Diversity in Criminal justice Midterm

There is relatively little research testing for racial discrimination in the sentencing of individuals convicted of misdemeanor offenses. Because the lower courts where misdemeanor cases are handled usually have huge caseloads and informal, nonadversarial procedures for delivering what is often referred to as _______________, one might predict that the likelihood of racially disparate decisions would be even greater in these courts than in the more formal felony courts.

"assembly-line justice"

Repeated studies consistently show that pretrial detention has __________ on other case processing decisions.

"spillover" effects

In 2014, the median household income in the United States for African American families was ________ , while the median income for all American households was $53, 657.

$35,398

According to data from The Sentencing Project, in 2020, the imprisonment rate for Black women was______ times the rate of imprisonment for white women.

1.7

According to the Office Down Memorial (ODMP), _______________ officers were killed in the line of duty in 2022.

1000

Bloomberg (2022) reports that between 2006 to 2020 in the US, approximately ________women were arrested or charged for their actions during pregnancy.

1300

According to the Office Down Memorial (ODMP), _______________ officers have been killed in the line of duty so far this year (as of February 26, 2023).

15

The Fair Sentencing Act reduced the disparity between sentences for cocaine and crack cocaine to ______.

18:1

The first bail reform movement occurred during the:

1960s

Differential treatment of interracial and interracial sexual assaults continued even after passage of the ________Amendment, which outlawed explicit statutory racial discrimination

19th

The Drug-Induced Rape Prevention and Punishment Act of 1996 provides penalties for up to ______ years for the involuntary drugging of an individual in cases of violence.

20

There are approximately _____ separate Native American law enforcement agencies in the U.S.

200

In response to the growing national police crisis, President Barack Obama appointed a President's Task Force on ___________ policing.

21st Century

There have been ___ major eras of riots related to police abuse.

3

The majority of all the people under correctional supervision are on probation, totaling more than ____million people.

3.9

Davis (2018) cites a report from the NAACP that shows that thanks to the 'War on Drugs,' communities worst affected have up to __________more African Americans than Whites arrested for marijuana offenses.

30

There are more than _____ federally recognized Native American tribes in the U.S

330

The death rate for prostitutes is ______ times higher than the overall population.

40

Davis (2018) cites a 2014 study that shows that while Blacks are more likely to be stopped, they are also ______times more likely to have their vehicle searched than their white counterparts.

5

Johnson (2004) found that ______ of all female property offenders indicated that they engaged in crime to get money so that they could buy drugs.

52%

In 2014 the incarceration rate for African American males in state and federal prisons was _____ times the rate for whites.

6

Members of NCVS selected households are contacted either in person or by phone every _____ months for _____ years

6, 3

The Innocence Project has found that among prisoners exonerated by DNA evidence, __ percent are people of color.

61

About _____ percent of Hispanic males are under correctional supervision.

8

According to Pew Research Center _____ of African Americans believed that "blacks are treated less fairly than whites in this country in dealing with the police," as compared to ____ of white Americans.

84% and 50%

According to the NCVS __________ victims are disproportionately represented in all crimes of violence.

African American

For effective management of female offenders, all of the following are principles identified by Bloom EXCEPT for ______.

Age

The Color of Justice includes material on the following groups:​

All groups.

__________ Americans have the least amount of contact with the police, compared with other racial and ethnic groups.

Asian

__________ the lowest victimization rates of any racial or ethnic group in the U.S. Between 2002 and 2006, according to the NCVS, their violent crime victimization rate (10.6 per 1000):

Asian, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander Americans

All of the following are true regarding the Welfare Reform Act and women convicted of a felony drug offense EXCEPT for _____.

Calls for a ban on drug testing of recipients of welfare

Which of the following suggests that women receive preferential treatment by the justice system?

Chivalry hypothesis

The 1991 ________Commission report found that officers at Los Angeles police stations discouraged people from filing complaints and sometimes even threatened them with arrest.

Christopher

W.E.B. Du Bois declared, ''The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the _______ ________."

Color Line

The basic premise of _________ theory is that the law is used to maintain the power of a society's dominant group and control the individuals who threaten that power.

Conflict

__________discrimination occurs only in certain situations.

Contextual

______ held that the equal protection clause prevents prison administrators from justifying the disparate treatment of women on the grounds that providing such services for women is inconvenient.

Cooper v. Morin

For many whites, __________ is a code word for fears of social change, and fears of racial change in particular.

