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The nurse is caring for a client with a diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis. Which arterial blood gas results are associated with this diagnosis? 1 pH: 7.28; PCO 2: 28; HCO 3: 18 2 pH: 7.30; PCO 2: 54; HCO 3: 28 3 pH: 7.50; PCO 2: 49; HCO 3: 32 4 pH: 7.52; PCO 2: 26; HCO 3: 20
Correct 1.) A low pH and bicarbonate reflect metabolic acidosis; a low PCO 2 indicates compensatory hyperventilation. A low pH and elevated PCO 2 reflect hypoventilation and respiratory acidosis. An elevated pH and bicarbonate reflect metabolic alkalosis; an elevated PCO 2 indicates compensatory hypoventilation. An elevated pH and low PCO 2 reflect hyperventilation and respiratory alkalosis.
A client's blood gases reflect diabetic ketoacidosis. Which clinical indicator should the nurse identify when monitoring this client's laboratory values? 1 Increased pH 2 Decreased PO 2 3 Increased PCO 2 4 Decreased HCO 3
Correct4) The bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system helps maintain the pH of body fluids; in metabolic acidosis, there is a decrease in bicarbonate because of an increase of metabolic acids. The pH is decreased. The PO 2 is not decreased in diabetic acidosis. The PCO 2 may be decreased by the body's attempt to eliminate CO 2 to compensate for a decreased pH.
A macrosomic infant is born after a difficult forceps-assisted delivery. After stabilization the infant is weighed, and the birth weight is 4550 g (9 pounds, 6 ounces). The nurse's most appropriate action is to: a. Leave the infant in the room with the mother. b. Take the infant immediately to the nursery. c. Perform a gestational age assessment to determine whether the infant is large for gestational age. d. Monitor blood glucose levels frequently and observe closely for signs of hypoglycemia.
ANS: D This infant is macrosomic (more than 4000 g) and is at high risk for hypoglycemia. Blood glucose levels should be monitored frequently, and the infant should be observed closely for signs of hypoglycemia. Observation may occur in the nursery or in the mother's room, depending on the condition of the fetus. Regardless of gestational age, this infant is macrosomic.
In assessing the knowledge of a pregestational woman with type 1 diabetes concerning changing insulin needs during pregnancy, the nurse recognizes that further teaching is warranted when the client states: a. "I will need to increase my insulin dosage during the first 3 months of pregnancy." b. "Insulin dosage will likely need to be increased during the second and third trimesters." c. "Episodes of hypoglycemia are more likely to occur during the first 3 months." d. "Insulin needs should return to normal within 7 to 10 days after birth if I am bottle-feeding."
ANS: A Insulin needs are reduced in the first trimester because of increased insulin production by the pancreas and increased peripheral sensitivity to insulin. "Insulin dosage will likely need to be increased during the second and third trimesters," "Episodes of hypoglycemia are more likely to occur during the first 3 months," and "Insulin needs should return to normal within 7 to 10 days after birth if I am bottle-feeding" are accurate statements and signify that the woman has understood the teachings regarding control of her diabetes during pregnancy.
Which laboratory finding confirms that a child with type 1 diabetes is experiencing diabetic ketoacidosis? a. No urinary ketones c. Elevated serum carbon dioxide b. Low arterial pH d. Elevated serum phosphorus
Which laboratory finding confirms that a child with type 1 diabetes is experiencing diabetic ketoacidosis? a. No urinary ketones c. Elevated serum carbon dioxide b. Low arterial pH d. Elevated serum phosphorus
A nurse adds 20 mEq of potassium chloride to the intravenous solution of a client with diabetic ketoacidosis. What is the primary purpose for administering this drug? 1 Treat hyperpnea 2 Prevent flaccid paralysis 3 Replace excessive losses 4 Treat cardiac dysrhythmias
3.) Once treatment with insulin for diabetic ketoacidosis is begun, potassium ions reenter the cell, causing hypokalemia; therefore potassium, along with the replacement fluids, is needed. Potassium will not correct hyperpnea. Flaccid paralysis does not occur in diabetic ketoacidosis. Considering the relationship between insulin and potassium, treatment with potassium is prophylactic, preventing the development of dysrhythmias.
