m] wide, and 10 feet [3 m] high. A few weighed more than 50 tons each. One even weighed close to 400 tons and was "unequaled in size anywhere in the ancient world," according to one scholar. In reply to his disciples' statement, Jesus said: "Do you behold these great buildings? By no means will a stone be left here upon a stone and not be thrown down." (Mark 13:2) Many of these huge stones can still be seen lying where they landed after being pried loose and pushed down by Roman soldiers in 70 C.E.

WHAT WERE THE "HIGH PLACES" FREQUENTLY MENTIONED IN THE HEBREW SCRIPTURES?

When the Israelites were about to enter the Promised Land, Jehovah told them to eliminate all the places of worship of the Canaanites who lived there. "You must . . . destroy all their stone figures, and all their images of molten metal you should destroy, and all their sacred high places you should annihilate," God commanded. (Numbers 33:52) Those centers of false worship may have been either open-air hilltop sites or constructed platforms in other locations, such as under trees or in cities. (1 Kings 14:23; 2 Kings 17:29; Ezekiel 6:3) They could be equipped with altars, sacred pillars or poles, images, incense stands, and other paraphernalia for worship. Prior to the construction of the temple in Jerusalem, the Israelites worshipped Jehovah at approved sites that the Scriptures call high places. God's prophet Samuel offered sacrifices at "the high place" in an unnamed city in the land of Zuph. (1 Samuel 9:11-14) Once the temple was built, however, a number of kings who were faithful to Jehovah attempted to rid the land of its "high places."—2 Kings 21:3; 23:5-8, 15-20; 2 Chronicles 17:1, 6.