Crime

Which of the following are the most important factors impacting pretrial charging decisions?

Criminal history

Why may official data not reflect the true number of girls in gangs?

Data may not include females.

Racist ________ ____ __________ designation historically decided who was African American and who was not. For example, if a person had a great-great-great-great-great grandfather that was African American, and all other relatives were white, this person was still African American.

Drop of Blood

Outside of tribal settings, Tribal Healing to Wellness Courts are known as:

Drug Courts

Which of the following is one of the primary reasons why women are involved in criminal activity and ultimately sent to prison?

Drug addiction

Which of the following is at greatest risk for arrest and imprisonment?

Drug users

Which of the following is the best predictor of longevity of substance abuse?

Early exposure

Differences between the incarceration rates of White women and women of color may be based on which of the following instead of race?

Economics

Under which of the following are women punished for breaking socialized norms of gender-role expectations?

Evil woman hypothesis

Explain why anthropologists and sociologists do not accept the strict biological definition of race.

Evolution an intermarriage throughout human history has proved that despite your race or cultural identity you are physically the same as anyone else when brought up in the same environment. Only factors like intense exercise, genetic mutations or other environmental factors can cause one person to differ biologically from another, race is not one.

Congress finally acted to reduce the crack/powder cocaine disparity under the _______________Act of 2010.

Fair Sentencing

According to Davis (2018), one of the few things that insulates minorities from the harshest penalties of racialized policing is wealth and prosperity.

False

According to Spohn (1991) the problem of racial and ethnic disparities in sentencing and punishment can be fixed by the passage of legislation designed to reduce the discretion of prosecutors, judges, and corrections officials.

False

According to Wood and May, research has shown that whites are more likely to believe that serving time in prison is less of a hassle than alternative forms of sentencing.

False

According to the statistics provided, most immigrants in America are undocumented.

False

According to von Hentig's theory, victimization of women can only be explained by their gender.

False

Annual income is the only consideration of a person's or a family's economic status.

False

Attempts to pass an amendment to the U.S. Constitution on victims' rights have been successful

False

Economic class makes no difference in how people of color view the police.

False

Female arrests for violent crimes have increased in recent years

False

Hispanic offenders have a lower level of overrepresentation compared to their percentage in the general population for both state and federal prison populations.

False

Implicit bias against African Americans is NOT confirmed by scientific evidence.

False

In the 1970s, most police departments greatly expanded their police-community relations programs so as to reach a larger segment of the serviced community.

False

Judges have access to all relevant information when determining an offender's culpability or dangerousness to society at the time of imposing sentence.

False

Mediation of a citizen complaint against the police is a court-ordered process in which the complainant and the officer meet face-to-face.

False

Most rapes and sexual assaults occur between people who do not know each other.

False

NCVS information is collected from persons age 16 and older who are members of the household selected in the sample.

False

One program that teaches officers about implicit bias is called Fair and Partial Policing.

False

Rates of sexual assault appear to be lower on college campuses.

False

Research examining the interactions of legally irrelevant sentencing factors has found race, gender, and age does not have significant direct effects on sentence severity.

False

Research from the National Institute of Justice (2004) maintains that overt racism and not implicit bias drives many racially disparate policing outcomes.

False

Social disorganization theory holds that the administration of criminal justice reflects the unequal distribution of power in society.

False

The EEO Index compares the percentage of minority group officers in a department with the percentage of that group in the U.S. population.

False

The FBI provides guidelines for the use of the Hispanic designation among criminal justice agencies in the appendices of its Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics.

False

The George Floyd Justice in Policing Act of 2021 does not address chokeholds and carotid holds.

False

The Manhattan Bail Project found that the majority of defendants released on their own recognizance did not appear for trial.

False

The Mexican Mafia is distinguished by a predominant Marxist/Maoist/Leninist communist ideology.

False

The Supreme Court has interpreted two consitutional ammendments (the Fourth and the Fourteenth) as the only ones that prohibits racialized policing.

False

The UCR reporting format serves to standardize racial and ethnic categories used by participating criminal justice agencies.

False

The abortion debate often revolves around the question: Where does life begin?

False

The first gangs in the US were African American.

False

The gap between the very richest Americans and most Americans in terms of both annual income and total wealth has actually been shrinking over the last few decades.

False

The numerous studies of racial disparity in sentencing conducted during the 1970s and 1980s are notable for their low levels of theoretical and methodological sophistication.

False

The pathways of women to crime are similar to the pathways to men.