Which major neonatal complication is carefully monitored after the birth of the infant of a diabetic mother? a. Hypoglycemia c. Hypobilirubinemia b. Hypercalcemia d. Hypoinsulinemia
ANS: A The neonate is at highest risk for hypoglycemia because fetal insulin production is accelerated during pregnancy to metabolize excessive glucose from the mother.
The nurse caring for a client with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) can expect to implement which intervention? 1 Intravenous administration of regular insulin 2 Administer insulin glargine subcutaneously at hour of sleep 3 Maintain nothing prescribed orally (NPO) status 4 Intravenous administration of 10% dextrose
1.) A client admitted with DKA will have a blood glucose value greater than 250 and blood ketones. Intravenous (IV) administration of regular insulin is needed to rid the body of ketones and regulate blood glucose. Administration of insulin glargine is not going to reverse the ketoacidosis. The client will be allowed fluids to maintain hydration. Administration of 10% dextrose IV will increase the client's blood glucose.
A client is admitted to the hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis. The nurse concludes that the client's elevated ketone level is caused by incomplete oxidation of which nutrient? 1 Fats 2 Protein 3 Potassium 4 Carbohydrates
1.)Incomplete oxidation of fat results in fatty acids that further break down to ketones. Protein metabolism produces nitrogenous waste, causing elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN), not ketones. Potassium is not oxidized; potassium is not directly associated with ketones. Carbohydrates do not contain fatty acids that are broken down into ketones.
The serum potassium level of a client who has diabetic ketoacidosis is 5.4 mEq/L (5.4 mmol/L). What would the nurse expect to see on the ECG tracing monitor? 1 Abnormal P waves and depressed T waves 2 Peaked T waves and widened QRS complexes 3 Abnormal Q waves and prolonged ST segments 4 Peaked P waves and an increased number of T waves
2.)
A nurse is caring for a postoperative client with diabetes. Which is the most common cause of diabetic ketoacidosis that the nurse needs to consider when caring for this client? 1 Emotional stress 2 Presence of infection 3 Increased insulin dose 4 Inadequate food intake
2.) Infection increases the body's metabolic rate, and insulin is not available for increased demands. Although emotional stress will affect glucose levels, diabetic ketoacidosis will rarely result. Increased insulin dose will lead to insulin coma (hypoglycemia) if diet is not increased as well. Inadequate food intake will result in insulin coma.
A client is diagnosed with diabetic ketoacidosis. Which insulin should the nurse expect the health care provider to prescribe? 1 NPH insulin 2 Inhaled insulin 3 Regular insulin 4 Insulin glargine
3.) Regular insulin is rapid acting and should be used for diabetic coma. Insulin glargine is long-acting insulin, which is not indicated in an emergency. NPH insulin is intermediate-acting insulin; it is not indicated for use in an emergency. Inhaled insulin has not been approved for management of diabetic ketoacidosis.
Which blood gas result should the nurse expect an adolescent with diabetic ketoacidosis to exhibit? 1 pH 7.30, CO 2 40 mm Hg, HCO 3 - 20 mEq/L (20 mmol/L) 2 pH 7.35, CO 2 47 mm Hg, HCO 3 - 24 mEq/L (24 mmol/L) 3 pH 7.46, CO 2 30 mm Hg, HCO 3 - 24 mEq/L (24 mmol/L) 4 pH 7.50, CO 2 50 mm Hg, HCO 3 - 22 mEq/L (22 mmol/L)
1.) A client in diabetic ketoacidosis will have blood gas readings that indicate metabolic acidosis. The pH will be acidic (7.30), and the HCO 3 - will be low (20 mEq/L [20 mmol/L]). The normal pH is 7.35 to 7.45; CO 2 ranges from 35 to 45 mm Hg, and HCO 3 - ranges from 22 to 26 (22 to 26 mmol/L). A pH of 7.35 and a CO 2 of 47 mm Hg indicate respiratory acidosis. pH values of 7.46 and 7.50 represent alkalosis, not acidosis.
In planning for the care of a 30-year-old woman with pregestational diabetes, the nurse recognizes that the most important factor affecting pregnancy outcome is the: a. Mother's age. b. Number of years since diabetes was diagnosed. c. Amount of insulin required prenatally. d. Degree of glycemic control during pregnancy.
ANS: D Women with excellent glucose control and no blood vessel disease should have good pregnancy outcomes.
