Earth Systems

small scale map

one with large denominator, like 1/10,000000

solar system

open system with which earth interacts

GPS Modernization Program

upgrades include replacing older satellites with newer ones that provide greater accuracy and fourth civilian broadcast GPS signal called L1C

subtropical

slightly poleward of the tropics, generally around 25-30 n and s

Commercial high-resolution satellites

small satellites that can be deployed at much lower cost than larger traditional satellites, promising economical high quality images, market growing rapidly

Ionosphere

the lower part of the thermosphere

What is the approximate English system of measurement equivalent of one kilometer in the International System (S.I.)?

1 kilometer is about 2/3 of a mile.

montreal protocal

1987 curbed air pollution of CFC's (cholorfluorocarbons that deplete the Ozone depletion

When daylight saving time begins in the spring, you would adjust your clock from 2AM, to ___.

3AM.

Mesosphere

3rd layer of the atmosphere

If not, on which day of the year is the noon Sun highest in the sky? Lowest?

Highest- June 21 Lowest-December 21 Noon.

prorostar

Hot center

Nitrogen

Most abundant gas in the atmosphere

Orthonormal map scale

Multicolored, distortion free map.

Geomatic engineering

Surveying of the entire or a part of the earth with various techniques (satellites positioning, satellite images processing, etc.)

Earth Observing System

Terra, MODIS, 36 spectral bands and images covering entire planet every one to two days CERES- instruments for monitoring the energy balance of earth, MISR-distinguishes various types of atmospheric particles , Aqua EOS satellite designed to enhance our understanding of earth's water cycle my monitoring water vapor, clouds, precipitation, glaciers, and soil wetness, AIRS, designed to permit accurate temperature measurements throughout the atmosphere

What is meant by the terms permanent gases and variable gases in the atmosphere?

Variable gas change in response to activities in the environment. Permanent gases stay constant.

equivalent projection

a map projection that accurately portrays size features throughout the map

cylindrical projection

a map projection that is made by moving the surface features of the globe onto a cylinder

Landsat

a series of information-gathering satellites that orbit above Earth

radar

a system that uses reflected radio waves to detect objects and measure their distance and speed

Continuously Operating GPS Reference Stations (CORS)

can detect location differences of less than 1 centimeter of latitude, longittude, elevation

isolines

cannot touch or cross one another, isolines have no ends, often extend beyond the edge of a map

sulfur compounds

-second most abundant type of air pollution, come from volcanoes, or hydrothermal vents

For how many months of the year does the North pole have no sunlight at all?

6 months

Ozone

A form of oxygen that has three oxygen atoms in each molecule instead of the usual two.

polar vortex

A huge swirling mass of very cold air that is isolated from the rest of the atmosphere until the sun returns a few months later.

geologic map

A map showing the distribution of rock units and structures across a region.

Conformal Projection

A map that maintains the correct shape of features on the Earth but distorts their relative size to one another.

topographic map

A map that shows the surface features of an area.

Mercator Map

A rectangular map used as a navigation tool in which the lines for longitude and latitude are straight and parallel. Distortions increases as you move further from the equator.

Digital Elevation Model

A representation of a unit of terrain obtained from remote sensing imagery.

What is meant by a map projection?

A system in which the spherical surface of Earth is transformed for display on a flat surface.

GPS

A system that determines the precise position of something on Earth through a series of satellites, tracking stations, and receivers.

Global positioning systems

A system that determines the precise position of something on Earth through a series of satellites, tracking stations, and receivers.

volatile organic compounds

Abbreviated VOCs; compounds that contain carbon (organic) and evaporate very easily (volatile).

satellite

An object that revolves around another object in space.

Isogonic lines

Connect points of equal declination. edmund halley

X-Rays

Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet rays, but longer than gamma rays.

Overlay Analysis

GIS analysis that evaluates what features are on top of other features in order to answer spatial questions.

Explain the differences between an equivalent map projection and a conformal map projection.

In equivalent maps, the sizes are correctly corresponding to the actual sizes on Earth throughout the entire map. In conformal maps, the shapes are maintained across the map.

Deforestation

In some parts of the tropics, is influenced by consumer demand in other parts of the world.

Big bang

Infinitely dense and small bundle of energy containing all of space and time started to expand in all directions at extraordinary speeds

Isohyets

Isolines that connect points of equal precipitation.