False

The police-community relations programs of the 1960s were surprisingly effective for first-generation innovations.

False

The term pure justice refers to the condition when there is no discrimination at any time or place in the criminal justice system.

False

The term social predators characterizes that segment of the deviant population that is viewed as particularly threatening and dangerous.

False

The universal definition of gang, established in the Uniform Crime Reports, fails to address ethnicity-based gang groups .

False

Transitional Justice scholar Martha Minow's work shows that silence in the aftermath of any horrific abuse is least likely to lead to frustration and distrust.

False

The term "racial profiling" was coined in a New York Times article on __________________________.

February, 19, 1990

The Sturgis/Peters case that was mentioned in the article, "Bias on the Bench" took place in the state of ___________________.

Florida

Differential treatment of interracial and interracial sexual assaults continued even after passage of the ________Amendment, which outlawed explicit statutory racial discrimination

Fourteenth

The Five Percent movement began in __________ in 1964.

Harlem

Explain how current efforts by local police agencies to enforce federal immigration law has impacted immigrant communities---with a special emphasis on Hispanic communities.

Hispanic communities have had to suffer raids and humiliation simply because of the color of their skin. Since most media coverage on immigrants typically has a special focus on Mexican immigrants, any Mexican looking people are potential targets for immigration police. A fear that European or even African immigrants are not made to feel.

Household victimization rates are highest for __________ in urban areas.

Hispanics

Household victimization rates are lowest for __________ in rural areas.

Hispanics

Steffensmeier and Demuth's study of race and sentencing in Pennsylvania revealed that ________________had the highest likelihood of being incarcerated.

Hispanics

Which of the following is NOT cited in the text as a factor that helps explain the patterns of interactions between Hispanics and the police?

Hispanics' unwillingness to oppose criminal elements within their communities who do not want a police presence in the neighborhoods

Explain the various "pros" and "cons" of one particular criminal justice data set. Why do you believe no one data set can adequately capture all of the information about crime, criminal justice, race, and ethnicity in America?

I think no data set can capture all information because of human error. Very few people know their true ancestry unless they've invested in a dna testing kit, so both the self reporting and other racial grouping system can never be 100% accurate nor can it account for people of multiple races or ethnicities properly.

The authors of The Bell Curve argue success in life is largely determined by ___.

IQ

According to data from The Sentencing Project, which state has the highest female state imprisonment rates (2020).

Idaho

Which of the following increases the likelihood of official reporting in cases of rape?

If the victim is injured during the rape

Studies reveal that these are all major societal harms associated with racial profiling EXCEPT____________________.

Individual experience is the only prerequisite to fostering negative feeling with the police

Mandatory arrest polices for which of the following led to an increase in arrests for girls?

Intimate Partner Abuse

Which of the following is not true regarding the just world hypothesis?

It implies that there are no true victims

The U.S. Supreme Court required the appointment of counsel for all indigent defendants in federal criminal cases in:

Johnson v. Zerbst (1938)

In 1968, the __________ Commission warned that "our Nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal."

Kerner

Which of the following cases was used as an example of the just world hypothesis?

Kobe Bryant

A 2008 American-Arab Defense Committee (ADC) report found relatively few instances of discrimination by _______ police.

Local

According to data from The Sentencing Project, which state has the lowest female state imprisonment rates (2020).

Massachusetts

Explain why the problem of classifying multiethnic and multiracial people has important implications for criminal justice data .

Miscategorizing multi-racial or multi-ethnic people into one of the groups they identify with can skew data to make it seem like one group has higher results than another.

In the 1990s, the New York City ________Commission exposed a pattern of corruption and violence in the poorest African-American and Hispanic neighborhoods in which corruption was at the root of abusive and illegal behavior.

Mollen

The Equal Justice Initiative (EJI) has erected a museum called the The Legacy Museum: From Enslavement to Mass Incarceration. This is located in _______________.

Montgomery, Alabama

American citizens who self-identify with more than one racial or ethnic group are often referred to as ________________

Multiracial

The most systematic source of victimization information is the _____.

NCVS

Davis credits Jay-Z's song ____________________ as one of many lyrical critiques of race based policing.

Ninety-Nine Problems

Which of the following influences whether a defendant will be detained during the pretrial stages or receive charge reductions and leniency in sentencing?

Offense type and criminal history

Who of the following are more likely to benefit from chivalrous treatment by the police?

Older Caucasian women

Which of the following is an example of an extralegal factor?