A client is admitted to the hospital with a diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis. What is the initial intervention the nurse should expect the primary healthcare provider to prescribe for this client? Intravenous (IV) fluids 2 Potassium 3 NPH insulin (Novolin N) 4 Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate)
1.) IV fluids are given to combat dehydration in ketoacidosis and to keep an IV line open for administration of medications. After electrolyte levels are evaluated, potassium may be added along with insulin. In acidosis, potassium ions initially shift from the intracellular to extracellular compartment, resulting in hyperkalemia; as acidosis is corrected, hypokalemia may occur, and then potassium may be administered. NPH insulin is an intermediate-acting insulin; rapid-acting insulin is indicated in an emergency. Sodium polystyrene sulfonate is not indicated; abnormally high serum potassium levels will revert once dehydration is corrected.
In terms of the incidence and classification of diabetes, maternity nurses should know that: a. Type 1 diabetes is most common. b. Type 2 diabetes often goes undiagnosed. c. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) means that the woman will be receiving insulin treatment until 6 weeks after birth. d. Type 1 diabetes may become type 2 during pregnancy.
ANS: A Prompt treatment of DKA is necessary to save the fetus and the mother. Hydramnios occurs 10 times more often in diabetic pregnancies. Infections are more common and more serious in pregnant women with diabetes. Mild to moderate hypoglycemic episodes do not appear to have significant effects on fetal well-being.
A nurse is caring for a client with type 1 diabetes who developed ketoacidosis. Which laboratory value supports the presence of diabetic ketoacidosis? I ncreased serum lipids 2 Decreased hematocrit level 3 Increased serum calcium levels 4 Decreased blood urea nitrogen level
1.) With diabetic ketoacidosis, serum lipid levels are high because of the increased breakdown of fat. Serum lipid levels can go so high that the serum appears opalescent and creamy. With diabetic ketoacidosis the hematocrit level generally is increased because of dehydration. The calcium level is unrelated to diabetic ketoacidosis. With diabetic ketoacidosis the blood urea nitrogen level generally is increased because of dehydration.
What should a nurse advise the parents of a child with type 1 diabetes mellitus who is not eating as a result of a minor illness? a. Give the child half his regular morning dose of insulin. b. Substitute simple carbohydrates or calorie-containing liquids for solid foods. c. Give the child plenty of unsweetened, clear liquids to prevent dehydration. d. Take the child directly to the emergency department.
ANS: B A sick-day diet of simple carbohydrates or calorie-containing liquids will maintain normal serum glucose levels and decrease the risk of hypoglycemia. The child should receive his regular dose of insulin even if he does not have an appetite. If the child is not eating as usual, he needs calories to prevent hypoglycemia. During periods of minor illness, the child with type 1 diabetes mellitus can be managed safely at home.
A pregnant woman at 37 weeks of gestation has had ruptured membranes for 26 hours. A cesarean section is performed for failure to progress. The fetal heart rate (FHR) before birth is 180 beats/min with limited variability. At birth the newborn has Apgar scores of 6 and 7 at 1 and 5 minutes and is noted to be pale and tachypneic. On the basis of the maternal history, the cause of this newborn's distress is most likely to be: a. Hypoglycemia. c. Respiratory distress syndrome. b. Phrenic nerve injury. d. Sepsis.
ANS: D The prolonged rupture of membranes and the tachypnea (before and after birth) both suggest sepsis. An FHR of 180 beats/min is also indicative. This infant is at high risk for sepsis.
A nurse is assessing a client with diabetic ketoacidosis. Which clinical manifestations should the nurse expect? Select all that apply. 1 Dry skin 2 Abdominal pain 3 Kussmaul respirations 4 Absence of ketones in the urine 5 Blood glucose level of less than 72 mg/dL (3.3 mmol/L)
1, 2, 3 ) Dry skin is a sign of dehydration in response to polyuria associated with the osmotic effect of an elevated serum glucose level. Abdominal pain is associated with diabetic ketoacidosis. In the absence of insulin, glucose cannot enter the cell or be converted to glycogen, so it remains in the blood. Breakdown of fats as an energy source causes an accumulation of ketones, which results in acidosis. The lungs, in an attempt to compensate for lowered pH, will blow off CO 2 (Kussmaul respirations). An absence of ketones in the urine indicates adequate production of glucose for energy. Insulin deficiency stimulates production of ketones as a by-product of fat oxidation for energy. Blood glucose level of less than 72 mg/dL (4 mmol/L) indicates hypoglycemia, not ketoacidosis.