Isobars

Lines joining places on the map that have the same air pressure.

Isotherms

Lines joining places that have the same temperature.

Globes

Maintain correct geometric locations of places on earth

Globalization

Processes and consequences of an increasingly interconnected world, through economies, cultures, and political systems

radar

Radio Detection and Ranging, penetrates atmospheric moisture

Microwaves

Radio waves with the shortest wavelengths and the highest frequencies.

Infrared waves.

Second on the electromagnetic spectrum going from lowest to highest frequency. Can be felt as heat.

aerial photography

The acquisition of imagery of the ground taken from an airborne platform.

GIScience (Geographic Information Science)

The development and analysis of data about Earth acquired through satellite and other electronic information technologies

Homosphere

The lower layer of the atmosphere

Troposphere

The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere

Exosphere

The outer layer of the thermosphere, extending outward into space.

Thermosphere

The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere.

map scale

The relationship between the size of an object on a map and the size of the actual feature on Earth's surface.

Isotropic

The same in all directions.

Stratosphere

The second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.

Visible waves

Waves that can be seen such as light waves and water waves.

Earth systems

a collection of things and processes connected together and operating as a whole.

carbon dioxide

a colorless, odorless gas produced by burning carbon and organic compounds and by respiration. It is naturally present in air (about 0.03 percent) and is absorbed by plants in photosynthesis.

Nebula

a huge cloud of dust and gas in space held together by gravity

elevation contour lines

a line on a map joining points of equal elevation

equivalence or conformality

accuracy of size or shape

Midaltitude

between about 30 and 60 n and s

Global environmental change

both the human-caused and natural processes that are currently altering the landscapes of the world

temperature iversion

cooler air before warmer

nautical mile

defined by the distanced covered by one minute of latitude

large scale map

denominator is small, 1/10,000 is larger than 1/100,000

thematic maps

designed to show street patterns

Latent heat

energy stored by water during melting and evaporation

nitric oxide

gas that can form in water and soil as a natural by product of biological processes, breaks down quickly

Low latitude

generally between the equator and 30 n and s

active system

has its own source of electromagnetic radiation

polar stratospheric clouds

high altitude clouds made of water and nitric acid

anthrospogenic

human produced

Internation System of Units

kilometers, kilograms, and degrees celcius

high latitude

latitudes greater than about 60 degrees N and S

GPS Applications

location, navigation, tracking, field mapping

air

nitrogen and oxygen

interval

numerical difference between one isoline and the next

Grid system

pattern formed as the lines of latitude and longitude cross one another

Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)

products of a reaction between peroxyacyl radicals and nitrogen dioxide that uses UV light as a catalyst

gnomonic projection

shortest distance between origin and destination

Tipping point

system becomes unstable and changes abruptly until it reaches a new equilibrium

map essentials

title, date, legend, scale, direction, location, data source, projection type

fundamental map problem

to transfer data from spherical surface to a flat map with a minimum of distortion

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)

used to increase accuracy of instrument based flight approaches for airplanes

Hygroscopic

water absorbing

thermohaline circulation

water circulation produced by differences in temperature and/or salinity (and therefore density)

equatorial

within a few degrees of the equator

polar

within a few degrees of the north or south pole

tropical

within the tropics between 23.5 n and 23.5 s

passive system

work by sensing the natural radiation emitted by or reflected from an object

How is a map different from a globe?

-2D-Portable-Regions can be easily identified-Less accurate -3D-Not Portable-Regions can't be easily identified on a globe-More accurate

Latitude ranges from ____ to ____ north and south, whereas longitude ranges from ____ to ____ east and west.

0 to 90, 0 to 180. (Latitude, and longitude)

State the latitude of the following special parallels: equator, North Pole, South Pole, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle, and Antarctic Circle.

0, 90N, 90S, 23.5N, 23.5S, 66.5N, 66.5S.

What is meant by a map scale with a representative fraction of 1/100,000?

1 unit of measure on the map is equal to 100,000 units of the same unit on actual Earth.

For the equator, describe the approximate number of daylight hours on the following days: March equinox, June solstice, September equinox, and December solstice.

12 hours

What is meant by the hole in the ozone layer, and what role have chlorofluorocarbons played in this?

A "hole" can be thought of as a thin area in the ozone layer in which the amount of ozone is less than in other areas over the surface of Earth. CFC's destroys the ozone layer molecules creating a hole in the ozone layer.

