Dynamic Earth Final Exam
In the travel time chart, the arrival times for the various red, blue, green, and black seismic phases indicate that ______. Three of the following seven potential answers are correct - select only three.
- the Earth has a spherical structure with layers (e.g., crust, mantle, core) having differing physical properties - that P waves travel through the outer and inner core - the depth to the core mantle boundary
Imagine you are thinking of buying a house and are told that six years ago the neighborhood experienced a ten-year-flood. Assuming that you buy the house, what is the probability of you experiencing a ten-year-flood in the first year of your home ownership?
10% chance
When considering all earthquakes around the world per year, earthquakes with a magnitude of 2 occur about ________ as earthquakes of a magnitude 4.
100 times more often
If the ratio of daughter to parent atoms in a rock is 75 to 25, then 2 half lives have occurred. If the half life of decay is ten million years, then the rock is 20 million years old.
2 20
In the southeastern United States, the approximate number of people at risk from a one meter rise in sea level are ___________.
2,639,650
A seismogram with a P minus S travel time difference of 8 minutes is recorded from a seismometer located ___________.
60º from the earthquake
If all of Greenland's and all of Antarctica's ice melted, then global sea level would rise by ________ meters.
66
The farmer wants to install a well to supply water for crop irrigation. Where should the well be installed to ensure that the contaminant plume never reverses direction and intersects the home water supply well?
A
The graphic is a map of the average precipitation for the United States. Which location(s) likely rely upon groundwater irrigation to grow crops?
A, B
The figure shows the age of oceanic crust (red is young, blue is old). Where is the seafloor spreading apart the fastest?
A: the southern Pacific Ocean basin
This rock is found in Sunbury Ohio just a few miles north of Columbus. It is a granite. Which of the following can you reasonably conclude?
At some time in the past, the average annual temperature of Ohio must have been less than zero degrees Celsius for hundreds to thousands of years.
The above graphic is a topographic map with the highest land elevations colored red and the lowest land elevations colored green. The ocean bathymetry is lowest where the colors are dark blue. The location with the thickest crust is _______.
B
Using the figure above, which well has the best chance of having a year-round water supply, especially in droughts.
B
Two hydrographs are shown in the graphic, above. Recall that these show river flow over time. Time periods are labeled with A, B, C, and D. A flood is most likely to occur during time period B . Draining of the channel, also known as recessional flow, is most likely during time period C .
B C
Why is oceanic crust generally less than 200 million years old?
Because oceanic crust older than 200 ma is too dense to remain on top of the mantle.
In the photo, why have sediments filled-in the reservoir, behind the dam? The dam is located near Los Angeles, California.
Because sediments are easily eroded in this environment.
Why does the peak of a river flood wave arrive hours to days after rainfall ends?
Because soils provide a large, temporary storage for the rain water.
Oceans and the salinity causing process have existed for at least a billion years, so why are the oceans not more salty than they are today? Three of the following six potential answers are correct - select only three.
Because some salts are deposited with sediments at the bottom of the ocean. Because some biological processes such as the formation of shells by organisms remove salts from the ocean. Because some chemical reactions of basalt with ocean water removes salts.
If the Earth's P-wave velocities were slower than they actually are, then where would their arrival times plot on the travel time chart? Assume that the depths to the mantle and core remain the same. Choose the new P-wave arrival time that matches a new earth in which the P-wave seismic velocities are slower than the existing Earth.
C
In the graphics, three rivers are shown in blue with labels A, B, and C. Brown colors represent the floodplain and green colors are upland areas that are never flooded. Elevations are given in meters and arrows indicate water flow directions. Given that water flow velocity is directly related to river slope, which river is likely to have the slowest velocity of water flow C ? Which river is likely to eventually form the deepest canyon C ?
C, C
Confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers at Cairo IL during October 14, 2010 (left) and during the flood of April-May 2011 (right). The flood inside of the red oval was ___________.
Caused by humans
The ______________ had its sediments transported the shortest distance from their original site of erosion.
Conglomerate
In the above graphics, the seismic wave travel times for a typical travel time chart are shown in blue. Which of the red lines are the correct travel times for seismic waves beneath the continent of South America?
D
Meandering Mississippi River north of Memphis, TN. Elevations in feet. Using the figure above, which location is the best for building a house?