Presence of trauma

_________________is one example of a "process-related" factor that interacts with race to explain disparity in sentencing between minorities and whites.

Pretrial detention

____________________is a legally relevant factor used in sentencing that may very well be "race-linked".

Prior criminal record

The theory of ________justice holds that attitudes are shaped not just by what the police do, but how they do it.

Procedural

Which of the following would Marc Mauer of the Innocence Project and Heather MacDonald agree on?

Racial disparities in criminal justice can be a result of disproportionate involvement in crime

Which of the following is true regarding the NCVS definition of rape?

Recognizes penetration with body part or object

The George Floyd Justice in Policing Act of 2021 was introduced to the House of Representative by __________ and has _____________ cosponsors.

Rep. Karen Bass..........199

________ involves rejection of both the goals of society and accepted means of achieving them.

Retreatism

Researchers have suggested that which two theories should be combined to investigate victimization risks in general?

Routine Activities and Lifestyle Theories

The U.S. Census (and the NCVS) use a _______ __________ system for learning racial and ethnic identity.

Self Report

The right to counsel in all criminal prosecutions is established in the __________ Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

Sixth

Why do you believe that African Americans and Hispanics are much more likely to be victims of crime, but white Americans large have more FEAR of crime?

Statistically, minorities are less likely to seek help from police and therefore can be seen as easier targets, especially in high crime areas. I think the way that minorities are portrayed in the media and on news channels can lead to the perception that they are dangerous criminals which inspires fear in non-minorities who don't know enough minorities to think otherwise.

______ is the most visible form of sex work.

Street-level prostitution

__________ discrimination occurs at all stages of the criminal justice system, in all places, and at all times.

Systemic

The fleeing felon rule was held unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in

Tennessee v. Garner (1985)

A belief in the just world hypothesis leads to an increased support of rape myths.

True

A series of court decisions have declared de jure racial segregation in prisons to be unconstitutional. However, inmates still tend to self-segregate.

True

Acceptance of rape myths lead to victim blaming.

True

Among both African Americans and Hispanics there is a greater gap between the middle class and the poorest than at any other time in our history.

True

Cases where the victim is sexually assaulted following her voluntary intoxication of alcohol make up the majority of drug-facilitated sexual assaults.

True

Cohen and Felson's theory was created to discuss victimization in property crimes.

True

Community policing works only if residents are aware of and involved in the program.

True

Data from the Bureau of Justice Studies (BJS) suggests that women more likely to abuse drugs while men are more likely to abuse alcohol.

True

Female gang members considered "independent" are at a higher risk of violent victimization.

True

In the international arena, the United States consistently has the highest incarceration rate in the world.

True

Judicial discretion is often a double-edged sword for women.

True

NCVS interviews are conducted at 6-month intervals.

True

Not all research demonstrates that girls and women of color suffer from harsher treatment by the courts

True

Official arrest data indicate that involvement in violent crime peaks at 18 years of age.

True

Prior to the sentencing guidelines, gender did not appear to have an effect on sentencing guidelines.

True

Racial profiling depends on very large numbers of police-citizens contact if even limited success is to be achieved.

True

Racial profiling takes place in both traffic and pedestrian stops.

True

Shoplifting is typically described as a pink-collar crime.

True

Social and cultural capital have huge implications for individuals, their status in life, their prospects for the future, and also their likelihood of becoming criminals.

True

Spohn (1991) recommends the elimination of mandatory minimum sentences and the restriction of the use of life without parole sentences as a means to decrease racial disparities in sentencing.

True

Street prostitutes are likely to experience the highest rates of violence, abuse, arrests, and stigma of all sex workers.

True

The George Floyd Justice in Policing Act of 2021 proposes to lowers the criminal intent standard—from willful to knowing or reckless—to convict a law enforcement officer for misconduct in a federal prosecution.

True

The Kobe Bryant rape case led to decreased reporting of sexual assault

True

The Model Penal Code reduced the definition of rape to the act of intercourse.

True

The U.S. Supreme Court (Fulwood v. Clemmer) ordered the District of Columbia Department of Corrections to "stop treating the Muslims differently from other religious groups."

True

The cycle of offending for women begins with the experience of victimization.

True

The flood of women in search of sex work created an economy whereby the value of sexual services significantly decreased .

True

The history of the classification and labeling of African American people in the U.S. exemplifies the politics of racial categories.

True

The liberation hypothesis suggests that jurors deviate from fact-finding in cases in which the evidence against the defendant is weak or contradictory.