What is a loxodrome?

A curve on the surface of a sphere that crosses all meridians at the same angle and represent a line of constant compass direction.

Contrast graphic map scales, fractional map scales and verbal map scales.

A graphic scale uses an actual scale that has to be marked off and measured.A fractional scale states the distance comparison as a fraction.A verbal scale is a sentence that says what distance equals what distance.

What is a compromise map projection?

A map that is neither equivalent nor conformal but is reasonably balanced in size and shape.

Remote sensing

A method of collecting data or information through the use of instruments that are physically distant from the area or object of study.

Describe and contrast primary pollutants and secondary pollutants in the atmosphere.

A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source. A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere. These two constitute air pollution which is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere.

Describe how atmospheric pressure changes with increasing altitude.

Air pressure decreases as altitude increases. As air pressure decreases, density decreases.

Explain the concept of isolines.

Any line that joins points of equal value of something.

What is a great circle? A small circle? Provide examples of both.

Any plane that is passed through the center of a sphere bisects that sphere creates a great circle where it intersects the surface of the sphere. Equator is a great circle. Planes passing through any other part of the sphere produce what are called small circles where they intersect the surface.

What is the significance of aphelion and perihelion in Earth's seasons?

Aphelion is when Earth is farthest from the sun and Perihelion is when Earth is closest to the sun.

Why are you likely to get out of breath more easily when hiking in the mountains than at sea level?

As you go up through the atmosphere, the air pressure decreases. As air pressure decreases, the density of the air decreases. So density decreases as altitude increases. It doesn't matter at what altitude you are at; the air still contains 21% oxygen. However, since the air is less dense at a high altitude, there are fewer oxygen molecules to breathe in each cubic meter of air than there are at sea level. You are taking in less oxygen with each breath.

Briefly describe the environmental spheres: atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.

Atmosphere: gaseous envelope of air that surrounds Earth. It contains the complex mixture of gases needed to sustain life. Most of this is close to Earth's surface, being densest at sea level and rapidly thinning with increased altitude. Dynamic sphere, kept in almost constant motion by solar energy and Earth's rotation. Hydrosphere: oceans contain the vast majority of the water found on Earth and are the moisture source for the most precipitation. Cryosphere: subcomponent of the hydrosphere, (cry-cold), water frozen as snow and ice. Biosphere: (bio-life) encompasses all the parts of Earth where living organisms can exist; in its broadest and loosest sense, earthly life forms (biota). Lithosphere: solid, inorganic portion of earth, compromising the rocks of Earth's crust as well as the unconsolidated particles of mineral matter that overlie the solid bedrock. Shaped into an almost infinite variety of landforms, both on the sea-floors and on the surfaces of the continents and islands.

Why is it impossible for a map of the world to portray earth as accurately as can be done with a globe?

Because a map is actually a projection of a three dimensional almost spherical planet on to a two dimensional flat piece of paper.

Why is it inaccurate to talk about a change in climate from last year to this year?

Because climate covers day to day weather conditions over a long period of time.

What are some of the applications of thermal infrared imagery?

By far the greatest use of thermal IR scanning systems has been on meteorological satellites. Although the spatial resolution (the size of the smallest feature that can be identified) is not as high as some other kinds of sensing systems, it is more than sufficient to provide details that allow weather forecasting that is far more accurate and complete than ever before.

Contrast closed systems and open systems.

Closed systems: self contained systems, isolated from influences outside that system. Earth is a closed system. Open systems: both matter and energy are exchanged across the system boundary. Matter and energy that enter the system are called inputs, and losses from the system to its surroundings are called outputs. Example: glacier. Snow and ice leaving as meltwater and water vapor, heat exchanged between ice, water, and water vapor, and rock and debris.

Fractional map scale

Conveys the relationship between distance measured on a map and the actual distance that represents on Earth with a fraction or ratio called a representative fraction.

Briefly describe Earth's orientation to the Sun during summer and winter in the Northern Hemisphere.

During the summer, the North Pole is orientated toward the sun, in the winter, North pole is oriented away from the sun.

A GPS receiver in your car simply calculates your current latitude and longitude. How can it use this basic locational data to determine your speed and direction of travel?

Each satellite transmits microwave signals to the earth. GPS receivers on the earth use these signals to determine their locations, speed, direction, and time.