D
The above graphics show the monthly concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The black line in all five plots is today's CO2 concentrations. As you know, most of the Earth's continental areas are located in the northern hemisphere. What would be the concentration values if the Earth's continents were mostly located in the southern hemisphere? Choose the plot with the red line that most closely approximates what would happen in a world with continents located mostly in the southern hemisphere.
D
The graphic above represents the existing earth and a new earth. The six graphics below are travel time charts for the existing earth and a new earth. In the travel time charts, the blue lines for the P-wave and S-wave travel times are all the same and represent the existing earth. The red lines for the P-wave and S-wave travel times are different in each of the six plots. Choose the pair of red P and S wave travel times that match the new earth in the graphic above. Assume that the physical properties of the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core remain the same.
D
The correct time sequence of end moraines, from oldest to youngest is ___________.
D, C, B, A
Which of the above graphics most closely shows the travel-times for P and S waves if the velocities of P and S waves are faster than they are in the earth as it exists today. The existing P and S wave travel-times for today's velocities are shown in blue for each of the six cases, so choose the pair of red lines that most closely matches what might be expected for faster velocities. Assume that the depths of the crust, mantle, inner core, and outer core remain the same.
E
This plate tectonic model for 66 million years ago shows a shallow sea in the Eurasian continent, i.e., in the red circle. What geologic evidence would best support having this shallow sea?
Finding a 66 million year old shale rock in that area of Eurasia.
According to the study using the GRACE satellites, which region(s) of the world is(are) losing water via human actions?
Irrigated agricultural regions
The above graphic is a map of an oceanic hotspot. Volcano locations are marked A through E. North is at the top of the map as noted by the N arrow. Which of the following is true.
Location E is likely the most recently active volcano.
The three graphics are labeled A, B, and C from left to right. For each graphic, determine whether it represents a measurement or a model. Graphic A is a Measurement . Graphic B is a Model . Graphic C is a Measurement .
Measurement Model Measurement
On March 11, 2011, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred off the coast of Tōhoku Japan. The earthquake caused a catastrophic tsunami that ultimately destroyed the Fukushima nuclear power plant. As a result of the earthquake, plate boundary motions exceeded one meter in some locations. Is it possible for Columbus Ohio to experience this amount of sudden movement; why or why not?
No because Ohio does not have any plate boundaries.
Is a decade enough time to determine climatic changes in temperature, i.e., to determine if global warming has stopped?
No, because the drivers of climate change, such as the movement of ocean waters, the impacts of greenhouse gases, and the orbital dynamics of the earth, operate on multi-decadal to multi-millennial time scales.
From 2008 to 2014, did the eastern coast of the U.S. experience an increased risk for earthquakes?
No, the apparent increased risks are merely a result of mapping algorithms and not a result of changing tectonic forcings.
Imagine that you are in the field and find 60 million year old andesitic rocks and also find a 90 million year old sequence of siltstone (i.e., shale) and conglomerate rocks. What do you think is the most likely geologic setting that produced this environment?
Periodic river flooding followed by an oceanic plate subducting beneath a continental plate.
Why are Arctic lakes disappearing?
Permafrost beneath the lakes is melting.
Imagine that you have landed on a previously unknown planet and have five seismometers. You have noticed a cluster of earthquakes occurring in one particular location. Where would you place the seismometers in order to understand a large cross-section of the planet's deep interior structure?
Place the five seismometers in a line, with the first seismometer located the closest to the cluster of earthquakes, the second further away, and so on until the fifth would be placed the greatest distance away.
Imagine that you are in a spaceship and land on a previously unknown planet. You and your team measure the planet's topography, and find that it is the map, above. Compared to the earth (below), what can you conclude about the newly discovered planet? You also measure and find that the new unknown planet does not have a magnetic field. Two of the following six answers are correct. Select only two.
Plate tectonics is not operating on the unknown planet The unknown planet has a solid crust
Why does the water table in Pennsylvania fluctuate seasonally (i.e., why does it go up and down)?
Precipitation varies seasonally and hence the water available to recharge the water table varies seasonally.