True

The media can perpetuate victim blaming.

True

The peak years of criminal activity are for people between the ages of 14 and 24.

True

The role of substance abuse is central to the discussion of risk for prostituting women.

True

The routine activities theory has also been used to look at cybercrimes.

True

Under the pathways perspective, criminal offending may be a survival technique.

True

Victims' rights are referenced in state laws and constitutions in all 50 states.

True

While U.S. laws generally prohibit marital rape, it is still legal in many other countries around the world.

True

While the crime of filicide is a rare occurrence, it raises significant attention in the media.

True

The Uniform Crime Reports data are __________ with respect to many important issues related to race, ethnicity, and crime.

Useless

Given that probation is a less severe sentence than prison, this difference may indicate that the advantage of receiving the less severe sentence of probation is more likely to be reserved for.

Whites

With respect to African Americans, there were three periods of major conflict and riots: during and after World War I, during_________, and in the 1960s

World War II

The so-called __________ in Los Angeles in 1943 involved attacks on Hispanic men by police and by white Navy personnel on shore leave.

Zoot Suit Riot

The decision to release a prison inmate on discretionary parole is made by:

a parole board

When a mother believes that it is in the best interests of the child to be dead and that the mother is doing a good thing by killing the child it is considered to be a(n) _____.

altruistic reason

One important trend in American economic inequality is the growth of the very poor—a group some analysts call ______ ______ in the past 30 years

an under class

All of the following was a condition of early prisons for women EXCEPT for _____.

availability of mental health services

Researchers estimate that females represent ________ of all gang members.

between 10 and 25%

One factor limiting the influence of officer attitudes on their behavior is the___________nature of the criminal justice system.

bureaucratic

All of the following were mentioned as long-term health-related consequences of prostitution EXCEPT for _____.

cardiac problems

Research has found a link between prostitution and the use of _____.

crack cocaine

Auerhahn suggested that the offender's race and ethnicity would not have a direct effect on the length of the sentence. Rather, she hypothesized that harsher treatment would be reserved for African American and Hispanic defendants who more closely matched stereotypes of:

dangerousness and threat

In the 1970s, in response to protests from civil rights groups, police departments began to replace the fleeing felon rule in favor of the __________ rule.

defense of life

Mandatory parole occurs in jurisdictions using:

determinate sentencing

A number of studies document _______ racial discrimination in bail decisions.

direct

To be fair, a sentencing scheme must allow the judge or jury _______to shape sentences to fit individuals and their crimes.

discretion

The decision to revoke parole is:

discretionary

According to Mallicoat (2019), women generally engage in 5 general categories of crime. These include:

drug crimes, property crime, prostitution and sex work, gang members and murder

Police generally make contact with boys over criminal offenses, such as ______.

drug distribution

All methods and procedures adopted by Tribal Healing to Wellness Courts are firmly grounded in:

dsipute resolution mechanisms

Extended periods of poverty lead to _________families.

dysfunctional

Larger issues such as ______ all contribute to a system where women fall victim to the practices of sexual exploitation.

economics, globalization, poverty, and inequality

All of the following are female inmate relationship categorized by Severance EXCEPT for _____.

enemies

Generally, hate crime legislation is enacted in the form of penalty _______.

enhancements

The FBI does not report arrest data on:

ethnicity

Recent data on federal parole reveal that approximately 78 percent of ______ parole discharges were from successful completion of parole conditions.

federal

Most sentencing research examines the sentences imposed on offenders convicted of:

felonies

Cohen and Felson's routine activity theory suggests that the likelihood of a criminal act occurs with all of the following except for ____________.

gender plays a role in how factors influence victimization risk.

Which of the following was the identified as the greatest immediate need for women in their transition from the streets ______.

housing

The changing demographic face of the United States because of __________ presents a special challenge for the police.

immigration

The gender gap is narrowing ______.

in terms of the proportion of crimes committed by gender

The biggest threat to a prostitute's safety is ______.

inability to seek help by reporting victimization to police

How much a person or family earns in any given period is called:

income.

According to Mendelsohn, victims of random and unprecipitated crime are ______.

innocent victims

Heather MacDonald argues the primary cause of the high rate of incarceration of African Americans is:

involvement in criminal behavior.

Some researchers, building on Kalven and Zeisel's "liberation hypothesis," assert that African Americans will be sentenced more harshly than whites in:

less serious cases

The __________ suggests that jurors deviate from their fact-finding mission in cases in which the evidence against the defendant is weak or contradictory.

liberation hypothesis

The official unemployment rate is __________ for teenagers than for adults.

much higher

Arrests of Native Americans made by tribal police are:

not recorded in UCR data.