In what ways was life on Earth responsible for the composition of our modern atmosphere?

Early life forms that could survive without oxygen, started removing carbon dioxide and adding oxygen to the atompshere. photosynthesis became popular adding more oxygen while depleting our carbon dioxide levels.

Is the early perfectly spherical?

Earth is an oblate spheroid, cut from pole to pole would be an ellipse rather than a circle. Any rotating body has a tendency to bulge around its equator and flatten at the polar ends of its rotational axis.

How does a digital elevation model depict the landscape?

From digital elevation data, a computer can generate a shaded-relief image of the landscape by portraying the landscape as if it were illuminated from the northwest by the Sun.

Distinguish between GPS and GIS.

GPS uses a collection of satellites to retrieve location info about Earth and GIS uses a computer system of input of maps and data.

Why should humans be concerned about the depletion of the ozone layer?

Global warming, climate change.

How has the burning of fossil fuels over the last 200 years changed the composition of the atmosphere?

Have caused the concentrations of heat-trapping greenhouse gases to increase significantly in our atmosphere. This rise in greenhouse gases has increased the amount of energy being trapped in the climate system.

Compare and contrast radar, sonar, and lidar.

In common with some other sensors, radar is capable of operating by day or night, but it is unique in its ability to penetrate atmospheric moisture. Thus, some wet tropical areas that could never be sensed by other systems have now been imaged by radar. Radar imagery is particularly useful for terrain analysis in places of frequent cloud cover or thick vegetation, and for meteorology— especially in the real-time study and mapping of rainfall and severe weather. Another active remote sensing system, sonar (sound navigation and ranging), permits underwater imaging so that scientists can determine the form of that part of Earth's crust hidden by the world ocean.

In what ways do the inner (terrestrial) and outer (Jovian) planets differ from each other?

Inner planets are generally smaller, dense, and less oblate. Composed principally of mineral matter and, except for airless Mercury, have diverse but relatively shallow atmospheres. The Jovian planets are more massive and less perfectly spherical because they rotate more rapidly. They have deep atmospheres and are mostly composed of elements such as hydrogen and helium, liquid near the surface, but frozen toward the interior, as well as ices of compounds such as methane and ammonia.

Isolines never start or stop on a map- every isoline must close itself, either on or off the map. Why?

Isolines close together to indicate a steep gradient, or rapid change, isolines far apart indicate a gentle gradient.

Why is the question how deep is the atmosphere so difficult to answer.

It is hard to determine where exactly the atmosphere ends. gravity causes the molecules to either become thicker or denser depending on how much there is. hard to determine the upper layer.

What prevents the atmosphere from escaping into space?

It is held to the earth by gravity. with this the atmosphere is able to continue to move, doing what the earth itself cannot.

Why is a Mercator projection useful as a navigation map? Why is it not ideal for use as a general-purpose map?

It shows thumb lines as straight lines. A navigator can first plot the shortest distance and then transfer the route to a mercator with these straight lines.

On which day of the year is Earth closest to the Sun(perihelion)? Farthest from the sun? (aphelion)

January 3rd, July 4.

Latitude, longitude, parellel, meridian, prime meridian.

Latitude: North or south of the equator. 0 degrees at the equator to 90 north at the north pole and 90 south at the south pole. Longitude: Represented by imaginary lines extending from pole to pole and crossing all parallels at right angles. Parellel : A line connecting all points of the same latitude. All aligned east-west directions on Earth's surface. Meridian: Lines of longitude. Prime Meridian: Meridian passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, just east of central London.

What is the longest day of the year (the day with the greatest number of daylight hours) in the midlatitudes of the Northern hemisphere? In the southern hemisphere?

Longest- Summer solstice. Shortest- Winter solstice. (Northern hemisphere) Longest- Winter solstice. Shortest- Summer solstice. (Southern hemisphere)

Why is a distance covered by 1 degree of longitude at the equator different from the distance covered by 1 degree of longitude at a latitude of 45 degrees north?

Longitude is closer together as it reaches the north and south poles, longitude changes depending on your latitude.

In the mid-altitudes of the Northern hemisphere, on which day of the year is the Sun highest in the sky? Lowest in the sky?

Lowest- December 21. Highest- June 21. (Winter and summer solstice)

Why are physical geographers interested in globalization of the economy?