Annual temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit are shown for three states and for the entire continental 48 states of the USA (blue lines). Degrees Fahrenheit are on the left-side Y-axis. The X-axis shows dates extending from the 1895 to 2021. Grey trend lines are drawn in all four plots. Averages are horizontal orange lines. The slopes of the trend lines for each state are: Alaska = 3.1°F/100 years, California = 2.2°F/100 years, Ohio = 1.3°F/100 years, USA 48 = 1.6°F/100 years. The average temperatures are: Alaska = 26.5°F, California = 57.7°F, Ohio = 50.7°F, USA 48 = 52.3°F. Using this information, the following can be concluded. Select all that are correct.
Temperatures in Ohio are rising slower than Alaska or California. Temperatures are rising the fastest in Alaska compared to California, Ohio, or the continental USA. The lowest temperatures are in Alaska.
In regions such as California that rely upon snowfall and snowmelt for their water resources, what is a potential impact of global warming?
The annual snowfall in will decrease; the annual rainfall will increase; and the storage of water, e.g., reservoirs behind dams, will not accommodate the change.
I took the above photo when I was in Tibet. There is a tall mountain range behind me as well as the one in front, across the valley. There is a valley in the tall mountain range behind me. Notice the boulders in the foreground and that boulders form the small ridges extending away from me. Which of the following is most likely? Three of the following seven potential answers are correct - select only three.
The boulders are made of the same rocks as the mountains behind me. At some time in the past, the annual average temperature of this location in Tibet must have been less than zero degrees celsius for years The small ridges are a result of a glacier and its lateral moraines.
The above two photos are from the same location in Alps mountains of Switzerland (near the town of St. Moritz). The top photo is from the year 1935 and the bottom is from 2022. What can you reasonably conclude from these photographs? Two of the following are correct. Select only two.
The glacier is losing ice mass. The average annual temperature of St. Moritz Switzerland is increasing.
How does a greenhouse gas warm the earth?
The greenhouse gas allows the sun's solar radiation to pass through the atmosphere while blocking some of the earth's long wavelength infrared radiation from leaving the atmosphere.
The above graphic is a map of an oceanic hotspot. Volcano locations are marked A through E. North is at the top of the map as noted by the N arrow. Which of the following is true.
The plate is moving north.
Imagine that instead of looking at ice in water, you were looking at a rock in magma, respectively. Assume that the rock solidified from the magma. What do you expect to happen next? To answer this question, you can think of the water in the glass as liquid magma, and the ice as a solid rock solidified from the magma.
The rock would sink to the bottom of the magma.
What happens to ponds on Greenland's ice, such as the one in the above photo?
The water ponding on the ice surface eventually drains into the ice.
Why are landscape features like those indicated by the arrows in the above graphic, important?
They indicate a previous colder climate in the location.
The above graphic is of Big Sur along the coast of California. The top panel is a Google Earth map view where the yellow line indicates the topographic cross section of the middle panel. The bottom panel is a photograph of the location of the yellow line. Based on this information, what can you reasonably conclude?
This region of California has never been glaciated.
Two volcanoes are shown in the photos, above. When they erupt, which volcano is likely to be more violent and explosive?
Volcano B
Which one of the following is a true statement.
When it is created, oceanic crust is less dense than the mantle but eventually becomes more dense.
Alpine glaciers always flow down the topographic slope, so under what conditions does the end of the glacier actually retreat back up the valley?
When the mass of ice being melted is greater than the amount of snow being accumulated
Hawaii and Yellowstone volcanoes are hotspots. The erupted Hawaii lavas are basalt but the erupted Yellowstone lavas are rhyolites. Why are the two lavas different?
While both hotspots have basalt supplies at the base of the crust, the low-density basalt magma rises quickly through Hawaii's high-density, thin, oceanic crust but the low-density basalt magma rises slowly through the low-density, thick, continental crust of Yellowstone, thus it cools slowly and fractionates beneath Yellowstone to form rhyolites at eruption.
Can a planet with no tectonic movements have quakes, i.e., its version of earthquakes which we'd call "planet"quakes instead of "earth"quakes?
Yes, heat could be escaping via conduction, hence expansion and contractions of rocks which could cause planetquakes.