Davis (2018) maintains that the United States (US) is not the only country with a violent history of human rights abuses, racial domination and /or tribal conflict . However, she claims that what distinguishes the US from other nations like South Africa, Rwanda and Germany is _______.

our unwillingness to confront our history in a public way

Due to its use among women, meth has been labeled ______.

pink collar crack

Historically, __________ has/have been the most explosive issue in police-community relations.

police shootings

Mothers who kill their children often suffer from ______.

postpartum psychosis

After the overturning of Roe, the federal governmnet did all of the following to protect access to abortion EXCEPT

prevent states from limiting abortion

Experts regard the concept of race as:

primarily a social construct.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 covers employment discrimination by:

private employers and government agencies.

Historically, rape was viewed as a ______ crime.

property

______ crimes represent a higher proportion of female crimes than in the male array of crimes.

property

Jacobs argues that, without exception, early research on the adjustment of men to life in prison disregarded the issue of:

race

According to Davis (2018), based on the precedence set, the Supreme Court is more likely to use the _________________ definition of racial profiling.

race-only

Some religious movements concern prison officials and social commentators because of their apparent assertions of:

racial supremacy

The "victim was asking for it" is an example of a ______.

rape myth

Research comparing the sentences of illegal immigrants to U.S. citizens has found that illegal immigrants are more likely to be sentenced to prison, but are more likely to

receive a shorter prison sentence

Developing an understanding of why women commit crimes is a component of the ______.

relationship principle

Which of the following refers to the practice whereby victims of crime feel traumatized by the official response to their victimization by the criminal justice system?

secondary victimization

Prison gangs are also referred to as:

security threat groups

Research has found that _____ can also influence the length of a prison sentence for women of color

skin tone

The belief that it is a wife's duty to engage in sex with her husband is an example of ______.

social coercion

Spitzer, for example, used the term "_________" to characterize that segment of the deviant population that is viewed as particularly threatening and dangerous.

social dynamite

Ojmarrh Mitchell's meta-analysis of published research on race and sentencing found a larger effect size in jurisdictions without _________________.

structured sentencing guidelines

When racial disparity in sentencing occurs in some contexts, but not others, it is called:

subtle racial discrimination

The Model Penal Code recognized rape if all of the following were present EXCEPT for ______.

the female was older than 25 years

Gender-specific programming first emerged in response to the dramatic increase in the _______.

the number of girls that were appearing before the juvenile court

The strongest predictor of the outcome of a bail decision is:

the prosecutor's recommendation

All of the following statements regarding assessment tools currently in use are true EXCEPT for _____.

they fail to accurately assess female juvenile delinquency

All of the following are mediating factor allowed by the federal sentencing guidelines EXCEPT for _____.

ties to the community

Which of the following does NOT determine a Native American tribal police agency's jurisdiction or lack of jurisdiction in a specific case?

tribal affiliation of the victim

Concerns about the changes in the racial/ethnic makeup of a community, coupled with stereotypes linking race and ethnicity to drug use and drug-related crime and violence, may lead to __________ among sentencing officials.

unconscious racism

Mendelsoh's "victim who alone is guilty" is defined as ______.

victim who is solely responsible for his or her own victimization

Generally the public views prostitution as ______.

victimless crime

Who of the following focused on how personal factors influence risk factors for victimization?

von Hentig

The task of assessing the effect of race on sentencing is complicated by the _________, which critics contend has been fought primarily in minority communities.

war on drugs

Several themes have emerged from studies on implicit bias. These include all of the following EXCEPT

when targets do not fit stereotypes, police officers are quicker in deciding when to shoot.

According to the research on disparity and sentencing, racial minorities are sentenced more harshly when the victim is ________________.

white

Jacobs argued that a hate crime statute creates a law that is unlikely to deter and that its implementation:

will widen social division.

________ involves rejection of society's goals and established means of achieving them, as well as an attempt to create a new society based on different values and goals.

​Rebellion

Office of Management and Budget racial and ethnic categories are:

​a socialpolitical construct.

Early self-report surveys conducted before 1980 found:

​little difference in delinquency rates between African Americans and whites.

The NCVS survey sample is chosen on the basis of __________.​

​the most recent census data

The labels applied to group are:

​usually applied by the politically and culturally dominant group.