Many patterns and processes in the natural environment can be influenced by economic activity, such as the consequences of the extraction of resources or the burning of fossil fuels; economic activity in one part of the world can influence the environment in another part of the world.

Provide the approximate dates of the following special days of the year: March equinox, June solstice, September equinox, and December solstice.

March 20, June 21, September 22, December 21

For the north pole, describe the approximate number of daylight hours on the following days: March equinox, June solstice, September equinox, and December solstice.

March-24 hours, June-24 hours, September-None, December-None.

Describe both the vertical distribution of water vapor in the atmosphere and its horizontal distribution near Earth's surface.

Most water vapor is found near the Earths surface and generally diminishes with increasing altitude. Over 10 miles above Earth. the temperature is so low that any moisture in the air has frozen.

Describe the most important permanent gases of the atmosphere.

Nitrogen (N2) 78.08%​Oxygen (O2) 20.95%​Argon (Ar) 0.93%​Neon, Helium, Krypton 0.0001%.

Is it possible for a map to be both conformal and equivalent?

No because the size of the map differs from the actual size of the Earth and something must be distorted.

Does the plane of the ecliptic coincide with the plane of the equator? Explain.

No, earth's rotation axis is tilted.

Beginning with the March equinox, describe the changing declination of the Sun during the year.

On the March and September equinox, the vertical rays of the noon Sun strike the equator. On the June solstice, the vertical rays of the noon Sun strike 23.5 degrees north latitude. On December, the vertical rays of the noon Sun strike 23.5 degrees south latitude.

Describe one kind of application in which radar imagery would be useful for geographic analysis. Explain the advantages of radar over other kinds of remote sensing in your example.

One kind of application where radar imagery is useful to geographical analysis is terrain and weather analysis. One is that radar can be used at all times of the day. Second, is that it can get an accurate reading of the land below even if there is immense coverage over the land, whether that be clouds, moisture, or vegetation.

What are some of the applications of color infrared imagery?

One of the major uses of color IR imagery remains the identification and evaluation of vegetation.

How is ozone formed, and why is it important in the atmosphere?

Ozone is formed throughout the atmosphere in multistep chemical processes that require sunlight. Ozone is a gas in the atmosphere that protects everything living on the Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun. Without the layer of ozone in the atmosphere, it would be very difficult for anything to survive on the surface.

Describe and explain the causes of photochemical smog.

Photochemical smog is caused by the action of solar ultraviolet radiation on atmosphere polluted with hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen especially from automobile exhaust.

Briefly define the following terms: aerial photograph, photogrammetry, ortho photo map.

Photograph taken from the air; photogrammetry—the science of obtaining reliable measurements and mapping from aerial photographs; Orthophoto maps are multicolored, distortion-free photographic maps prepared from aerial photographs or digital images.

What characteristics on maps are shown by isotherms, isobars, and elevation contour lines?

Points of equal temperature. points of equal atmospheric pressure. points of equal elevation.

How does a positive feedback loop differ from a negative feedback loop?

Positive feedback loop- change within a system continuing in one direction. Negative feedback loop- tends to inhibit a system from changing, in this case, increasing a system input tends to decrease further change, keeping the system in equilibrium.

What is meant by UTC?

Primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean solar time at 0° longitude.

What is remote sensing?

Refers to any measurement or acquisition of information by a recording device that is not in physical contact with the object under study.

Describe and explain the four factors in Earth-Sun relations associated with the change of seasons: rotation, revolution around the sun, inclination of Earth's axis, polarity of Earth's axis (parallelism).

Rotation: earth rotates from west to east on its axis, a complete rotation requiring 24 hours. Effects include diurnal alteration of daylight and darkness, rotation of earth brings any point on the surface through the increasing and then decreasing gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, Earth's constant rotation also causes an apparent deflection in the paths of both wind and ocean currents- to the right of both wind and ocean currents, to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, this is called the Coriolis effect. Revolution: Each revolution around the sun takes 365 days. Known as the tropical year. The path around the Sun is an ellipse. Earth-Sun distance is not constant. Varies from perihelion position, closest, to aphelion, farthest. Inclination: Axis of earth's rotation is tilted about 23.5 degrees from the perpendicular and maintains this tilt throughout the year. Polarity: No matter where Earth is in its orbit around the Sun, the axis always points in the same direction relative to the stars-toward the North Star, Polaris. At any time of year, Earth's axis is parellel to its orientation at all other times.