The global water and energy cycles are coupled together by ___________.
latent heat flux
In the travel time chart, the lack of S-wave arrival times inside of the dashed-purple oval is evidence of _______.
a liquid outer core
The formation of the earth resulted in ________. Three of the following seven answers are correct. Select only three.
a planetary interior initially heated by kinetic energy a collection of radioactive elements that decay keeping the interior hot an interior made up of three chemically distinct layers
When did carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reach 415 ppm and thus well exceed its natural range of 180 to 280 ppm?
about a year or two ago
If the world's Industrial Revolution had not used fossil fuels for its energy and instead used solar energy, wind energy, and other non carbon based energies, then what would be today's atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration?
about 280 ppm
The Cavendish torsion balance experiment published in 1798 demonstrated that the average density of the entire earth is about twice as dense compared to the densities of rocks at the surface of the earth. This leads us to the conclusion that rocks deep inside the earth likely contain more iron and nickel compared to rocks at the surface of the earth.
about twice as dense likely contain more iron and nickel
The growth of "harmful algal blooms" in lakes and reservoirs used for drinking water _____.
all of these
In the picture of Yosemite National Park, above, the water fall on the right is _____.
an example of a location where a minor alpine glacier once joined a major alpine glacier
Imagine that you have purchased a home in a rural area next to a city with a growing population. Your plot of land has a stream with year round water flow. What could happen in the future that would cause the frequency of floods on your stream to increase? Two of the following seven answers are correct. Choose only two.
an increase in rainfall more houses being built upstream of your land
Using the photo, above, what type of rocks andesitic to rhyolotic rocks and plate setting subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate might you expect were involved in the formation of this mountain?
andesitic to rhyolotic rocks subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate
Alpine glaciers around the world ___________.
are melting and receding
The process of melting basalt in a subduction zone produces a melt that separates from the solid basalt as temperature increases such that the remaining solid basalt has a higher melting temperature than before the separation. Overall, this process creates rocks which are different from the original basalt .
as temperature increases has a higher melting temperature which are different from the original basalt
Given a magnitude 8 and a magnitude 6 earthquake in the same location near Anchorage, Alaska and given a seismometer in Columbus, Ohio. The magnitude 8 earthquake produces S-waves that arrive in Columbus from Anchorage __________ S-waves from the magnitude 6 earthquake.
at the same time as
From 1990 to about 2007, global climate models used in the IPCC reports at that time reasonably accurately predict _________ but were well below the measured amount of ________.
atmospheric carbon dioxide and atmospheric temperature sea level rise
The above plot shows the annual seasonal change in the concentration of atmospheric oxygen (i.e., the up down sawtooth pattern) and it also shows a long term decreasing trend in the concentration of atmospheric oxygen. The long term trend is a result of ___________.
atmospheric oxygen combining with carbon monoxide emitted from the burning of fossil fuels to create carbon dioxide.
Samples from ice cores provide both direct and indirect measurements of past environments. Of the following, which is not a direct measurement, i.e., which is indirectly measured?
atmospheric temperature
The age of the ocean floor ________.
becomes progressively older when the observer is moving away from any mid-ocean ridge
The U.S. population has doubled from 150 million people to over 300 million people from 1950 to 2015, _________.
but U.S. withdrawals of surface water and groundwater have slightly declined since reaching their high point in 1980
How did this mountain peak form?
by glacial erosion
We can expect a one meter of sea level rise _______.
by the year 2150 but not before 2050
The Earth's average temperature 150,000 years ago was colder compared to today. The Earth's average temperature 340,000 years ago was colder compared to today.
colder, colder
Of the following, which are factors that contribute to the earth's continental topography and oceanic bathymetry? That is, which factors facilitate the continental topography being located at about 0 km to 1 km above sea level where as most oceanic bathymetry is about 4 km to 5 km below sea level? Five of the following ten answers are correct. Select only five.
continental crust is composed of granite oceanic crust is composed of basalt the mantle is ductile continental crust is more buoyant than oceanic crust continental crust is lower density than the mantle
Why is northwest Ohio flat and southeast Ohio hilly? Because thousands of years ago continental scale glaciers covered northwest Ohio but did not cover southeast Ohio
continental scale glaciers northwest Ohio southeast Ohio
Heat moves through the mantle by ________.
convection, which results from thermal expansion of the deep mantle rocks and hence an increase in their buoyancy
Based on climate model simulations, if thermohaline circulation collapses (i.e., shuts down and fully stops), then the surface air temperature of Europe will decrease because warm waters from the Gulf of Mexico will no longer flow northward toward Europe and thus no longer warm the air near Europe.