A nurse is caring for a client with type 1 diabetes who developed ketoacidosis. Which laboratory value supports the presence of diabetic ketoacidosis? 1 Decreased serum glucose levels 2 Decreased serum calcium levels Increased blood urea nitrogen levels 4 Increased serum bicarbonate levels
3.) With diabetic ketoacidosis blood urea nitrogen level generally is increased because of dehydration. With diabetic ketoacidosis, the serum glucose levels are generally above 300 mg/dL (16.7 mmol/L). The calcium level is unrelated to diabetic ketoacidosis. Serum bicarbonate levels are below 15 mEq/L (15 mmol/L).
The most important nursing action in preventing neonatal infection is: a. Good handwashing. c. Separate gown technique. b. Isolation of infected infants. d. Standard Precautions.
ANS: A Virtually all controlled clinical trials have demonstrated that effective handwashing is responsible for the prevention of nosocomial infection in nursery units. Measures to be taken include Standard Precautions, careful and thorough cleaning, frequent replacement of used equipment, and disposal of excrement and linens in an appropriate manner. Overcrowding must be avoided in nurseries. However, the most important nursing action for preventing neonatal infection is effective handwashing.
Diabetes in pregnancy puts the fetus at risk in several ways. Nurses should be aware that: a. With good control of maternal glucose levels, sudden and unexplained stillbirth is no longer a major concern. b. The most important cause of perinatal loss in diabetic pregnancy is congenital malformations. c. Infants of mothers with diabetes have the same risks for respiratory distress syndrome because of the careful monitoring. d. At birth the neonate of a diabetic mother is no longer in any risk.
ANS: B Congenital malformations account for 30% to 50% of perinatal deaths. Even with good control, sudden and unexplained stillbirth remains a major concern. Infants of diabetic mothers are at increased risk for respiratory distress syndrome. The transition to extrauterine life often is marked by hypoglycemia and other metabolic abnormalities.
A nurse administers the prescribed regular insulin to a client in diabetic ketoacidosis. In addition, an intravenous (IV) solution with potassium is prescribed even though the serum potassium level is within normal limits. What does the nurse recognize as the reason for potassium administration? 1 Potassium loss occurs rapidly from diaphoresis present during coma. 2 Potassium is carried with glucose to the kidneys to be excreted in the urine in increased amounts. 3 Potassium is quickly used up during the rapid series of catabolic reactions stimulated by insulin and glucose. 4 Serum potassium levels will decrease as potassium ions shift from the extracellular fluid to the intracellular fluid compartment.
Correct4 Serum potassium levels will decrease as potassium ions shift from the extracellular fluid to the intracellular fluid compartment. Insulin stimulates cellular uptake of glucose and stimulates the sodium/potassium pump, leading to the influx of potassium into cells. The resulting hypokalemia is offset by parenteral administration of potassium. Potassium is not lost from the body by profuse diaphoresis. Potassium moves from the extracellular to the intracellular compartment rather than being excreted in the urine. Anabolic reactions are stimulated by insulin and glucose administration; potassium is drawn into the intracellular compartment, necessitating a replenishment of extracellular potassium.
The nurse is assessing the client admitted with diabetic ketoacidosis. Which statement made by the client indicates a need for further education on sick day management? 1 "I need to stop taking my insulin when I am ill because I am not eating." 2 "I will check my urine for ketones when my blood sugar is over 250." 3 "I will try and take in Gatorade and water when I am sick." 4 "I will continue all my insulin including my glargine when I am sick."
1.) The diabetic client's metabolic needs will require the same amount of insulin and sometimes more when in a stressed state, including illness. The client checking the urine for ketones when blood sugar is over 250, drinking water and Gatorade, and continuing insulin indicate that the client has an understanding of the basic sick day rules.