If an idea or a theory cannot be disproven by some possible observation, experiment, or test, can such an idea or theory be supported by science? Explain your reasoning.

Science does not prove ideas, instead, science works by eliminating alternative explanations, explanations that aren't supported by evidence. If there is no way to disprove an idea, then that idea simply cannot be supported by science.

In terms of the change of seasons, explain the significance of the Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Capricorn, the Arctic Circle, and the Antarctic Circle.

Short periods of daylight in winter and long period of daylight in summer contribute to seasonal differences in temperature in mid and high latitude regions. Thus, the tropical latitudes are generally always warm because they have high Sun angles and consistent, near 12-days all year long. Conversely, the polar regions are consistently cold because they always have low Sun angles-even the 24 hour days do not compensate for the low angle of incidence of sunlight. Seasonal temperature differences are large in the mid altitudes because of sizable seasonal variations in Sun angles and length of day.

Explain the difference between large-scale maps and small scale maps.

Small-scale maps cover a larger area and have less information. A large scale map will focus in on one particular area and hold more detail.

Verbal map scale

States in words the relationship between the distance on the map and the actual distance on Earth's surface such as one centimeter to ten kilometers.

What are the four elements of weather and climate?

Temperature, pressure, wind, moisture content.

Briefly explain how a global navigation satellite system(GNSS), such as the U.S. Global positioning system works. (GPS)

The GPS system (formally called NAVSTAR GPS [Navigation Signal Timing and Ranging Global Positioning System]) is based on a constellation of at least 24 high altitude satellites configured so that a minimum of four— and preferably six—are in view of any position on Earth (currently there are 31 active satellites, with several older satellites still in orbit as backups). Each satellite continuously transmits both identification and positioning information that can be picked up by receivers on Earth (Figure 19). The distance between a given receiver and each member in a group of four or more satellites is calculated by comparing clocks stored in both units, and then the three-dimensional coordinates of the receiver's position are calculated through triangulation. The greater the number of channels in a GPS unit (even inexpensive units now have 12), the greater the number of satellites that can be tracked, and so the better the accuracy.

What would be the effect on the annual march of the season if the North Pole always leaned toward the Sun?

The North Pole would always be in summer.

What is the ozone layer, and where is it located?

The Ozone Layer is the portion of the atmosphere that contains high levels of the oxygen molecule ozone. The Ozone layer is actually located in the stratosphere.

Why does the altitude of the tropopause vary from summer to winter and from the equator to the poles?

The altitude depends on the temperature the warmer it is the deeper they are. while the colder it is the more shallow it becomes. it is about 18 kilometers, above sea level at the equator and about 8 kilometers above sea level at the poles.

Describe the Coriolis effect and its cause.

The apparent deflection of moving objects when the motion is described relative to a rotating reference frame. Cause: The rotation of the Earth. The spin of the Earth causes air to moved in a curved path, not in a straight line.

Circle of illumination:

The dividing line between the daylight half of Earth and nighttime half of Earth is a great circle called the circle of illumination.

Briefly describe the four major families of map projections: cylindrical projections, planar projections, conic projections, and pseudo-cylindrical projections.

The globe is mathematically "wrapped" around the cylinder so that the edges oft he paper touches the globe only at the equator creating a circle of tangency. There is no distortion at this circle but distortion increases as distance increases away from the circle.Briefly describe the planar projections.markings are projected onto a flat piece of paper that is tangent to a center lit globe at one point usually the north or south pole. There is no size distortion at the point of tangency but it increases as you move away from this point. They usually show just one hemisphere.Briefly describe the conic projections.markings are projected onto a cone wrapped tangent from a center lit globe. The pole is usually where the apex is. The circle of tangency coincides with a parallel. Distortion is least in the vicinity of the standard parallel and increases the further you move away.Briefly describe the pseudo-cylindrical projections.an oval projection. This projection wraps around the equator like a cylinder but it is curved in toward the poles. Usually the equator and a central meridian cross at right angles in the middle of the map. There is no distortion here but it increases as you move away form the point in any direction.

What is meant by the solar attitude?

The height of the noon Sun above the horizon at different latitudes.

In the study of physical geography, why do we concentrate primarily on the trophosphere rather than on other zones of the atmosphere?