decrease Gulf of Mexico
From 1978 to 2017, Arctic sea ice is decreasing in extent and Antarctic sea ice is slightly increasing in extent and globally the sum of both is decreasing in extent.
decreasing, slightly increasing, decreasing
The correct sequence of events that led to the displayed rock strata is deposition of sandstone , then deposition of shale , then deposition of conglomerate , and ending with tensional stress creating faulting .
deposition of sandstone deposition of shale deposition of conglomerate tensional stress creating faulting
Mount Mauna Loa is the youngest mountain in the Hawaii chain of islands. Mount St. Helens is in the Cascade Range in the states of Washington and Oregon. Both mountains ________. Three of the following eight possible answers are correct - select only three.
differ in their plate tectonic settings are made-up of different rock types are known for active volcanism
Imagine that you and your research team have measured earthquakes that have occurred at your study site. You find that the earthquake depths are shallow and less than 10 km depth. Your team also finds volcanic activity. You conclude that you have found a (an) _________.
divergent boundary
Most of the pushing force driving plate motion is produced at ________.
divergent boundary
Andesitic to rhyolitic lavas _____. Three of the following six answers are correct - choose only three.
do not flow as far from the vent as basaltic lavas do have a higher viscosity than basaltic lavas have a lower eruption temperature than basaltic lavas
Desalination could be a viable water source for ___________ located near oceans.
domestic household use in small cities
The total age of the Earth is _______________ and is determined by ______________.
four and half billion years radiometric techniques
The P-waves from nuclear explosions, compared to the P-waves from earthquakes, _______.
have the same first motions in all four geographic quadrants
Which of the following contributes the most to today's rising sea levels?
heating of ocean waters
Over six continents, climate models have simulated the temperature from 1900 to 2000. These simulations best match measured temperatures when accounting for human and natural influences . The simulations match measured temperatures for the continents of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and Africa (all six continents) .
human and natural influences North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and Africa (all six continents)
Greenland's ice measured over time from satellite and field measurements has mass in the zone of accumulation (i.e., at the highest elevations) that is ________ and has a mass in the zone of ablation that is __________ and combining the zones, all of Greenland's ice is __________ in mass.
increasing, decreasing, decreasing in
At a subduction zone, the down going plate ________.
is always composed of oceanic lithosphere
The mass of the Amazon River __________.
is enough to elastically compress the crust by about 8 to 10 cm per year.
In Greenland during June 2012, the measured amount of water flowing out of the ice is less than the amount of water flow predicted by regional climate models. This implies that models may over predict the amount of sea level rise .
less than models may over predict the amount of sea level rise
Why is the residence time of a greenhouse gas in the atmosphere important? The longer the residence time, the greater the potential for the gas to increase atmospheric temperatures .
longer increase atmospheric temperatures
The above plots show temperature anomalies in two Antarctic ice cores (EPICA and Vostok) and an estimate of ice volume, with all three from present to 450,000 years ago. Based on this plot ______.
natural forces should now be cooling the earth
Marine magnetic anomaly stripes are oriented ___________ to each other and are located in oceanic crust. They are observations supporting the identification of a (an) ___________ ____________ and are a result of the earth's ____________ magnetic field.
parallel, divergent boundary, changing
In science, measurements and/or observations ________.
prove the existence of plate tectonics
It is claimed that 1800 gallons of water are needed to produce one pound of beef, i.e., to grow the crops that feed the cattle and to provide the animals with drinking water. This water _______.
remains in the water cycle and can be cleaned for future water usages
The types of rocks we would expect to find while walking along an outcrop in Ohio are sandstones, shales, and limestones and therefore Ohio was at some time in the past a shallow sea .
sandstones, shales, and limestones shallow sea
The above plot shows the annual seasonal change in the concentration of atmospheric oxygen (i.e., the up down sawtooth pattern) and it also shows a long term decreasing trend in the concentration of atmospheric oxygen. The seasonal change results from _____________.
seasonal vegetation growth which produces oxygen
An earthquake occurred along a strike-slip fault in a remote part of the Mojave Desert in California. Unfortunately, scientists were not able to visit the location to look at the offset rock formations and instead used seismology to confirm that the earthquake was a result of strike-slip motion. This confirmation required seismometers located in one of the four quadrants surrounding the earthquake and P-wave up motions in two quadrants and P-wave down motions in two quadrants .