A client with diabetic ketoacidosis who is receiving intravenous fluids and insulin reports tingling and numbness of the fingers and toes, and shortness of breath. The nurse identifies a U wave on the cardiac monitor. What should the nurse conclude is causing these clinical findings? 1 Hypokalemia 2 Hyponatremia 3 Hyperglycemia 4 Hypercalcemia
1.) These are classic signs of hypokalemia that occur when potassium levels are reduced as potassium reenters cells with glucose. Clinical manifestations of hyponatremia include nausea, malaise, and changes in mental status. Clinical manifestations of hyperglycemia include weakness, dry skin, flushing, polyuria, and thirst. Clinical manifestations of hypercalcemia include lethargy, nausea, vomiting, paresthesias, and personality changes.
A client with diabetic ketoacidosis who is receiving intravenous fluids and insulin complains of tingling and numbness of the fingers and toes and shortness of breath. The cardiac monitor shows the appearance of a U wave. What complication does the nurse suspect? 1 Hypokalemia 2 Hypoglycemia 3 Hypernatremia 4 Hypercalcemia
1.) These are classic signs of hypokalemia that occur when potassium levels are reduced as potassium reenters cells with glucose. Symptoms of hypoglycemia are weakness, nervousness, tachycardia, diaphoresis, irritability, and pallor. Symptoms of hypernatremia are thirst, orthostatic hypotension, dry mouth and mucous membranes, concentrated urine, tachycardia, irregular heartbeat, irritability, fatigue, lethargy, labored breathing, and muscle twitching or seizures. Symptoms of hypercalcemia are lethargy, nausea, vomiting, paresthesias, and personality changes.
A nurse is caring for a client admitted to the hospital for diabetic ketoacidosis. Which clinical findings related to this event should the nurse document in the client's clinical record? Select all that apply. 1 Sweating 2 Retinopathy 3 Acetone breath 4 Increased arterial bicarbonate level 5 Decreased arterial carbon dioxide level
3, 5) A fruity odor to the breath (acetone breath) occurs when the ketone level is elevated in ketoacidosis. Metabolic acidosis initiates respiratory compensation in the form of Kussmaul respirations to counteract the effects of ketone buildup, resulting in a decreased arterial carbon dioxide level. As the glucose level decreases in hypoglycemia, the sympathetic nervous system is activated, and epinephrine and norepinephrine are secreted, causing diaphoresis. Retinopathy is a long-term complication of diabetes caused by microvascular changes in the retina; it is not a sign of ketoacidosis. With ketoacidosis, the serum bicarbonate level is decreased, not increased, in an effort to neutralize ketones when seeking acid-base balance.
The nurse is caring for a client with type 1 diabetes who is developing ketoacidosis. Which arterial blood gas report is indicative of diabetic ketoacidosis? 1 PCO 2: 49, HCO 3: 32, pH: 7.50 2 PCO 2: 26, HCO 3: 20, pH: 7.52 3 PCO 2: 54, HCO 3: 28, pH: 7.30 4 PCO 2: 28, HCO 3: 18, pH: 7.28
4.) Decreased pH and bicarbonate values reflect metabolic acidosis; a decreased PCO 2 value indicates compensatory hyperventilation. Increased pH and bicarbonate values reflect metabolic alkalosis; an increased PCO 2 value indicates compensatory hypoventilation. Increased pH and decreased PCO 2 values reflect hyperventilation and respiratory alkalosis. Decreased pH and increased PCO 2 values reflect hypoventilation and respiratory acidosis.
A nurse is assessing a client and suspects diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). What clinical findings support this conclusion? 1 Nervousness and tachycardia 2 Erythema toxicum rash and pruritus 3 Diaphoresis and altered mental state 4 Deep respirations and fruity odor to the breath
4.) Deep respirations and a fruity odor to the breath are classic signs of DKA, because of the respiratory system's attempt to compensate by blowing off excess carbon dioxide, a component of carbonic acid. Nervousness and tachycardia are indicative of an insulin reaction (diabetic hypoglycemia). When the blood glucose level decreases, the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated, resulting in an increase in epinephrine and norepinephrine; this causes clinical findings such as nervousness, tachycardia, palpitations, sweating, tremors, and hunger. Erythema toxicum rash and pruritus are unrelated to diabetes; they indicate a hypersensitivity reaction. Although an altered mental state is associated with both hypoglycemia and DKA, diaphoresis is associated only with hypoglycemia. Diaphoresis occurs when the blood glucose level decreases and stimulates an increase in epinephrine and norepinephrine.