The other zones of the atmosphere do not play much of a role in what we know as "weather." Instead, storms and essentially all other weather phenomena occur in the troposphere.

What would be the effect on the annual march of the seasons if Earth's axis were not inclined relative to the plane of the ecliptic?

The poles wouldn't get light all year round.

Describe and explain the concept of map scale.

The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.

Cartography

The science of making maps.

Briefly describe the seven dominant controls of weather and climate.

The seven dominant controls of weather and climate are latitude, Distribution of Land and Water, General Circulation of the Atmosphere, General Circulation of the Oceans, Altitude, Topographic Barriers, and Storms.

Compare the size of Earth to that of it surface features and atmosphere.

The size of the earth is large relative to the size of its surface features.

What is the study of geography? Contrast physical geography and human geography.

The study of geography is literally earth description. Geographers study how things differ from place to place- the distributional and locational relationships of things around the world. Physical geography are landforms, rocks and minerals, water, weather and climate, plants, animals, soil. Human geography, is population, economic activities, languages, religions, political systems, settlements, and food.

Why does the Coriolis effect influence the direction of ocean currents but not the direction of water draining in a kitchen sink?

The time involved is too short and the water is moving too slow, therefore the Coriolis effect is not the cause. this would depend on the size, shape, and make of the sink. the rotation of the earth below a moving object causes this effect such objects include oceans, people, and cars (any freely moving object). objects move right in Northern hemisphere, and left in Southern hemisphere.

If Earth's axis were tilted only 20 degrees from perpendicular, what would the latitudes of the Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle be?

Therefore, if the earth's axis were tilted only 20 degrees from perpendicular, then the latitude of the tropic of cancer would be 20 degrees N and the latitude of the arctic circle would be 70 degrees N (90-20 = 70).

Describe multispectral remote sensing.

These instruments detect and record many bands of the electromagnetic spectrum simultaneously.

Why are the standard time zones 15 degrees of longitude wide?

To establish time zones, Earth's rotation rate of 360 degrees of longitude per day was divided by 24 hours. The result shows that Earth turns 15 degrees of longitude per hour. Adopting time zones that are exactly 15 degrees wide would result in 24 equally spaced time zones around the world.

Discuss the size and general temperature characteristics of the trophosphere and stratosphere.

Troposphere-lowest layer of the atmosphere and the one in contact with Earths surface. on average the top is 11 miles above sea level and 5 miles about the poles. Stratosphere-next to lowest at 11-30 miles above sea level.

Most weather satellite images are time stamped using UTC or Zulu time instead of the local time of the region below. Why?

UTC is a 24 hour clock system that is used by entire world. Local time is the clock time for the time zone in which the perceiving site is located.

Graphic map scale

Uses a line marked off in distances to represent actual distance on Earth's surface.

Briefly describe some of the roles that water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and particulates play in the atmospheric processes.

Water vapor-water in the form of a gas/its invisible/most abundant in air overlying warm moist surface areas such as tropical oceansCarbon dioxide-significant influence on climate, primarily because of its ability to absorb thermal infrared radiation. and thereby help warm the lower atmosphere.Ozone-vital gas/concentrated in a layer called the ozone layer. 9-30 miles above. excellent absorber of ultraviolet solar radiation. It filters out enough of this radiation to protect life formsParticulates (aerosols)- larger nongaseous particles in the atmosphere. solid and liquid particles found in the atmosphere are collectively called.

Why are there so many types of map projections? What kind of map projection would be best for studying changes in the amount of permafrost in the Arctic? Why? Consider both the general family of projection and its properties, such as equivalence and conformality.

We have many different map projections because each has different patterns of distortion—there is more than one way to flatten an orange peel. Some projections can even preserve certain features of the Earth without distorting them, though they can't preserve everything. Conformal.

What does it mean when a system is in equilibrium?

When inputs and outputs balance over time, the conditions within a system remain the same. Glacier will remain the same size over many years if its inputs of snow and ice are balanced by the loss of an equivalent amount of ice through melting.

What is the difference between weather and climate?

Whereas weather refers to short-term changes in the atmosphere, climate describes what the weather is like over a long period of time in a specific area.

What happens to the day when you cross the International Date Line from east to west?

You add one day.

What happens to the hour when you cross a time zone boundary from west to east?

You add one hour.