seismometers located in all four quadrants surrounding the earthquake P-wave up motions in two quadrants and P-wave down motions in two quadrants
Wetlands are important to the global carbon balance because ________.
significant quantities of carbon dioxide can bubble-out of the water ("evasion"), thus contributing to atmospheric carbon dioxide
A basaltic partial melt has been detected beneath the Yellowstone volcano. The P-waves travel through the partial melt at a velocity that is slower compared to normal P-wave crustal velocities and therefore arrive at the seismometer later compared to normal P-wave arrival times.
slower later
Based on measurements of sediment sizes in the sea floor and on models that use temperature anomalies of the ocean surface, the North Atlantic ocean circulation is slowing down and results in cooler temperatures around Iceland and a warmer Gulf Stream region .
slowing down cooler temperatures around Iceland and a warmer Gulf Stream region
Suppose that you have developed an idea that the relative difference in sea and land level for a given location has changed over millions of years, e.g., sea levels have risen and fallen or the land mass has tectonically shifted down or up. What observations would support your idea?
stratigraphically alternating sequences of sandstones, shales, and coals
Fifty million years from now, the plate tectonic setting of the east coast of the United States will most likely be a (an) ___________.
subduction zone
In the mid-1960s, the discovery of ___________ demonstrated conclusively that the earth's oceanic crust was capable of moving thousands of kilometers.
subduction zone
Thermohaline circulation is driven by _________ and it takes ____________ to circulate throughout all oceans.
surface waters sinking in the North Atlantic 1000 years
Which seismic wave types cause the greatest damage to buildings _____.
surface waves
The travel time chart demonstrates that _________. Three of the following seven potential answers are correct - select only three.
surface waves have a constant velocity and therefore do not travel into the earth's deep interior the earth's internal structure is similar everywhere throughout the globe S-waves are slower than P-waves
What type of stress (i.e., force) produced the fault in the above photo?
tensional stress
A property of rocks that enhances mantle convection is _________.
that a 1 percent expansion requires an increase of 300-400ºC and leads to a 1 percent decrease in density
Imagine that you land on a new planet and measure its water cycle. The graphic represents your findings. The amounts of water stored in the reservoirs are given in thousands of cubic kilometers and the annual fluxes between these reservoirs are in thousands of cubic kilometers per year. E: evaporation; P: precipitation; R: runoff from land. Based on this, select all of the following that are true.
the atmosphere of this planet stores less water than the Earth's atmosphere the oceans on this planet are gaining more water than they are losing
Which of these locations is most likely to have the oldest rocks?
the middle of a continent
Summed over the entire Earth ________ .
the rates of lithospheric consumption at subduction zones and production at mid ocean ridges are equal
In the above photo, the ice in the glass is floating such that a small portion of the ice is above the water line and a much greater amount of ice is within the water. To sink more of the ice below the water line, ___________. You can think of the ice as crust and the water as mantle. Three of the following ten answers are correct. Select only three.
the water density should be lesser than it is now the ice density would need to be greater than it is now remove some ice from the ice cube
The crustal root beneath mountains created by continent-continent collision (e.g., the Himalaya mountains) is ________ when compared to the root beneath mountains created by rifting (e.g., the Basin & Range province of the western U.S.).
thicker
Imagine that you are planning to conduct field work and need to record earthquakes. What is the minimum number of seismometers you will need in order to locate the earthquakes?
three
The plate tectonic setting of the San Andreas fault in California is a (an) _______.
transform boundary
Which of the following is the strongest greenhouse gas (i.e., traps the greatest amount of energy in the earth's atmosphere) when measured on timescales of days to weeks?
water vapor
Arrange the following molecules in the correct order from shortest to longest residence time in the atmosphere (i.e., how long the molecule will stay in the atmosphere). The shortest is: water vapor . The intermediate is: methane . The longest is: carbon dioxide .
water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide
At what depth did the deformation in the above photo occur?
well within the crust
When tracing a fault along the earth's surface, it will likely end where rocks elastically bend to accommodate the throw along the fault . Whereas, when tracing it into the depths of the earth, it will likely end at the transition from brittle crust to ductile crust .
where rocks elastically bend to accommodate the throw along the fault at the transition from brittle crust to ductile crust
